ISSN: 2347-3215 Volume 2 Number 6 (June-2014) pp. 240-259 www.ijcrar.com

Wildlife Safari Tourist Destinations in : Experiences from Colonial to Post-Colonial Era

Halima Kilungu1,3*, Pantaleo, Munishi2, Rik Leemans1, and Bas Amelung1

1Environmental System Analysis Group, Wageningen University, P.O. box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, 2Department of Forest Biology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3010, Morogoro Tanzania 3Department of and Hospitality, Open University of Tanzania, P. O. Box 23409, , Tanzania *Corresponding author KEYWORDS A B S T R A C T

Wildlife Tanzania is currently one of the world's most visited countries for wildlife tourism, tourism, but its main destinations are at risk from changes in climate and local safari, land-use. The consequences of these changes on tourism demand are, Tanzania, however, unclear. Despite Tanzania's two centuries of experience with tourism wildlife tourism, the trends in Tanzania s wildlife tourism demand are poorly development understood. Insights into past, current and future tourists motivations and preferences are thus vitally important to successfully manage wildlife safari tourist destinations and tourism. This study aims to document and explain the developments in tourist motivations and preferences since the early 19th century. Changes in motivation and preferences, and the consequent wildlife resource utilization are analysed. These study recapitulates two centuries of wildlife resources governance. Wildlife resource uses in Tanzanian protected areas vary historically from exploration and discovery, ivory collection, hunting for trophies, safaris and nature conservation. These different purposes in different periods are summarised in an annotated map of the evolution and distribution of Tanzanian tourist destinations. The results are relevant for spatial planning and wildlife conservation in relation to tourism. Additionally, the map provides building blocks to develop exploratory scenarios to cope with the current climate and land-use change risks. Introduction

Inbound tourism in Tanzania performed Tanzanian tourists arrivals increased from very strongly over the last three decades. 0.06 million tourists in 1982 to over 1.1 According to UNWTO (2012), Wade million in 2012 (i.e. an 18.3-times (2001) and Tairo (2013). increase). In 2006, tourism accounted for

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17% of the country s GDP (United respect to particular attractions that they Republic of Tanzania, 2007, p.4) and the like to visit, is vital. Beach tourists, for revenues accrued has increased example, are not affected by changing substantially in 2011 (UNWTO, 2012). A wildlife migratory patterns of . growing number of Tanzanians depends on Hence, a detailed history of tourism and tourism for their livelihoods either directly tourist destinations in Tanzania helps to or indirectly. understand the tourists motives and preferences, and the consequent changes or According to various studies (e.g. Curry, shifts in resource management. 1990; Kweka, 2003), scenic beauty, mega- fauna and other natural features are among Few studies compile historical information Tanzania's main tourist attractions. The on tourism and most of available studies biodiversity in protected areas, especially focus mainly on the number of tourist wildlife, account for most of the country's arrivals in economic and market analysis tourist attractions (Kweka et al, 2003). (Cater, 1987; Curry, 1990; Gössling, 2001; These protected areas (i.e. tourists Wade et al., 2001; Kweka et al., 2003; destinations), including the well-known Lindsey et al., 2007). Such economic snow-covered Mt. Kilimanjaro, analyses only explain the income accrued Ngorongoro Crater and the endless plains from tourist expenditures, but do not cover of the , acted as tourist charms the motives and tourist preferences over well before the country s independence destinations or even the nature of the 1961 and still do today. These defining destination visited. Salazar (2008), for features of Tanzanian tourism are under example, described the general pressure from a range of factors, including characteristics of tourism in Tanzania, but climate change, biodiversity loss and land focused only on a small part of the country grabbing. These factors likely alter the the Northern Circuit reviewing spatial and temporal distribution of wildlife governance issues and ignored the tourist attractions. For example, herds of changing role of the attractions of the early animals may change their migratory nineteenth century to contemporary behaviour, migrating in different seasons or periods. Chachage (1999) focused mainly following different routes (Gereta, 2009). on the functions of Big International Non- Ice sheets on Mt Kilimanjaro are projected Governmental Organisations (BINGOs), to disappear within decades (Thompson, like the IMF and World Bank, in 2002; Agrawala et al., 2003; Hemp, 2005). stimulating tourist arrivals since the early The implications of these anticipated 1980s. Wildlife safari destinations in changes to wildlife tourist destinations in Tanzania actually already have a are unknown. The actual more than two centuries and we have implications vary depending on the size and shown through our analysis that tourist distribution of the Protected Area, tourist motives and preferences have changed over motives and tourist preferences over time time. Limited details and analysis is, (e.g. supply and demand). This study does however, available on the processes behind not only consider the actual environmental these changes. Yet, this historical details trends and projections but also trends in and analysis are necessary to understand tourism demand. Therefore, sufficient Tanzanian wildlife tourism's current state- insight into the motives tourists that visit of-affairs as well as its coping capacity to Tanzania, and into their preferences with manage risks. Our analysis therefore can

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help to define management possibilities to of this comprehensive history and the map guarantee a sustainable future for of wildlife safari tourists destinations in Tanzanian tourism. Tanzania.

This paper aims to profile international The Colonial period tourist arrivals in Tanzania in terms of their motives and preferred activities. We have Long before the advent of European identified the factors that contribute to the explorers in the second half of the proliferation of protected areas and created nineteenth century, Arab traders travelled a visual interactive map of the distribution through the African Great Lakes region, and evolution of tourist destinations including , Pemba and covering a period of two centuries, starting (which together formed Tanzania in 1964), immediately before the colonial era (i.e. in search of ivory and slaves. The promise early nineteenth century) and ending today. of abundant resources also attracted the attention of European explorers. Famous Two hundred years ago, tourism was not explorers, including Mungo Park, David well defined. Although several tourism Burton, and David Livingston, travelled definitions exist we adopted the broad through various parts of for definition by UNWTO and UNSTAT explorations and discoveries. Their (1994) to cater for various tourism motives travelling aimed to gather information on and preferences over two centuries. resources, particularly ivory, and places Tourism is defined as those activities with scenic beauty. Lured by the abundance deployed by tourists during the course of of resources that explorers discovered, their journey and their stay in places European powers became interested in the situated outside their usual environment. region and started colonisation. Britain and Hence, we considered wildlife discovery, divided East Africa among scenic beauty explorations, wildlife hunting themselves in 1880s. Tanganyika became a (for either trophy or sport), and game German colony. An Arab sultanate settled viewing as forms of tourism. In addition, in Unguja and Pemba (since 1964 we adopted Leiper (1979) definition of ) already in 1698 and stayed for tourist destination as locations or places, over 190 years (i.e. 1698-1892). which attract tourists to stay temporarily to conduct tourism activities. In our study, In 1890, the Arab Sultanate governance hunting and game reserves, national parks ended with the signing of the Heligoland- and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area are Zanzibar Treaty, in which Germany agreed all tourist destinations. to recognize the British protectorate over the islands of Unguja and Pemba We first discuss tourism in the colonial era (GermanTreaty, 1890). In Zanzibar, followed by an in-depth discussion of European governance ended slave trade. As tourism in the post-colonial era. These slave trade is outside the scope of this discussions show how motives and historical review, the remaining part of the preferences have changed considerably review focuses on the developments of over time and are then used to annotate a Tanganyika (i.e. mainland Tanzania) and map with the evolution and distribution of its wildlife resources. The next section of Tanzanian wildlife tourists destinations. the historical developments in tourist Finally, this paper concludes on the utility destinations therefore covers tourism

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developments under German and British landscapes and wildlife were inspired by rule, and ends with tourism during World stories told by explorers and travellers. War II and subsequent struggle for Rousseau s paintings became a major independence. information source about African wildlife and wilderness. Under German control (1884-1918) The German missionary Johannes According to Mackenzie (1988), East Rebmann 'discovered' Mt. Kilimanjaro and Africa (i.e. , and its snow cover in 1858. Thirty-three years Tanganyika) was the world s greatest later, this area of magnificent beauty was source of Ivory in German colonial era and protected and in 1910, a National Park was exports exceeded those of any other established. The existence of snow close to countries. East Africa harboured large the equator attracted many explorers and groups of and throughout East many publications came out as a result. Africa, ivory was the vital constituent of Among the publications were the Globus pre-colonial white freebooting. From an Magazine and Brehm s Illustriertes economic point of view, the international Tierleben (i.e. Globe Magazine and attention for the area now known as Brehm's illustrated animal life) authored by Tanzania centred on trophy hunting, Alfred Edmund Brehm, both of which especially for the ivory trophy trade. This appeared in the 1860s. In 1889, a German hunting tourism reached its climax when geographer, Hans Meyer, was the first to demand for ivory expanded in response to reach Mt. Kilimanjaro's highest summit, the growing demand for cutlery, billiard called Kibo (5895m ASL). His father balls and pianos in the United States and owned a publishing house, which picked-up Britain. on the Meyer's adventures and printed a number of magazines and books on Ivory, however, was not the only product Tanzania's natural beauty. These books 'exported' from Tanganyika to Europe. became famous on the German market. Animal hides (e.g. like , leopard, Meyer also founded the series Allgemeine cheetah, and crocodile), rhino horns and Länderkunde (i.e. General geography) and minerals were also exported and explorers Meyers Reisebücher (i.e. Meyer's travel returned with stories of landscapes of books), which were used as early tourist magnificent beauty . In those days, many guidebooks. Europeans saw Africa as a dark continent , the world s last great In 1909, he published a comprehensive wilderness , exotic jungles filled with two-volume compendium entitled Das animals , paradise and a place of Deutsche Kolonialreich (i.e. the German spectacular but savage beauty (Adams & Colonial Empire) (CRIA, 2009; McShane, 1996). Since only a few Etnográfica, 2009). This compendium Europeans had visited Africa, the main described, among other things, key tourist sources of information were books and art. attractions within its territory. Meyer also Among the best-known examples are the authored a number of other books, paintings by the Frenchman Henri including volumes on the ascent of Rousseau who, surprisingly enough never Kilimanjaro: Ostafrikanische set foot on the African continent but his Glestcherfahrten in 1980 (across the East artistic representations of African African Glaciers as translated by E.H.S

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Calder), zum schneedom des Kilima- 1910, the German colonial rulers created a ndscharo in 1888 (to the snow dome of series of Game Reserves (e.g. the Saba Kilimanjaro), De Kilima-Ndscharo in River Game Reserve, which is since 1964 1900- the Kilimanjaro (Stewart, 2004). the Ruaha National Park, and the Rufiji These publications spread the news of the River (now Selous Game Reserve). The Tanganyika attractions within Europe and number of reserves increased to ten by the world. Meyer turned thus out to be 1918 to attract especially German tourist highly instrumental in informing the expeditions (Mtahiko, 2004). Alongside European public about Africa's natural these efforts, wildlife-marketing activities beauty, and in inciting demand for tourism started. These activities aimed at selling in the region. Kilimanjaro and other demarcated reserves as tourist destinations. In multimedia In the late 19th Century, opposition against platforms (.e.g. newspapers and the excessive destruction of animal stocks magazines), East African tourist grew and the massive tourist hunting for destinations, particularly Tanganyika and trophies and other big game (e.g. Kenya (by that time Germany East Africa- lion, giraffe, and, leopard) was condemned. 1880-1918), were the primary focus. Calls for preservation measures to promote the survival of the species started to emerge At the end of German rule, the Tanzanian under the influence of natural history tourism industry was still in its infancy studies. The paradigm shifted from tourist with low numbers of tourists, mainly hunting for trophy to sport (leisure) hunting explorers and adventurers. German control tourism, triggering the development of over tourism resources lasted until World science-informed regulations for wildlife War I ended in 1918 and the British took conservation (i.e. the General Wildlife over the mandate. Ordinance of 1896). Non-use activities, such as sightseeing tours and safaris, were Under British control (1918 1939) advocated. This in turn, reinforced and accelerated the establishment and Tanganyika became a British territory in expansion of many protected areas. 1918 following the fall of the German Empire in World War I. This marks the Tourism was considered a lucrative inclusion of Tanganyika in East Africa. In business and therefore strategies to improve East Africa, Kenya was the central region tourism earnings were put in place. In the but it also included Uganda. Tanganyika by 1890s, leisure and tourism had become then had become famously known as important motives for implementing Safariland due to all its natural resources conservation measures in the form of game and wildlife safari tourism (Chachage, reserves and sanctuaries. Hermann von 1999). Holidaying tourists started to appear Wissman, who was the first Governor of by the 1920s although the country's wildlife the Moshi and Kilimanjaro districts, was not yet adequately protected introduced stringent conservation measures (Chachage, 1999). Following in the for Mt. Kilimanjaro in 1891. West footsteps of the Germans, the British Kilimanjaro was declared a game reserve in continued to establish protected areas for 1896 (Chachage, 1999). This example was tourism. In this era, game viewing tourism copied all over the country and by 1908, in protected areas gained popularity in a eight reserves were demarcated. From period when motorcars and the photo

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camera became popular (early 20th the East African Publicity Association century). For example the "Big game (EAPA) was formed in 1938 (Ouma, 1970; massacres and Biserk drives" were Curtin, 2010). More tourist and hospitality colonial safari/travel agents (Dundas, 1924; supportive infrastructure; including Reid, 1934), which specialized in both airports, roads and accommodations were hunting and leisure tourism safaris in built. This development focused on Kenya, Tanganyika. Tourists organisation of the Head Quarters of the British territory, Biserk drives were old yet, facilitated the where the majority of European settlers wildlife safaris in Tanganyika. The resided. In Tanganyika, the poorly scientific/educational and game hunting developed infrastructure did not match its tourism remained the most lucrative and abundant tourism resources, in particular its dominant form of tourism. game reserves. What is more, tourists visiting Tanganyika first had to register in Nevertheless, the British extended the Kenya, marking Kenya s superior position number of game reserves from ten to in the region s tourism development. thirteen, still covering only 5% of the land in the early 1920s. The three added game World War II (1939 1945) and the reserves (i.e. the Selous, Ngorongoro, and struggle for independence (1945 1961) Serengeti) were confirmed under the Game Preservation Ordinance of 1921. Later, in World War II provided Tanganyika with 1933, the Lake Rukwa and Usambara little opportunity to develop its tourism reserves were added. The extension of since much of the earnings were commited these hunting reserves coincided with the to teritorial protection. Nevertheless, an realization by the British government that increasing number of tourists with a tourism was a potential income generator. special interest in Tanganyika s flora and Game viewing tours became an fauna were recorded (Ofcansky, 1997). increasingly important aspect of wildlife Acknowledging the role of tourism as a conservation, rivalling or even surpassing source of revenue, East African Governors sport hunting as a source of government organized a tourism conference in Nairobi revenues. The change in tourists in 1947 (Sindiga, 1999). This conference preferences from hunting tourism to game led to the formation of a representative viewing forced the re-categorisation of committee of the East African High some of the game reserve into national Commission (EAHC) to oversee tourism parks. Hence, the paradigm shift marked and its issues. In addition, an interim office the era of national parks creation in of the East African Tourist Travel Tanganyika. Association (EATTA) was established in 1949 headquartered in Nairobi. EATTA's The era of game reserves specifically aim was to market all tourist attractions in designed for game viewing tourism in East Africa. EATTA launched various Tanganyika, began in 1933. The advocacy publicity campaigns that mainly focused on of game viewing or park tourism was a the region s tourism and its wildlife response to the world economic depression resources. of the 1930s (Ouma, 1970), which it sought to counter. To accelerate the growth of Following these publicity campaigns in the tourism, certified travel organizations were early 1950s, the potential of natural areas as created all over the world. In East Africa, a basis for tourism was widely recognized.

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For instance, Foran (1950) stated, "all East tourist arrivals. Tourists had different African territories were fully aware of the motives and preferences. Unlike in the necessity for creating national parks and colonial era, where Kenya was the superior game reserves for the preservation of an and dominant tourist destination in East immense heritage of fauna and flora which Africa, the post-colonial era gave hope to nature so excessively granted upon these Tanzania to govern its tourist attractions regions". East Africa, and in particular independently as a sovereign state and not Tanganyika experienced a tourist boom in as common resources for the East African this period (Hyma, 1980). The growing territory. number of tourists was paralleled by an increase in studies of tourism ranging from With respect to tourism development in the promotional literature in magazines and period after independence, four eras can be journals to penetrating research articles and discerned based on political and books. Well-produced guidebooks were technological developments: the developed for East Africa as a whole and modernization era, the post Arusha for each of the countries (Cox, 1970; Declaration era, the liberalization era and Hyma, 1980). In addition, film and the internet-based tourism era. photography emerged as important new media. For example, Grzimek's 1959 film Tourism in the modernization era (1961- Serengeti darf nicht sterben" (i.e. 1967) Serengeti shall not die) received much attention. The film s aim was to promote In the 1960s, tourism expanded in response the conservation of Serengeti s spectacular to increasing demand of certain types of wildlife resources for sustainable use leisure activities, namely indulgence in fun, tourisms and research. The film became an food, frolic and exotica (Salazar, 2008). excellent medium for tourism promotion During this time tourists travelled for the and indeed stimulated many conservation sun, sand and sex (the 3-Ss) adventures activities. mostly practiced in coastal parts of Tanzania (e.g. Dar es Salaam Bagamoyo The Post-colonial Period (1961-date) and Zanzibar) as well as close to wildlife tourist destinations (e.g. Mto wa Mbu In the early 1960s, explorers from Europe village close to Lake Manyara National and the Middle and Far East already had a Park). After independence, tourism became long tradition of holidaying in search of a key industry in all development plans. exotic features and scenic wonders but only This was encouraged by the rapid growth a few of them reached Tanzania, in small of international tourist arrivals. The groups and expeditions. It was not until the Establishment of the Tanzania National 1960s that the first ripples of mass tourism Tourist Board (TNTB) in 1962 soon after began to develop. As argued by Chambua independence was a major step ahead to (2007), the expansion of mass tourism from accommodate the increased number of the 1960s onwards was an outgrowth of the tourist arrivals. The TNTB was structured tourist patterns initiated in the 1940s and as an institution to oversee tourism issues 1950s. Mass tourism became a significant in the country and it replaced the East industry in Tanzania. Policy changes, African Tourist Travel Association of 1949. technological advancement, and the The country invested much in the tourism diversity of destinations also enhanced industry, though opportunities for its

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citizens were restricted because the In the above statement, we declare industry still hinged on colonial capitalists. indicates that soon after independence Europeans and to a lesser extent Asians natural attractions (i.e. wildlife) should dominated the industry. In the mid-1960s contribute to tourism. The Socio-economic Tanzania created state owned hospitality contribution of tourism to the national enterprises, including hotels and game economy, immediately after independence lodges in major tourist destinations and transformed Mwl. Nyerere s notion to run cities, like Dar es Salaam and Arusha the tourism industry with Tanzanians (Salazar, 2008). without depending much on Westerners (mostly Europeans) as was in the colonial In the colonial era, Tanzania had only game era. The expansion of the hospitality reserves, but this changed soon after industry, the acquisition of the ministerial independence. The Serengeti was the first position for tourism in 1964 (i.e. the national park gazetted. This park caters for Ministry of Information and Tourism), and the changing tourist demand from game later the creation of the Tanzania National hunting to game viewing. The number of Tourist Board (TNTB) obviously drove national parks rose to seven in 1970 and Tanzania to abandon the East African base thirteen in 1995. Creation of more national of tourism during the 1960s. The TNTB parks was in line with the country s policy was established in 1962 to replace the to conserve its biological resources for EATTA of 1949, and opened offices in different purposes, including tourism. London. The offices were fully equipped to Tanzania was ready to protect her natural oversee the international promotion of resources in collaboration with Tanzania s tourist attractions. According to international organizations. In this context, Chambua (2007), during the 1967- 1968 the Tanzanian first president, Mwl. J.K. lodges were constructed and expanded at Nyerere, stated this: The survival of our the Ngorongoro Crater, the Lobo Lodge in wildlife is a matter of grave concern to all Serengeti, the Seronera Wildlife Lodge, the of us in Africa. These wild creatures in wild Mikumi Lodge, the Mafia Island Fishing places are not only important as a source Lodge, the Bahari Beach, the Kunduchi of wonder and inspiration; they are also an Beach and the New Africa Hotels. The integral part of our natural resources and Tanzania Wild Safaris Ltd was established. our future livelihood and well-being. We The , which was solemnly declare that we will do everything enacted on February 5 in 1967, hinged on in our power to make sure that our socialism and self-reliance, which marked a children's grandchildren will be able to new era of African Socialism as well as a enjoy this rich precious inheritance new era of tourism development in (extract from his speech for the symposium Tanzania. on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, September 1961). This Post Arusha Declaration (1967-1985) statement later became the Arusha declaration (Azimio la Arusha in Swahili) The importance of wildlife tourism in 1967. This thus drove Tanzania to development for national parks and the establish and conserve as many national people living in and around them was parks so that the grandchildren of the strongly echoed in the Arusha Declaration. world could enjoy the resources during This declaration led to massive efforts in wildlife safaris and other tourist trips. marketing the tourism and hospitality

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industry. Tourist statistics recording years later in 1979-1980 (Figure.1), which systems, hotel constructions and other clearly indicated that the majority of infrastructures were improved. The number tourists in Tanzania were crossing the of tourist arrivals substantially increased border from Kenya to Tanzania especially between 1968 and 1973. Tourism was to the northern circuit (i.e. the Arusha, the extremely profitable in these years, and the Manyara, the Tarangire, the Kilimanjaro, hotels and sales of game hunting licence Serengeti National Parks and the contributed a lot to the export earnings Ngorongoro Conservation Area). The (Shivji, 1975; Chachage, 2003; Chambua, border closure and the Idi Amin war 2007). Wildlife safari tourism further between Tanzania and Uganda in 1978 and expanded in the 1970s. In mid-1970 s 1979 also contributed to the fall in tourist tourism had become the seventh important arrivals in the country. foreign exchange earner in Tanzania (Green, 1979). The worst tourism performance of Tanzania was from 1979-1983 (Figure.1) Tourist numbers continued to grow until when the country recorded the lowest 1973 after which Tanzania started to numbers of tourist arrivals since its experience decreases in tourist arrivals independence. A new wave of international (Figure.1). This decrease was associated environmental conservation policies in the with the self-reliance policy of African 1980s, imposed by several BINGOs, socialism and the Arusha Declaration. aggravated the situation. As argued in Many of the associated policies and Chachage (1999), these policies prohibited regulations weakened the tourism industry, mass tourism and favoured environmental although this was not their original friendly tourism practices like eco-tourism. intention. During this period, the tourism Unlike mass tourism, where travel costs and hospitality industry was run by the were reduced through sheer numbers, state and the involved government officials environmental concern tourism encouraged performed extremely poorly due to their travel in small groups to avoid incompetence on tourism issues. This was environmental damage. This also increased worsened by lack of specialized personnel travel costs and consequently resulted in in the tourism related industry, the state fewer tourist arrivals. Apart from the monopoly in the banking system, the over- prohibition of mass tourism, the BINGOs night ban of all hunting and photographic imposed conditions, such as collaboration safaris and the subsequent closure of all of state tourism industry and private business including state owned wildlife sectors. These conditions meant that the safaris in the country in 1973 (Herne, 1999; government had the obligation to ensure the Wade et al., 2001; Salazar, 2008). The stability for private sector entrepreneurs declining tourism development was and possible foreign capitalists. The considered inhumane and demoralizing by BINGOs conditions were defined tourism entrepreneurs and tourists. strategically to favour the countries where tourist originated, and, hence these The situation was further degraded by the countries controlled the tourist markets. official disintegration of the East African These conditions were a cold sanction Community and sudden closure of the resulting into the strong political dynamics Tanzania-Kenya border in 1977. This (i.e. change in policies) that contributed to resulted in a drastic fall of tourism two reducing tourist arrivals in Tanzania.

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Figure.1 Trends in tourist arrivals since 1972-1985 (data source Wade et al., 2001)

Figure.2 Trends in Tourists arrivals since 1985-2000 (Data source from Wade et al., 2001; UNWTO, 2011)

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Figure.3 Trends in tourist s arrivals since 2000-2012 (data source from UNWTO, 2011; Tairo, 2013)

Liberalization (1985-2000) opening of the Tanzania-Kenya border in 1984 also resulted in an exponential After the so-called cold war of tourism increase in the number of tourist arrivals that persisted for almost five years (i.e. (Figure 1). Tourism gradually turned into a from 1979 to 1983), tourism increased well-endowed and multinational, well- again in the mid-1980s due to new financed and technologically advanced economic liberalization policies. The new industry soon after the mid-1980s. liberal policies such as cheap and fair travels were introduced to lower the travel Massive privatization of state owned costs, so that tourists could travel more tourism assets in the liberalization era easily. These new liberalization policies allowed the private sector to run much of together with the removal of trade the tourism industry. These private sectors restrictions that forced developing countries consist mainly of elite and foreign interests. to open up their economy for imports from Although the country receives the highest the developed world, triggered the growth number of tourists in this period, the of tourism (Kulindwa, 2001; Luvanga, situation suggests a return of tourism to the 2003; Ranja, 2003; Chambua, 2007). Many colonial period, where few rich Europeans foreign tour companies were able to open owned the tourism industry and determined offices in Tanzania, especially in Moshi the number of tourist arrivals in the and Arusha. This marked the development country. This can be seen from the new of tourism in the Northern Circuit (Arusha, liberalization polices introduced by the Kilimanjaro and Manyara regions). The re- IMF and the World Bank in the 1980s.

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Figure.4 Two hundred years of the evolution and distribution of wildlife tourist destinations in Tanzania

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Figure.5 A simplified representation of wildlife resource governance in Tanzania soon after independence

These policies were meant to put Tanzanian Reserves. The massive change in attractions in the hands of international international politics over natural ownership evidenced in the on-going move attractions resembles the history where to elevate the status of Tanzanian natural Western countries had much control of beauty by establishing world heritage sites, African continent s wildlife tourist man and biosphere reserves and at national resources. The elevated status of tourist level nature reserves being established from destinations contributes into increasing Forest Reserves. In recent years, UNESCO number of tourist arrivals. However, added Ngorongoro (1979), Serengeti caution must be taken as the future of these (1981), Selous game reserve (1982), and tourist destinations could be threatened if Kilimanjaro (1987) to its list of World any global environmental change may scale Heritage Sites. At the same time the back the status of tourist destinations. Serengeti Ngorongoro and East Urambara conservation areas were both identified as National policy reshuffles and/or biosphere reserves in 1981 while many adjustments and the enactment of the forest reserves especially in the biodiversity wildlife policy of 1998 (revised in 2007) hotspots have been declared Nature also consider hunting tourism as a viable

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economic and sustainable use of wildlife. negligible cost. Internet-based business is Tourist hunting is still widely practiced in shaping the provision of tourism services several game reserves, game controlled even in developing countries, in Tanzania areas, and open areas. Other factors particularly. Internet technologies are attributed to the Tanzanian tourism complementing rather than undermining the development were the development of an role of personal travel. From the turn of the integrated tourism master plan in 1996 century, the reliance on the internet and (revised in 1999). This plan focused on websites for promotion of tourism and improving, developing and refurbishing tourism resources and their associated existing tourist attractions and facilities to attractions have grown. In December 1999, attract more tourists (MNRT, 2002). The 4.1% of world population had access to the first National Tourism Policy of 1999, internet worldwide, a leap from 0.4% in among others, stipulated the role of tourism 1995 (Internet World Stats, 2013)1. This is in the country, stimulated tourism equivalent to a 1% increase of annual investment and encouraged public private internet usage. In March 2013, 38% of the partnerships. This tourism policy insists on world population had used internet, low density or strong environmentally whereas, 77% of the users were the friendly tourism that can contribute to the developed world inhabitants versus 31% in national economy but simultaneously the developing world (International conserves the environment. On another Telecommunications Union, 2013)2 extreme the communication infrastructure development, such as telecommunication, Seeking to understand the development of road networks and other infrastructures in internet-based or electronic-tourism various tourist destinations led to a sharp services in Tanzania, we need to appreciate increase in tourist arrivals from 1985 some of the antecedent conditions, the (Figure 2). This marks substantial socio-economic movements, and developments in the tourism industry technological developments within the though the situation changed when tourism industry. One is the increasing Tanzania experienced a sudden drop of political and economic integration of large tourist number in 1999/2000 (Figure 2) regions of the world (e.g. Europe, America associated with the terrorist bombing of US and Asia). At the same time citizens of embassy offices in Tanzania and Kenya on modern societies who demand tourism August 7, 1998. services in developing countries are attaching ever greater importance to leisure, Internet-based tourism (2000-to present) travel and tourism (Claval, 2002).

A phenomenon that has fundamentally 1 changed tourism in the first years of the 21st Internet World Stats. (2012). Internet growth centuries is the internet. The internet statistics-today's road to e-commerce and global trade internet technology reports, Accessed in provides a fundamentally different December 12, 2013, from economic environment for doing tourism http://www.internetworldstats.com/emarketing.htm business. Rayman-Bacchus and Molina 2 ITU. (February 27, 2013). International (2001) see the internet as a key Telecommunication Union-ICT facts and figure: differentiator in the tourism industry, as latest global technology development figures [press release] well as a rapidly growing communication Accessed in December, 25, 2013, from facility, accessible globally and at a http://www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_releases/20 13/05.aspx#.UrsAjLRzbD8

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Integrating particular leisure interests with Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism individual work schedule has often- (MNRT), the Ngorongoro Conservation increased mobility of people in search of Area Authority (NCAA), the Tanzania new tourist attraction to suit their desires. Tourist Board (TTB), and local tour Implicated in these movements is the operators and travel agents use their harnessing of ICT to bring about faster and websites to market tourism resources and more widespread communication and services. Electronic mail (e-mails) and greater information dissemination, lower online booking systems for hotel transaction costs, the realization of reservations are now prioritized. Further, electronic commerce (i.e. electronic the expansion of the international airports momentary transactions with credit cards (i.e. Dar es Salaam and Kilimanjaro) and and electronic money transfers) and reduced bureaucracy at airports and at increased scope for meeting and promoting immigration authorities improved border individual preferences. crossings hence increased tourist arrivals in Tanzania over the last decade (Figure 3). Technological developments in the banking sector have opened up new modes of doing Evolution and distribution of wildlife business. Today s tourists can use E- safari tourist destinations in Tanzania banking services to purchase tourism since 19th century services for destinations of their choice, while still in the country of origin. This The wildlife tourism and its associated strongly differs from the 1980s, where destinations in the county in the last two tourists had to travel with cash to various centuries evolved in different patterns. The destinations. The majority of travellers uneven distribution of Tanzanian wildlife considered the cash-based modes of resources influenced the distribution of the transaction unsafe, making risk-averse tourist destinations and hence attributed to tourists not to travel to less secured the increased inbound tourists because destinations. The introduction of mobile tourists can attain their desire in various money transfer system in Tanzania is a varied tourist destinations. The historical major driver in the rapid growth of the wildlife resource governance systems that tourism industry. These mobile money the country has gone through since the transfer systems (e.g. Vodacom M-Pesa, early 1800s (i.e. before Europeans Airtel-Money, Eazy-Pesa and Tigo-Pesa) colonizing East Africa and after the allow for rapid transactions. These systems independence), has contributed to the allow even local Tanzanians, who have no change in tourist motives for visiting the access to a bank to purchase tourism country, as well as the preferences of services using their mobile handsets. tourist destinations. Before and soon after colonization, the country s wildlife Unlike two centuries ago where marketing resources were not subjected to any policy was done through simple analogy or law. The resulting No-Mans-Resource approaches (c.f. Rousseau and his -or as it is referred to in Tanzania Shamba contemporary paintings of African la Bibi - indicates an early tragedy of the wilds ), the 21st century Tanzanian tourism commons that resulted in unregulated hinges on the use of internet approaches. hunting. For example, Stewart Edward Tourism authorities in the county like the White, a Brit visiting the Serengeti in 1920, Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA), the shot fifty in a single year (Herne,

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1999). Such lion hunting made lions scarce game reserves or forest reserves. All game and the British colonial administration reserves evolved from open game made a partial game reserve of just 3.2 km2 controlled areas. around the Seronera area in 1921. Additionally the Serengeti became a full In 2013, Tanzania had seventeen national game reserve in 1929. These actions were parks. The Tanzania National Parks the basis for the (TANAPA) manages the sixteen national establishment in 1951 and of other national parks and the Zanzibar Authorities parks. manages the Jozani Chwaka, the only national park in Zanzibar (Figure 5). The The establishment of protected areas (i.e. Ngorongoro conservation area authority wildlife tourist destinations) in the country manages the Ngorongoro Conservation hinges on the wealth of the country s Area (NCA). The NCA is managed as a wildlife resource potential for tourism. The multiple land use where conservation, historical governance issues (i.e. policies, tourism, and Maasai pastoralists live regulations and laws) that changed the together harmoniously. Game reserves status of protected areas are presented in where hunting tourism is permitted, is this section in the form of a distribution another wildlife category. These areas have map. Braat (2013); Maes et al, (2013) view been purposely located adjacent to national maps as communication tools to initiate parks to control the wildlife populations discussions on conservation decisions on within the carrying capacity of the national priority areas and on relevant policy parks and at the same time to accrue interventions. By understanding, the economic benefits of wildlife resources potential of distribution maps in managing through trophy hunting. The Selous game Tanzanian tourist destinations, the reserve is both the most famous tourist evolution, and distribution map of the hunting game reserve in the world, as well Tanzanian protected areas was created. as the oldest and the largest African game This map narrates the historic development reserve. The Selous is a special game (i.e. time and space) of the seventeen reserve in the sense that both hunting and national parks, the Selous game reserve, photographic tourism are allowed in and the Ngorongoro conservation area in an specific designated areas. Only hunting was annotated map (Figure 4). The map was allowed during the colonial time. In recent created using historical information on the years, a special area designated for individual protected areas, running from the photographic tourism was created within pre-colonial era to the contemporary era. the Selous to capture the current Some information from the many studies development of changing tourist motives. reviewed for this study and other sources (e.g. Wikipedia) were used to create a In the past decades until now, conservation narrative description of each protected area. and utilization of wildlife resources in the ArcGIS was used to create the distribution country are managed under the hierarchy of of protected areas in Tanzania. The authorities (Figure 5). The Ministry of narrative text boxes for each protected area Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), were added. National park in this map is which oversees the conservation of wildlife the highest rank of non-consumptive resources and tourism, is responsible for wildlife tourist designations. However, all developing and implementing wildlife and these national parks evolved from either tourism policies. The Tanzania Tourist

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Body (TTB) and the Tanzania Hotel wealthy and uneven distribution of wildlife Corporations (THC) are specifically resources has contributed to assigning 38% responsible for actual tourism and of the country s land for the conservation hospitality publicity issues. The spatial of biological diversity and tourism complexity of wildlife resources, the compared to 5% area protected in the complicated and varied tourist preferences 1920s. led the government to delegate its conservation and utilization power to four The contemporary conservation strategies authorities/divisions namely: the forest did not come over night but were division, the wildlife division, the Tanzania influenced by historic governance issues National Park Authority (TANAPA), and and the current conservation strategies are the Ngorongoro Conservation Area clearly rooted in the colonial era. Unlike Authority (NCAA) (Figure 5). This other African countries, the primary complex policy and management structure purposes of wildlife management in can nowadays adequately deal with tourism Tanzania were initially for consumptive and their ever-changing motives. wildlife resource use (e.g. massive hunting) until the 1960s. However, ten years later Conclusion the paradigm shifted to wildlife protection for the conservation of biological diversity Wildlife tourism and their associated tourist and environmental friendly tourism. This destinations in Tanzania have been shift is also the main reason for Tanzania s developed over more than two hundred abandonment of mass tourism in the 1960s years. Over this period of their and encouragement of environmentally development tourist destinations in the friendly tourism since in 1970s. country have changed status from common resources to either game reserves and/or The geographic variations of the country forest reserves and, finally, to national resulted in the unique and spatially parks to parallel the changing tourists distributed pattern of protected areas and demands and motives. While the country this distributes tourist arrivals and caters for praised the economic contribution of varied tourist preferences (e.g. hunting, tourism to the GDP from its onset, all sightseeing and diving). This study has also tourism economic studies started their profiled the role of technological economic interpretations in the 1970s. advancement (e.g. the use of internet) and These studies only associate increase and multimedia platforms in the modern decrease in the number of tourists with tourism industry. Our analysis elucidates supply and demand model, where price that, books and multimedia platforms determined the market. Our study played a major role in selling wildlife concludes that tourist motives and resources of the country apart from road preferences more strongly determine the infrastructures and the hospitality industry market than price, and, hence, influence the development. Much of the information on demand and supply of tourist activities. For historical evolution of protected areas is example, a change from hunting motives of poorly documented or only available in the late 1890s to sightseeing tourism in the incompatible formats. The time-series 1930s and the demand for environmental development of each protected area in our friendly tourism in 1970s as opposed to low map makes this historical information more cost mass tourism in the 1960s. The assessable for parks managers, decision

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makers, and tourists, and put their decisions Paper presented at the 2nd African into a historical context. Changes in Conference on Community Tourism climate, land use and conservation policies (December 7-12, 2003), Golden Tulip affect the protected areas differently. Hotel, Dar-es Salaam: Organized by ATA, Population increase and economic CCA and hosted by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), development in Tanzania will likely make Tanzania. land a more scarce resource which will Chambua, G. (2007). Tourism and create trade-offs between protected areas Development in Tanzania: Myths and and other economic uses. This will increase Realities Paper presented at the 4th IIPT the necessity of management. Our detailed African Confrence "Building Strategic historic evolution and distribution in a Alliances for Sustainable Tourism single map of all protected areas therefore Development, Peace and Reconciliation on is an important management tool for the African Continent, Kampala, Uganda. development of explorative scenarios to http://www.iipt.org/africa2007/Concurrent cope with the current dynamics in climate Sessions.php and land-use change risks based on past Claval, P. (2002). Reflections on human mobility at the time of globalisation. In evolution of protected areas in the country. A.MONTANARI (Ed.), Human mobility in a borderless world? (Vol. 1, pp. 47-68). References Rome, : IGU-Home of Geography Publication Series Adams, J. S., & McShane, T. O. (1996 ). The Cox, T. (1970). Traveller's Guide to East Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation Without Africa: A Concise Guide to the Wildlife Illusion Berkeley and Los Angeles, and Tourist Facilities of Ethiopia, Kenya, California: University of California Press. Tanzania and Uganda. Valletta, Malta: Agrawala, S., Moehner, A., Hemp, A., Van Thornton Cox. Aalst, M., Hitz, S., Smith, J., Meena, H., CRIA. (2009). Kilimajaro melting glaciers; on Mwakifwamba, S. M., Hyera, T., & , & the colonial and postcolonial perception Mwaipopo, O. U. (2003). Development and appropriarion of African nature. and Climate Change in Tanzania: Focus on Etnográfica, 13(2), 19. Mt. Kilimanjaro (pp. 72). Organization for Curry, S. (1990). Tourism development in Economic Co-operation and Development Tanzania. Annals of Tourism Research, (OECD), Paris, . 17(1), 133-149. doi: Braat, L. C. (2013). Special Issues on Mapping http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160- and Modelling Ecosystem Services 7383(90)90119-C Ecosystem Services, 4(v), 1. Curtin, S. (2010). The self-presentation and Cater, E. A. (1987). Tourism in the least self-development of serious wildlife developed countries. Annals of Tourism tourists International Journal of Tourism Research, 14(2), 202-226. doi: Research, 12(1), 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160- Dundas, A. (1924). Beneath the African 7383(87)90085-5 Glaciers,H.F. & G Witherby. London. Chachage, C. S. L. (1999). Globalisation and Etnográfica. (2009). Kilimanjaro s melting Transitions in Tourism in Tanzania Paper glaciers: on the colonial and postcolonial presented at the ICTSD Reginal Trade and perception and appropriation of African Environment Seminar for Governments nature (Vol. 13). versão impressa. and Civil Society, Harare, . Foran, R. (1950). Rise of Nairobi: From http://m.iatp.org/files/Globalization_and_T campsite to city-phase in the history of ransitions_in_Tourism_in_Ta.pdf Kenya's capital which is soon to receive a Chachage, C. S. L. (2003). Community Royal Charter. The Crown Colonist, Tourism Gateway to Poverty Reduction. 20(220), 5.

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