THE TIBETAN BUDDHIST WORLD

Despite 13 centuries of mission efforts, few of Central Asia's Tibetan Buddhist peoples have responded to the Gospel. This article explores the world and peoples of Buddhist Central Asia, examines Christian efforts to evangelize them and suggests strategies for the future.

BY MARKU TSERING

he Tibetan Buddhist peoples of The religion that links these diverse witness at all, and only small numbers Asia represent one of the final peoples began over a thousand years ago came to Christ. In pre-Communist T frontiers of modern missions. as a synthesis of Tibetan folk religion, Mongolia, the Protestant missionary Though Christian missions in the area yoga, Mahayana , and an effort came too little and too late. began with the 7th century Nestorian ancient Indian occultic religion called Though almost 140 years of missionary Church, Central Asia's Tibetan Buddhist tantra. By about 1000 A.D., the Tibe- effort was made on the Indian and peoples have experienced little church tans had combined these beliefs into a Chinese borders of , the harvest was planting and growth. Even today, the spirit-worshipping mystery religion small in proportion to the effort homelands of these peoples remain promising rapid enlightenment to its expended, and central Tibet was never among the largest unevangelized areas in followers. Thousands of Tibetans entered effectively reached. These results contrast the world. But recent changes in the monasteries, hundreds of monk-scholars with those in China, Japan, and , region suggest that Tibetan Buddhists produced a vast spiritual literature, and where Christian missions produced can come to Christ in significant many missionary monks reached strong, if relatively small, national numbers. Mongolia, China, , , India, churches. Buddhist Central Asia stretches and parts of Siberia. In the ensuing What made the difference in the across a vast territory from the Caspian centuries entire peoples embraced the Tibetan Buddhist World? Why did Sea to northeastern China, and from new faith. By the year 1700, Tibetan painstaking and dedicated mission Siberia to India. Within this huge region Buddhists held political power in efforts, sanctified by prayer, sealed with live more than 60 Tibetan and non- , Mongolia, and Bhutan, and the blood of martyrs, and continued over groups whose lives and exercised religious influence over peoples 13 centuries by Nestorian, Orthodox, cultures have been shaped by the Tibetan in Russia, China, and India. Catholic, and Protestant missionaries, form of Buddhism (see Table 1). Since Tibetan Buddhist peoples attracted essentially fail to produce strong national these peoples and their cultures share the attention of the Church from a very churches in so much of Buddhist Central values based on Tibetan Buddhism, they early date. Nestorian Christians sent the Asia? Are there lessons in this story that are often referred to as the Tibetan first missions to Mongolia in the seventh can help Christians introduce Christ to Buddhist World. century; Roman Catholic and Russian Buddhists more effectively today? The largest of the Tibetan Buddhist Orthodox missions went to peoples in China, Russia, Tibet, and Bhutan. World's peoples are China's 4.8 million Barriers to Missions Mongols (more than double the popula- William Carey became the first Protes- tion of neighboring Mongolia). Mongol- tant missionary to Tibetan Buddhists The early missionaries faced obstacles related groups are also found in Russia when he visited Bhutan in 1797. The that still challenge Christian workers and several parts of China. The second- venerable London Missionary Society led today. The Himalayas, the Gobi and largest (and perhaps best known) group is efforts to reach Tibetan Buddhist peoples Taklamakan Deserts, the freezing wastes the Tibetans, some 4.6 million of whom in Siberia, Mongolia, and India in the of Siberia, and other generally impassable live within the borders of China. The 1800’s, and the Moravian Church sent terrain present formidable barriers to Tibetans' leader, known in the West as an outstanding mission to Ladakh which travel. Natural resources are not abun- the Dalai Lama, serves as a popular and produced a Tibetan language New Testa- dant in such areas, so population densi- effective world spokesman for Tibetan ment in 1885. But none of these ties are very low (e.g., three people per Buddhism. Smaller Tibetan Buddhist attempts to plant the Church in Central square mile in Mongolia). groups, such as Nepal's famous Sherpas, Asia enjoyed large-scale success. For This kind of physical isolation can be found scattered across the Hima- instance, in Russia, only two groups (the encourages the breakup of languages into layas and southwest China. Buryats and Kalmyks) had any Christian localized, non-mutually intelligible

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 10:3 JULY 1993 146 The Tibetan Buddhist World dialects. It also encourages governments control of spiritual forces. Many mission- means taking the time (often years) to to put national borders in the area, which aries would say that spiritual opposition learn difficult languages; to use literature, represent fault lines of military and polit- blighted church growth and caused evan- videos, or radio broadcasts especially ical tension. As a result, much of the gelistic efforts to fail. prepared for Buddhists; and to learn Tibetan Buddhist World is sparsely Such is the environment that faced methods of evangelism that are appro- populated, politically tense, and linguisti- generations of missionaries to the priate to the local cultures. It also means cally diverse. Tibetan Buddhist World. But it would taking Tibetan Buddhism seriously. Such places are not known for the be a mistake to place all the responsi- Missions conducted in ignorance of free exchange of ideas! These conditions bility for failed church growth on key Buddhist beliefs about suffering, sin, are compounded by differences of race, external factors alone. The early Nesto- and redemption can run afoul of unin- language, and culture. Except in rian Church’s mission to the Mongols tended meanings. Following Paul's Athe- Mongolia and Bhutan, Tibetan failed not for any external reason, but in nian example, Christians must know Buddhists live as minority peoples part because the church itself lost its enough about Tibetan Buddhism to submerged in a dominant culture. For sense of missionary vision. The Russian present Christ in a way that their listeners example, the total Tibetan Buddhist Orthodox Church’s attempt to reach the can understand and appreciate. The population of China (10.6 million) is Tibetan Buddhist Kalmyk people failed historical facts show that when this is dwarfed by the ethnic Chinese popula- when it became entangled in imperial done, and is backed by consistent Chris- tion of over 1 billion. Tibetan Buddhists politics. An administrative dispute (what tian living, the church can grow in the in Nepal, India, and Russia face less people today would call a “turf battle”) Tibetan Buddhist World. One is the daunting, but similar cultural and polit- within the Catholic Church forced the success stories in 1885, when the Mora- ical pressures from majority peoples. withdrawal of one of the ablest mission- vian Church set up a mission in Leh, Under these circumstances, many aries ever sent to Tibet.2 Unfortunately, Ladakh, an area of north India also Tibetan Buddhist peoples see Buddhism these problems are not confined to known as “Little Tibet”. mission history. Modern Christians can as a rallying point for cultural survival. The early missionaries faced extreme make mistakes as well. Some, constrained An individual who seriously considers hardships and discouraging circum- by visa restrictions in countries which do religious change becomes open to charges stances with bravery and persistence. In not welcome missionaries, may adopt of treason and social betrayal. This kind common with other missions of the day, “short term” methods tailored to the of group solidarity at the expense of they began a school, did medical work, brief periods of time they can remain outside ideas is characteristic of Tibetan and built a printing press. But beyond locally as tourists. They may place a Buddhism. As a monistic faith, it denies these activities, the Moravians distin- heavy emphasis on literature distribution the outside world any objective existence, guished themselves by their under- in areas where literacy rates are low or robbing new ideas of any claim to ulti- standing of the people they had come to the attitude of local people to large scale mate truth even before they can be serve. Several Moravian missionaries were literature distribution is unknown. Some considered. The Tibetan Buddhist focus serious scholars whose in-depth under- work without consulting local churches on self-development turns all religious standing of Ladakhi and Tibetan culture or Christian agencies already working in attention inward, so that one anthropolo- produced works of lasting academic the area. These groups may then suffer gist aptly called it “a religion of antisocial value, including the first translation of 1 when the authorities intervene. Using individualism.” This tendency is rein- the Bible into Tibetan. forced by the fact that in Tibetan trade or dominant-culture languages Buddhism, all spiritual progress depends instead of local ones, working with inad- They put their cultural expertise to upon pleasing one's lama (or teacher). In equate preparation, poorly defined goals, good use. For example, the Moravians traditional societies, this placed great or failing to do one's linguistic and realized that the Bible speaks in a style economic and political power in the cultural homework are other mistakes very foreign to the average Tibetan hands of the monks, who are naturally that can defeat the best intentions. Buddhist, whose scriptures are filled with indisposed to religious change. As a The model of missions presented by serene speculations on philosophy, result, fear of foreign ideas embedded the Apostle Paul in his speech to the instructions for quiet meditation, and itself in cultural and political life, Athenians in Acts 17 is very helpful as a methods for achieving passionless peace. strongly discouraging any interest in non- pattern to follow in missions to They knew that many Tibetan Buddhists native or non-Buddhist religious ideas. Buddhists. A detailed study of this were shocked by the Bible's animal sacri- The political expression of this kind passage is beyond the scope of this fices, wars, and sharply drawn controver- 4 of xenophobia was that the governments article, and its relevance for work among sies. of Tibet, Mongolia, and Bhutan Buddhists is reviewed elsewhere.3 The To circumvent this problem, they excluded foreigners (especially mission- main point, however, was that Paul went produced high-quality literature that was aries) for many years. Of course, spiritual far beyond simple translation of his specifically written for Tibetan factors played a role in the region's message into the Greek language. He Buddhists. It carefully defined Christian response to Christian missions. Tibetan adopted Greek thought forms to present terms and took Tibetan Buddhist needs, Buddhism (especially the folk variety) the Gospel in a way that made sense to world views, and ways of thinking into places great emphasis on occultism and the Greeks. Applying this model today account. Such careful attention to the life

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS 147 Marku Tsering and culture of the people helped plant a The combination of greater access and the fact that each participating agency church that remains in Ladakh to this heightened receptivity bodes well for pays only a fraction of the substantial day. frontier missions. costs involved in training, equipping, and caring for workers, yet receives all Though the Moravian approach was Christians working in this new the benefits of long term presence in a sophisticated and fruitful, it was not the atmosphere need to begin with careful given country. only one that was successful. Several 19th preparation. From a biblical perspective, century European missions worked this means recognizing the spiritual The excitement of a more open among the in the Hima- forces at work and praying accordingly. climate aside, missions is ultimately a layan state of Sikkim. At that time the Practically, this means knowing local life sovereign activity of God in which Chris- Lepchas were a tribal and animistic and culture well enough to see the world tians are privileged to participate. people in the early phases of adopting from a Buddhist perspective, much as Faithful missionaries who labor for years Tibetan Buddhism. Like tribal peoples Paul was able to see the world from a without seeing a church grow, and elsewhere in India, the Lepchas received Greek one. Mastering these skills can people movements that sweep thousands the gospel warmly, and a Lepcha church help enormously in all phases of Chris- into the Church apart from any endures to this day. tian ministry to Tibetan Buddhists. On missionary presence are helpful remin- The Tamang people of neighboring the strategic level, recent mission history ders of this fact, and help keep our Nepal have a culture similar to that of the suggests that the most responsive groups thinking about methods and strategy in Lepchas. An entirely indigenous people are tribal peoples and those recently proper perspective. movement in the late 1980’s brought emerging from authoritarian rule. Several Marku Tsering is a missionary and author thousands of Tamangs into the Nepali such groups are waiting for the pioneer who works among the Tibetan Buddhist church. The history of the church among frontier mission efforts of Christians who peoples of Asia. the Tamang and Lepcha peoples suggests will bring them the Gospel for the first that the groups most receptive to the time. Groups less likely to respond are Endnotes those for whom Tibetan Buddhism is a Gospel may be tribal or animistic peoples 1. Ortner, Shery B., Sherpas Through symbol of cultural survival, or very tradi- who have received but not yet institution- Their Rituals, (Cambridge: Cambridge alized Tibetan Buddhism. tional societies where Tibetan Buddhist University Press, 1978, reprinted 1986), institutions are still intact and have Another lesson from the Tamang p. 157. church experience is that mission strategy retained political power. 2. For a review of these mission may be irrelevant to church growth! More Though not specific to ministry efforts, see: Tsering, Marku, Sharing recent experience in Mongolia suggests among Buddhists, mission agency part- Christ in the Tibetan Buddhist World, other reasons for hope. Under the relig- nerships and cooperative arrangements (Upper Darby, PA: Interserve, second ious freedom permitted by the country's will play an increasing role in the future. edition 1993). newly democratic government, churches Such agreements have demonstrated have appeared in Mongolia. It may be effectiveness in cutting waste and dupli- 3. Tsering, P. 26 - 31. that 60 years of official atheism convinced cation. A number of these coopera- 4. This is not to say that the Bible is the Mongols of the need for spiritually- tive ventures have appeared in the defective or outmoded, but simply to based values, and that there is a more Tibetan Buddhist World, and more are remind us that it speaks in categories that open climate for mission efforts as a on the way. Their popularity is due to are generally alien to Buddhists. result. Cooperation among Christian agencies has been a very recent feature of ministry in Mongolia, one which will hopefully bring glory to God and enhance TABLE 1: Demographics of the Tibetan Buddhist World Population figures the growth of the church. are approximate, as reliable information is unavailable for several countries. Figures for some Tibetan Buddhist peoples are not represented in this table. T.B. = Tibetan Buddhist. Directions for the Future The peoples of the Tibetan Buddhist Approximate Percent of Number of World are more accessible to Christian Country T.B. population T.B. World T.B. Peoples mission than at any time in past history. Radical changes of government in the Russia 800,000 5% 3 Russian Federation, Mongolia, and Nepal Mongolia 2,200,000 15 4 have opened many long-closed doors. China 10,665,000 72 13 China continues its opening to the Nepal 602,000 4 13 outside world despite tight domestic Bhutan 490,000 3 13 political controls. In a number of coun- India 150,000 1 16 tries, years of secular authoritarian rule have diminished the spiritual dominance totals 14,900,000 100% 62 of Buddhism and made nominal Buddhists more receptive to new ideas. VOL 10: 3 JULY 1993 148 The Tibetan Buddhist World

TABLE 2: List of Selected Tibetan Buddhist Peoples

To qualify as “Tibetan Buddhist”, a people must have Tibetan Buddhist shrines, temples, village priests, monks or monasteries. Peoples are listed by country, and groups living in more than one country may be listed more than once. Some listed groups follow more than one religion (e.g. Naxi). There are unresolved questions about the status of several listed and unlisted groups. Principal group locations are listed in parentheses.

1. Russian Federation 5. Bhutan

101. Buryats (Republic of Buryatia) 501. Ngalops (western Bhutan) 102. Kalmyks (Republic of Kalmykia) 502. Khengpas (central Bhutan) 103. Tuvans (Tuva) 503. Sharshops (eastern Bhutan)

504. Mangdipas (Tongsa district) 2. Mongolia 505. Gongdupas (Mongar district) 201. Mongols (entire country) 506. Tsalipa (Mongar district) 202. Buryats (northern Mongolia) 507. Bramis (near Tashigang) 203. Ewenki (Selenge Aimag) 508. Brokpas (near Tashigang) 204. Tuvans (Hovsgol and Hovd Aimags) 509. Laya people (Laya) 510. Tibetans in Bhutan (Bumthang, Tongsa, others) 3. China 511. Sherpas (Chirang district) 512. Tamangs (Samchi district) 301. Tibetans (Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Qinghai, Gansu) 513. Lepchas (Samchi district) 302. Mongols (Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Qinghai, Gansu) 6. India 303. Yugurs (Xinjiang and Gansu) 304. Tu (Qinghai) 305. Daur (Heilongjiang, Xinjiang) 601. Tibetans (widely distributed in camps) 306. Naxi – Mosuo subgroup (Yunnan) 602. Ladakhis (Jammu and Kashmir state) 307. Monpa or Menpa (Tibet) 603. Purikpas (Jammu and Kashmir state) 308. Pumi (Yunnan) 604. Lahulis (Himachal Pradesh) 309. Jyarong (Sichuan) 605. Spitis (Himachal Pradesh) 310. Nu (Yunnan) 606. Jads (northwestern Uttar Pradesh) 311. “Pingwu Tibetans” or Xifan (Sichuan) 607. Garwhalis (northwestern Uttar Pradesh) 312. Qiang (Sichuan) 608. Lepchas (Sikkim, ) 313. Ewenki (Inner Mongolia) 609. Sherpas (West Bengal) 610. Drukpas (various subgroups) 4. Nepal 611. Monpas (Arunachal Pradesh) 401. Sherpas (Solu Khumbu) 612. Sherdukpens (Arunachal Pradesh) 402. Lhomis (E. Nepal) 613. Membas (Arunachal Pradesh) 403. Lopa (Mustang) 614. Khampas (Arunachal Pradesh) 404. Dolpopas (Dolpo) 615. Ngas (Arunachal Pradesh) 405. Larkepas (Larkye district) 616. Tamangs (West Bengal, elsewhere) 406. Tibetans 407. Manangi Gurungs (Manang) 408. Chuntel people (Central Nepal) 409. unclassified groups (living in Mustang, Manang, Humla, Olangchungola, Muktinath, etc.) 410. Tamangs (mixed with Hinduism) 411. Gurungs (certain subgroups only) 412. Helambu “Sherpas” (Langtang valley) 413. Thakalis (certain subgroups only)

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