Leaflet No.7/ 2016

The Republic of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation Forest Department

Assessment on Stand Structure and Naturally Growth of Santalum album Linn.

Dr. Chaw Chaw Sein, Staff Officer Htike San Soe, Range Officer Forest Research Institute

December, 2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS

i Abstract ii 1 Introduction 1 2 Objectives 1 3 Literature Review 1 3.1 Botanical Description 1 3.2 Ecology 2 3.3 Species Distribution 3 3.4 Description 4 3.5 Tree Management 4 3.5.1 Germplasm Management 4 3.5.2 Pest and Diseases 5 3.6 Uses 5 3.7 Services 5 3.8 Conservation status of sandalwood species 6 4 Materials and Methods 6 4.1 Study Site 6 4.2 Soil Type 7 4.3 Climatic data of the study area 7 4.4 Methodology 8 5 Results and Discussions 8 5.1 Diameter Distribution 8 5.2 Relationship between Diameter and Height 11 5.3 Volume Production 13 5.4 Relationship between single tree volume and basal area 13 5.5 Estimation of biomass 15 Conclusion and Recommendations 15 7 Acknowledgements

( ) ( )

Assessment on Stand Structure and Naturally Growth of Santalum album Linn.

Dr. Chaw ChawSein, Staff Officer Daw Htike San Soe, Range Officer

Abstract

Nowadays, Santalum album can be found not only natural but also planed across the countrywide of Myanmar. Especially, it can be found naturally in the hilly areas of around 1000 m. above sea-level. It is economically important species for oil extraction from heartwood. There is no research about the Santalum album in Myanmar. The present study assesses the structure and natural growth of Santalum album in the Taunglaylone reserved forest in Southern Shan State.

Key word: Research, Southern Shan State, TaungLaylone Reserved Forest, important species

Assessment on Stand Structure and Naturally Growth of Santalum album Linn.

1. Introduction

Sandalwood is a commercially and culturally important plant species belonging to the family Santalaceae and the genus Santalum. Sandalwood oil extracted from the heartwood has been used for perfumery, medicinal, religious and cultural purposes over centuries of years. In addition to oil, the wood and its powder are used for religious, cultural and medicinal purposes especially in the Asian and Arab regions. There are around 18 sandalwood species belonging to the genus Santalum which are; S.freycinetianum, S. haleakalae, S. ellipticum, S. peniculatum, S. pyrularium, S. involutum, S. boninese, S.insulare, S. austrocaledonicum, S. yasi, S. macgregorii, S. accuminatum, S. murrayanum, S. obtusifolium,S. lanceolatum, S. fernandezianum, S. salicifolium and S. spicatum. All the sandalwood species are identified as obligate wood hemi-parasites which means they absorb certain nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates from the host trees via root connections called haustoria (Ananthapadmanabha, H.S. 2012). The main reason for the economic and cultural value of sandalwood is the oil contained in the sandalwood timber, mainly in the heartwood. Heartwood oil content varies, however, widely between species and even within species. S. album known as Indian sandalwood is renowned for its oil, which is highly rated for its sweet, fragrant, persistent aroma and the fixative property which is highly demanded by the perfume industry. Due to the high value of oil and timber, S. album has been central among all sandalwood species in the aspect of research. Nowadays, S. album could be found not only as natural but also as planted among the country wide of Myanmar. Sandalwood is economically valuable especially for the extraction of oil from the heartwood. Therefore, research about the investigation of the stand structure and productivity before the extraction is necessary.

2. Objectives

(1) To predict the stand structure of natural Santalum album Linn. (2) To estimate the productivity and biomass of Santalum album Linn.

3. Literature Review 3.1 Botanical Description

Santalum album is a small evergreen tree that grows to 4 m in Australia, but in India it is much larger and can grow to a height of 20 m; girth of up to 2.4 m, with slender drooping branchlets. Bark is tight, dark brown, reddish, dark grey or nearly black, smooth in young trees, rough with deep vertical cracks in older trees, red inside. Leaves thin, usually opposite, ovate or ovate elliptical, 3-8 x 3-5 cm, glabrous and shining green above, glaucous and slightly paler beneath; tip rounded or pointed; stalk grooved, 5-15 cm long; venation noticeably reticulate. Flowers purplish-brown, small, straw coloured, reddish, green or violet, about 4-6 mm long, up to 6 in small terminal or axillary clusters, unscented in axillary or terminal, paniculate cyme.

Fruit a globose, fleshy drupe; red, purple to black when ripe, about 1 cm in diameter, with hard ribbed endocarp and crowned with a scar, almost stalkless, smooth, single seeded. The generic name is derived from the Greek ‘santalon’ meaning ‘sandalwood’, and the species name from the Latin ‘albus’ meaning ‘white’, in allusion to the bark (Doan, 1997).

3.2 Biology

Flower panicles appear from March to April in India, and fruits ripen in the cold season; in Australia flowers appear in December to January and also June to August, and mature fruit is available from June to September. The species is spread rapidly through seed dispersal by birds, which feed on the outer fleshy pericarp. Viable seed production occurs when the tree is 5 years old.

3.3 Ecology

S. album is indigenous to the tropical belt of the Indian peninsula, eastern Indonesia and northern Australia. There is still debate as to whether S. album is endemic to Australia or was introduced by fishermen or birds from eastern Indonesia centuries ago. The main distribution is in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba. The principal sandal tracts are most parts of Karnataka and adjoining districts of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in India. The species is mostly found in dry deciduous and scrub forests in this region. The vegetation type is a typical monsoon vine thicket growing on pure sand. It has been recorded on coastal sand dunes immediately above the normal high water mark and close to the mangroves. It also grows on low lateritic cliffs above the beach. It is a partial parasite that attaches to the roots of other trees, it needs ‘nurse’ species in the area of planting out. Host plants that fix nitrogen and provide light shade are preferred. Sennasiamea is good for this, and a most probable natural host is Drypeteslasiogyna, observed to be the most prolific species in the vicinity of S. album. It does not tolerate frost or waterlogging, but is drought-hardy and is a light demander in sapling and later stages. Prolonged drought and fire kill trees (Gupta, R.K, 1992)

3.4 Species Distribution

The global distribution of the sandal family is between 30 degrees N and 40 degrees S from Indonesia in West to Juan Fernandez Island in the north to New Zealand in the South. These species are mainly found in India, Indonesia, Australia, Timor, Hawaii etc. Out of the 18 species mentioned above, about 6 species can be found in Hawaii Islands which shows the highest sandalwood diversity.

Altitude: 600-1 200 m, Mean annual temperature: 2-38 ˚ C, Mean annual rainfall: 450-3 000 mm Soil type:S. album grows in a wide range of soils but is most common in sandy or rocky red soil zones. The species is not found on black soil but luxuriant growth is noticeable in moist soils such as garden loam and well-drained deep alluvium. It also grows on ferruginous loam overlying metamorphic rocks, chiefly gneiss is considered the best and trees avoid calcareous

situations. On shallow stony and gravely soils, growth is poor. It is not exacting to soil depth. On Timor it grows on very stony, grey clay and red loam soils derived from coral parent material, well-drained and having a pH of 8-9. In India it usually grows on free draining red loams with a pH of 6-6.5, and occasionally on sandy soils associated with laterites (UNCCD, 2005).

Figure (1) World Distribution of Santalum album

3.5 Description

The plant was mainly exploited for fragrant sandalwood oil obtained by steam distillation.A small evergreen glabrous tree with slender drooping branches the sapwood white and odorless. The heartwood yellowish brown strongly scented. Leaves of dimension 3.8 – 6.3 by 1.6 to 3.2 cm; are elliptic lanceolate, subacute glabrous, and entire thin base acute; petioles 1 – 1.3 cmlong slender flowers, brownish purple induorous, in terminal and auxiliary paniculate cymes shorter than leaves. Perianthcampanulated limb of 4, valvate triangular segments stamens 4, exerted, alternating with 4 rounded obtuse scales. Drupe globoseand having a diameter of 1.3cm diam. Purple black; endocarp hardribbed fruit conelaed about size of pea, spherical crowned by rim like remains ofperianth tube, smooth, rather flesh, nearly black, seed solitary.

3.6 Tree Management

The yield of the heartwood varies according to age and locality. As a rule of thumb, each tree adds 1 kg of heartwood to its weight each year after the age of 15 years. On deep rich soils in moist areas, trees grow luxuriantly but the heartwood formation is slow and the

oil content is low, while the slower-growing trees on difficult sites at elevations between 600- 900 m and in rainfall zones of 500-1000 mm develop maximum heartwood with high oil content. Girth increments for S. album in India are 1-1.3 cm/year in natural stands and up to 5 cm annually in cultivated areas. Between trees variation in heartwood content and oil yields is high, indicating considerable scope for selection and breeding. Seedlings require protection from wild animals and cattle; nurse bushes provide such protection, and also protect them from excessive heat of the sun, which can kill the tender seedlings in the hot summer months. It is desirable not to clean weed all round the sandal seedlings, as the roots form historical connections with adjoining weed growth. Spacing adopted for raising pure plantations is 3 x3 m - 5 x 5 m. Plantations should strictly be protected from fire. Trees attain exploitable stage (over 15 cm diameter at breast height) in about 30 years, yielding about 50 kg of heartwood, and attain 25 cm dbh in 40 years; such a well-grown tree, including the roots, can yield over 250 kg of scented heartwood. Young sandal trees coppice well. Whole tree harvesting is employed, and both living and dead trees are utilized (Hong, TD, 1996).

3.6.1 Germplasm Management

Good seed is reported from trees over 20 years of age. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; no loss in viability after 2 years storage at room temperature (seed longevity declines rapidly at room temperature); viability is reduced from 90-15% after 3 years storage at 7 ˚C with 30-45% r.h. Seeds tolerate desiccation to 2% mc, and no loss in viability is observed after 16 months hermetic storage at 4 ˚C with 3-10% mc. On average there are 4 300-6 800 seeds/kg.

3.6.2 Pest and Diseases

Spike disease that shortens the internodes, reduces the leaf size, kills haustoria, blocks vascular tissue and eventually kills trees, is a serious pathogen in India. Nursery pests include pathogenic fungi, Fusarium and Phytophthora and nematodes. A wide range of insect pests is reported on this species in India.

3.7 Uses

Food: Fruits are edible. Fodder: Trees are sometimes lopped for fodder; the foliage of S. album is palatable to grazing animals such as rabbits, sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, horses and camels. Fuel: The wood has been used as a fuel but is generally considered too valuable for this purpose. Timber:S. album is mainly grown for its timber, which weighs 870 kg/cubic m, is durable and strong. Its close grained heartwood is used for ornamental and carving work. Tannin or dyestuff: The bark contains about 12-14% tannin and has good potential in the tanning industry. Seeds yield oil that can be used in the manufacture of paint.

Essential oil: A valuable oil, ‘the sandal oil’, is distilled from the heartwood (yield varies from 4-10%) and is used in perfumery, soap making and medicines. The roots contain maximum quantity of oil and hence are more valuable. Other products: Powder from the heartwood is used to make incense sticks, burnt as perfumes in houses and temples, or is ground into a paste and used as a cosmetic ( Perry, L.M1990).

3.8 Services

Shade or shelter: Branches grow densely and are capable of intercepting high wind velocity, thus protecting crops. Soil improver: Leaves make good green manure. Ornamental: Sandal tree is planted in house gardens as an ornamental. Boundary or barrier or support: Trees can be planted along hedges and field boundaries. Intercropping:S. album can be profitably raised along with other trees near or on the farm, thereby providing farmers with additional income.

3.9 Conservation status of sandalwood species

Sandalwood is recognized worldwide as one of the most valuable commercial tree species. Due to the over harvesting from the wild and lack of sufficient plantation establishment, sandalwood resource declined worldwide from the past in rapid manner. For example, recent data on production of sandalwood in India show a declining trend. India’s sandalwood production dropped from 4,000 MT heartwood peryear in the 1950s to a mere 500 MT in 2007 as against the global annual demand of about 5,000 to 6,000MT wood and around 100 to 120 MT oil (Dhanya et al, 2010). In addition to that, grazing and land conversion to agriculture crops such as sugar cane and pine apple have caused the sandalwood resource decline especially in Australia and Hawaii. According to Harbaugh (2008), one sandalwood species has already been extinct due to over harvesting and many of others like S. haleakeleare in highly threatened situation. Due to the facts mentioned above, the governments like Australia, Hawaii, India, New Caledonia, and Sri Lanka have taken actions against illegal harvesting and formulated rigid policies in conservation of the sandalwood resources. Joining with the governments, different organizations such as International Sandalwood Foundation operated from United States, Iliahi Foundation of Sandalwood of Hawaii promote research and take actions in conservation of sandalwood species in the world. India has realised the value of sandalwood trade and at the same time, to protect the wild grown sandal wood resources, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu provinces of India changed the existing policies topromote sandalwood growing in private lands. Realising the flaws in sandal policy which endangered thespecies, Government of Karnataka came up with amendment to Karnataka Forest Act in 2001 to encourage private domestication of sandalwood as means to conserve and enhance the status of this resource (Dhanya et al, 2010). The amendment gave landowners legal right to trees on their land andmade them eligible to receive full value on extraction. Shortly, Tamil Nadu followed the same path

andwith the Tamil Nadu Forest (Amendment) Act of 1998 in 2002, the landowners were given the right to trees (Dhanya et al, 2010).

4. Materials and Methods

4.1 Study Site

The study area is situated in the Southern Shan Region, Taunggyi Township, Taung Lay Lone Reserved Forest. It is situated between coordinates of 20°47′N 97°02′E,at an elevation of 4,712 feet (1,436 m) above sea level. In this research station, many indigenous and exotic pine plantations were established since 1986.Moreover, natural Santalum album is also found in the Taung Lay lone Reserved Forest.

4.2 Soil Type

The Shan Plateau has an average elevation of about 914 m to 1,219 m above sea- level, has high mountain ranges. Red earths occur at altitudes around 1000 m. above sea-level and mountain red earths are found at relatively higher altitudes. The soil covers the humus content, between 2 and 4% in the light red earths and may be up to 8% in dark red earths. The pHvalue is between 6 and 7.

4.3 Climatic data of the study area

The study area has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification), with subtropical highland climate influence depending on their isotherm they use. There is a winter dry-season (December–March) and a summer wet-season (April–November). Temperatures are warm throughout the year; the winter months (December–February) are milder but the nights can be quite cool.

Table (1) Climatic Data of the study area

Year Average Average Temperature˚C Rainfall(mm) 2006 27.0 1682 2007 27.3 1673 2008 27.5 1660 2009 28.5 1658 2010 28.7 1620 2011 30.0 1546 2012 31.1 1447 2013 30.8 1014 2014 31.1 1008 2015 31.05 828

1800 32

1600 31

1400 30

C ) C

1200 ˚ 29 1000 28 800 27

600 Rainfall (mm) Rainfall 26 400 ( Temperature 200 25 0 24

Year

Figure (2 ) Yearly average temperature and rainfall of the study area

4.3 Methodology

All the trees having a diameter of above 3 cm at breast height of 4´6", a total of 3069 trees were measured. At the same time the height of all the trees were also measured. Forest Inventory of 100% complete enumeration was used for the field work. The data were analyzed by Statistica Software.

5. Results and Discussions 5.1 Diameter Distribution

The diameter distribution of a stand is required to construct stand tables, estimate the total or merchantable stand volume and estimate the volume of a wide range of products, which are recovered from a stand of a given mean diameter and mean height (Van Laar and Akça, 1997). In a forest stand, the tree diameter is easy to measure. In both natural and plantation forests, the diameter distribution of trees is a useful expedient for describing forest structureand applying different forestry calculations (Loetschet al., 1973). There are numerous functions accessible to exemplify diameter distributions. The present used normal diameter distribution of statical software and the result is as shown in figure (3).

900

800

700

600

500

400

No fo Trees

300

200

100

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 DBH (cm) Figure (3) Diameter Distribution of Santalum album

Table ( 2 ) Growth in Diameter and Height

DBH (cm) Height (m) Average 16.59 3.92 Minimum 72.22 9.76 Maximum 3.14 0.3

1800 1600 1400

1200 1000 800

No of Trees of No 600 400 200 0 0-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75 DBH Class

Figure (4) Horizontal distribution of trees in the study area by DBH class

Individual tree by diameter class is given in Figure (3). About 46.7 % of trees are in DBH class between 0-5cm, 40.5% are 16-30 cm, 11% are 31-45 cm, 1.6% are 46-60 cm and 0. 2% exceeds 60 cm. Horizontal distribution of the forest, based on all trees with a DBH≥3cm are shown in Figure (4). Most of which showed the individual trees accumulated in the lower diameter classes. The number of trees decreases from lower diameter classes to higher diameter classes sharply.

1800 1600 1400

1200 1000 800

No of Trees of No 600 400 200 0 0-2.0 2.1-4.0 4.1-6.0 6.1-8.0 Height Class (m)

Figure (5) Vertical distribution of trees in the study area by Height class

Vertical distribution of the forest follows the same trend as the Horizontal distribution (Figure 8.3). Vertical distribution of the forest also concentrated between 2.1-4.0 cm class. The number of trees decreases with increasing height classes. The presence of many original species, such as Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea., Leucaena lucocephala, Michelia champaca, Celtis cinnamomea, Dalbergia ovate, Dalbergia cultrate, Dalbergia fiscal, Lagerstroemia villosa show that this forest was disturbed in the past and is still at an early stage in succession.

5.2 Relationship between Diameter and Height

The measurement of tree height can be complicated due to the visibility of the accurate tip of the tree. Also, it is somewhat hard to observe the base of a tree in a stand with very dense undergrowth, so it becomes necessary to clear out the sampling area before measurements are made. In any case, the relationship between the diameter and height of trees is vital to estimate the respective height by measuring the dbh. Stout and Shumway (1982) developed a method to estimate site quality by means of the height and diameter of dominant and codominant trees, many additional models have been applied to clarify the relationship between diameter and height. For example, Wenket al. (1990) have utilized 30 different functions in attempt to accurately determine the relationship between diameter and height. The present study tested for three models and among them the Prodan model gave as

the best fits for the selected species based on the results of the coefficient of determination (r2). Table (3) Models tested for diameter-height relationship

H=a+b* lb(dbh) Log linear H = a+b/dbh Inverse H= 1.3+(d/a+b*d+c*d^2) Prodan 35

30

25

20

Height (ft) 15

10

5

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 DBH (inch)

Figure (6) Diameter-height curves fitted by the Prodan model for Santalum album

Table (4) Parameters and r2 of diameter–height relation

Model A B C R2 Log linear 1.029114 1.142160 0.70 Inverse 4.673 7.51 0.56 Prodan 0.061400 2.777099 -16.3885 0.75

By seeing figure (6), it was observed that the less good height performance of its respective dbh was likely due to undergrowth because these areas receive sufficient precipitation both by rainfall and fog interception. And also, the poor performance is due to the slow growth of the trees.

5.3 Volume Production

In forestry, it is indispensable to estimate the volume of a stand based on variables measured in the field. Since volume production is usually the growth parameter of greatest interest to the forest manager, an evaluation of site productivity in terms of volume is

desirable (Sammi, 1965). There are a number of practical approaches to determine stand volume. It can be calculated by means of other correlated variables such as basal area, tree height, form factor and sometimes stand age. These estimates can also assist with financial analysis and the tax implications of a timber harvest. There are two main approaches to estimate volume production. The first one is by stem analysis, wherein calculations are derived from the segmented stems and the second one is by estimation via obtainable volume equations or volume tables. The dbh, height and form factor are the parameters required for the basic volume estimation of a single tree. The stem mass can be stated either in volume or in weight, depending on the final product. Likewise, there are two options for measurement of tree height: total height and merchantable height. The normally used measures of stem form (form factor)are fractions of volume of a tree related to a pillar with diameter equal to tree dbh. Thevolume equation may be commonly written as follows:

V = f (D,H,F) Where V= Stem Volume D= Stem diameter at breast height H= Stem Height F= Stem Form factor

5.4 Relationship between single tree volume and basal area

The relationship between volume and basal area enables the estimation of individual tree volume by measuring only the dbh (basal area). It is impossible to assess all variables for every tree in each sample plot due to the limitation of time and money. In both natural forests and plantations, dbh measurements can be attained at low cost. It is difficult to measure the heights of large dense stands. In forest management, dbh measurement is a regular practice, allometric regression was applied to fit the following equation for selected species.

V =A * gB

Where V= Individual tree volume, up to top diameter 5 cm (m3) g= Individual tree basal area (m2) Aand B = Intercept and regression coefficient

Table (5) Parameter values for the relationship between volume and basal area of individual trees

Parameters Value Α 9.7640 Β 1.2361 R2 0.96

The relationship between volume and basal area of individual trees using the above equation areshown in figure (7) and the parameters are given in table (5)

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

)

3 2.5

2.0

Volume (m 1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

2 BA (m ) Figure (7) The relationship between volume and basal area of individual trees

Table ( 8) Productivity of Santalum album

Total BA (m2) 105.73 BA/ha (m2) 37.3 Total Volume (m3) 271.78

Volume/ha(m3) 95.8

It was observed that the total basal area is 105.73 m2 and basal area per heactre is 37.3 m2/ha productivity was 543.56 m3 and the total productivity per heactre was 191.8 m3/ha.

5.5 Estimation of Biomass

Biomass is defined as the total amount of living organic matter in trees and expressed in tones per hectare. Above ground biomass may be defined as a combination of all tree components above ground level and is important in estimating the productivity of a forest. Biomass of Santalum album trees were calculated using the following formula. B = 0.0167x dbh2.46 x bwd0.322 where B = tree biomass (kg) dbh = diameter at 1.3m height (cm) bwd = basic wood density (kgm-3) bwd of Santalum album is 600 kg m-3 (Win Kyi (1) 1993) By using the above equation the total above ground biomass was observed 3.53 ton per hectare.

6. Conclusion and Recommendation

This study was the first sandal wood population survey of the country to study stand structure and productivity. Since then, the species is greatly threatened due to biotic/abiotic factors and human interference. Hence, the extent of area, structure and distribution at different locations is very much altered in Myanmar. The prices of sandal heartwood and oil have gone alarmingly high due to severe reduction in its resource base. Abundant regeneration of the species has been observed in the areas where effective protection measures have taken place. The present study shows that the height growth is increased on the slope than flat situation at the same diameter. The number of trees decreases from lower diameter classes to higher diameter classes sharply. With increasing height classes, the number of trees decreases. In conclusion, the naturally growth of Santalum album in the Taung Lay Lone reserved forest was observed a basal area of 37.3 m2/ha, productivity of 95.83 m3/ha and biomass of 3.53 tons /ha. The efforts aimed at conserving the genetic resources of sandalwood suffer due to lack of precise information on the area coverage, present status, growth, productivity, biomass and diameter size class distribution. Hence the present study will be beneficial for the conservation and extraction of Sandalum album. Moreover, there are many Santalum album plantations in Myanmar and as a consequence the comparison between the growth, productivity and biomass of the naturally growth and plantation of these species should be conducted. The conservation, propagation and improvement strategies also need to be given utmost priority to save this precious tree resource from further depletion.

7. Acknowledgements

I am greatly indebted to Mr.KyawKyawLwin, Deputy Director General of Forest Department and Dr. Thaung Naing Oo, Director of Forest Research Institute for granting us the opportunity to carry out this study. I am very much grateful to Ms. Htike San Soe, Range Officer and Mr Win Naing, Forest Ranger, Forest Research Institute for the coordination of the field works in the Taunglaylone Reserved station. I highly appreciate to all staffs from the Taunglaylone Reserved Forest for accompanying and gathering data to carry out the present study. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents for their patience, encouragement and love throughout my forester life.

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