Metal Recycling – Opportunities, Limits, Infrastructure

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Assessing Mineral Resources in Society: Metal Recycling Opportunities, Limits, Infrastructure AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2013 von Blottnitz, University Cape Town, South Africa; Patrick Editor: International Resource Panel, Working Group on the Waeger, EMPA, Switzerland; Philippe Wavrer, BRGM, France; Global Metal Flows Rolf Widmer, EMPA, Switzerland; Patrick Wollants, Leuven University, Belgium and Guomei Zhou, Ministry of Environmen- This summary booklet was prepared by M. Buchert, C. Merz (both tal Protection, China. Öko-Institut e. V.) and M. Reuter. We would like to thank Christian Hudson and Marinus Kluijver Tomas Marques, UNEP and Philip Strothmann supervised the for providing scientific and English editorial support for the full preparation of this summary booklet and provided valuable report. input and comments. Photos: istockphoto.de: © Harrie Marinus (cover_1, p. 3), © Jon- Thanks go to Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker as co-chair of the ceclearvision (cover_2), © Milos Peric (cover_3), © JDNY59 Resource Panel and Thomas E. Graedel as leader of the Global (cover_4), © Marco Hegener (cover_5); © zora zhuang (p. 7_1), © Metal Flows Working Group, the members of the Resource Morton Photographic (p. 7_3), © JohnnyG (p. 7_4), Sergei Devy- Panel and the Steering Committee for fruitful discussions. atkin (p. 9_6), © deepblue4you (p. 10), © iSci (p. 12_1), © assalve Lead author of the report metal recycling – opportunities, (p. 12_2), © urbancow (p. 13), © ugur bariskan (p. 14), © Jörg limits, infrastructure: Markus Reuter Reimann (p. 15), © Rob Belknap (p. 18), © Caboclin (p. 19_1), © Report authors: Markus Reuter, Outotec Oyj, Finland and Aalto Dejan Ristovski (p. 19_2), © studio9 (p. 19_3), © Ivan Stevanovic University, Finland; Christian Hudson, DIW, Germany; Antoi- (p. 22_1), © Richard Clark (p. 22_2), © Pete Saloutos (p. 23), © nette van Schaik, MARAS, Netherlands; Kari Heiskanen, Aalto sturti (p. 24_1), © Irochka (p. 24_3, p. 28_3), © Stefanie Angele University, Finland; Christina Meskers, Umicore, Belgium and (p. 24_4). Öko-Institut e. V. (p. 9_3, p. 9_4, p. 9_5, p. 11_2, p. 11_3, Christian Hagelüken, Umicore, Germany. p. 11_4). photocase.de: © Norman Bates (p. 9_1). pixelio.de: © Marcus Stark (p. 2), © Oliver Moosdorf (p. 7_2). Fotolia.com: Contributors (Alphabetical): Helmut Antrekowitsch, Univer- © HandmadePictures (p. 16), © Stefanie Angele (p. 24_3), © To- sity Leoben, Austria; Diran Apelian, WPI, USA; Bo Bjorkman, bif82 (p. 31). Shutterstock.de © Tobias Machhaus (p. 26). Umicore Luleå University of Technology, Sweden; Bart Blanpain, Leuven Precious Metals Refining (p. 22_3, p. 24_2, p. 28_1). University, Belgium; Françoise Bodenan, BRGM, France; Mieke Campforts, Umicore, Belgium; Amélia Enríquez, UNEP, Brazil; Design and creativ concept: www.3fdesign.de Bernd Friedrich RWTH Aachen, Germany; Stefan Gössling- Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation Reisemann, University of Bremen, Germany; Daniel Froelich, of the material in this publication do not imply the expression ENSAM, Chambéry, France; Tom Jones, Leuven University, of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Belgium; Yasushi Kondo, Waseda University, Japan; Jinhui Li Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any Tsinghua University, China; Hans-Rainer Lotz, Volkswagen, country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning Germany; Stefan Luidold, University Leoben, Austria; Elisabeth delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Moreover, the views Maris, ENSAM, Chambery, France, Kazuyo Matsubae, Tohoku expressed do not necessarily represent the decisionor the University, Japan; Nourredine Menad, BRGM, France; Shinsuke stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, Murakami, Tokyo University, Japan; Kenichi Nakajima, NIES, nor does citing of trade names or commercial processes con- Japan; Tetsuya Nagasaka, Tohoku University, Japan; Shinichiro stitute endorsement. Nakamura, Waseda University, Japan; Sheraz Neffati, ICDA, ISBN: 978-92-807-3267-2 France; Shuji Owada, Waseda University, Japan; Jim Petrie, University of Cape Town, South Africa; Georg Rombach, Hydro Job Number: DTI/1535/PA Aluminium, Germany; Susanne Rotter, University of Berlin, Ger- UNEP promotes environmentally sound practices globally and many; Mathias Schluep, EMPA, Switzerland, Guido Sonnemann, in its own activities. This publication is printed on FSC-certified University of Bordeaux, France, Philip Strothmann, UNEP, paper with 80 % recycled fibre, using eco-friendly practices. Our France; Pia Tanskanen, Nokia, Finland; Karel van Acker, Leuven distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP’s carbon footprint. University, Belgium; Jacques Villeneuve, BRGM, France; Harro 2 The following is an excerpt of the Report 2b of the Global Metal Flows Working Group

Metal Recycling Opportunities, Limits, Infrastructure

The full Report is available on CD-ROM (available inside the back page of this summary booklet).

3 PrefacePreface

Increasing demand has revealed that metals any stage of recycling limits performance, are a priority for decoupling economic growth and shows as well that basic thermodynam- from resource use and environmental deg- ic, technological, and economic limitations radation. Metal recycling is increasingly pro- may prevent metallurgical metal recovery for moted as an effective decoupling approach, some combinations of metals and materials. but there is little systemic information avail- The complementary Material-Centric recy- able regarding recycling performance, and cling view point, as presented in the first re- still less on the true recycling rates that are port, has the capability to answer the ques- possible and on how to improve recycling tion of how much is recycled, but does not systems. The former topic was the subject of pretend to answer why and what should be an earlier report from the International Re- done to improve recycling of metals. This source Panel. The present report address- new report sheds light on how to improve the es the second topic, discussing the benefits recovery of all metals, but especially those and necessity of approaching recycling from critical technology elements that were shown products by considering them as complex to have low recycling rates. It presents a “designer minerals”. physics-based approach to Design for Recy- This Product-Centric approach therefore cling and for Resource Efficiency, as well as takes account of the complexities of mod- for estimating opportunities and limits of re- ern products (often much more complex than cycling. These techniques can aid decision- geological minerals), and the ways in which makers in arriving at improved recycling ap- non-traditional mixtures of elements are now proaches. common. The approach gains much useful perspective from experience in classical min- Prof. Ernst U. von Weizsäcker erals and metallurgical processing. Co-Chair of the International Resource Panel Modern technology systems require not only efficient End-of-Life collection of products Prof. Thomas E. Graedel but also effective sorting after collection and an optimum suite of physical separa- Leader of the Global Metal Flows Working Group tion, modern metallurgical technologies, and integrated infrastructure for an economically viable recovery of metals from sorted Prof. Markus Reuter recyclates. The report shows how failure at Lead Author

4 PrefacePreface

The challenge of sustainable development at products to the recycling and collection indus- the beginning of the 21st century has become try to the consumers. As recycling is primarily a systemic one, with environmental, social an economic industrial activity, economic driv- and economic dimensions on an equal footing. ers must align with long-term economic goals, UNEP and the UNEP-hosted International Re- such as conserving critical metal resources for source Panel consider that our contributions future applications, even if their recovery may also need to be systemic, for example through be currently uneconomic. the promotion of resource efficiency, improved Getting all stakeholders on board is crucial if materials recycling and life-cycle thinking. we want to meet the increasing metal needs This report from the Panel provides unrivalled of the future in a sustainable way. A wide, sys- science to inform policy makers about how temic approach based on the solid under- the recycling of metals can be optimized on an standing of the industrial and economic fac- economic and technological basis along prod- tors driving recycling will be needed. Such uct life cycles in the move towards sustainable knowledge base will require coherent regula- metals management. tory frameworks and powerful incentives for The report shows that sustainable metals all stakeholders to participate as we move to- management requires more than improving wards an inclusive, low carbon and resource recycling rates of selected materials. We need efficient global Green Economy. to change the whole mindset on recycling of metals, moving away from a Material-Centric Achim Steiner approach to a Product-Centric approach. Re- UN Under-Secretary General and cycling has become increasingly difficult to- Executive Director UNEP day and much value is lost due to the growing complexity of products and complex interac- tions within recycling systems. This is why the focus needs to be on optimizing the recycling of entire products at their End- of-Life instead of focusing on the individual materials contained in them. Such a transition will depend on the mobilization of everyone in the value chain, from operators in the primary production of metals and metal-containing

5 UNEPUNEP IRP’s IRP’s activities activities on metals on metals

International Resource Panel (IRP) Global Metal Flows Working Group

The International Resource Panel was estab- The International Resource Panel launched the lished in 2007 by UNEP to provide independent, Global Metal Flows Working Group in order to coherent and authoritative scientific assessment contribute to the promotion of the re-use and on the sustainable use of natural resources and recycling of metals and the establishment of a the environmental impacts of resource use over sound, international recycling society. There- the full life cycle. fore it is publishing a series of scientific and authoritative assessment reports on the global By providing up-to-date information and the best flows of metals. The expected results of these science available, the International Resource include identification of potentials for increased Panel contributes to a better understanding of resource efficiency at national and internation- how to decouple human development and eco- al levels. The present booklet summarizes the nomic growth from environmental degradation. findings of Report 2b: Metal Recycling – Oppor- The information contained in the International tunities, Limits, Infrastructure. Resource Panel’s reports is intended to be policy-relevant and support policy framing, policy and programme planning, and enable evaluation and monitoring of policy effectiveness. Relevance of metals for sustainable development

Economic development is deeply linked to the use of metals. The growing demand for metals puts permanent pressure on our resources. Met- als are high-value resources and can in principle be easily re-used and recycled. Re-use and recycling activities of metals on a global scale can contribute to turning waste into resources, thus closing material loops. Expected benefits are reduced environmental impacts of primary metal production, securing of metal availability, as well as reduced metal prices, and promotion of jobs in the related economic sectors.

6 7 ObjectivesObjectives of of the theReport Report

Motivation and objectives new “designed minerals”, i. e. the human-made products. The specific challenge of recycling de- Metal recycling has a long tradition, since peo- signed minerals derives from the fact that they ple realized that it is more resource- and cost- may contain more than 40 elements while geo- efficient than throwing the resources away with logical minerals can be made up of, for example, the waste and starting all over again with mining one main metal and around 15 minor metals. and primary metals production. Until recently, These complex mixtures require a deep under- recycling concentrated on few specific metals, standing of thermodynamics to separate mod- mainly base metals like steel, copper or alumi- ern products into economically viable metal, al- num, as most products were relatively simple. loys, compounds etc. that flow back into prod- Due to increasingly complex, multi-material ucts. It would be clear therefore that product products metal recycling in the 21st century is designers also have a key role to play in efforts becoming a more challenging business. aimed at increasing metal-recycling rates. Previous UNEP reports showed that far too Giving answers on how to increase metal-recy- much valuable metal today is lost because of im- cling rates – and thus resource efficiency – from perfect collection of End-of-Life (EoL)products, both quantity and quality viewpoints mean a real improper recycling practices, or structural defi- challenge. Critical questions revolve around the ciencies within the recycling chain including the amount and composition of recycling inputs, the lack of proper recycling technologies for some required technological infrastructure in a par- metals embedded in certain EoLproducts. ticular region, and worldwide economic realities of recycling. Increase of metal-recycling rates The present summary booklet highlights the following main points: Report 2b of UNEP’s International Resource Panel summarized in this booklet accentuates ■■ Economics of recycling and legislation the current opportunities and limits of metal re- ■■ Recycling and metallurgical infrastructure cycling and envisions the infrastructure needed and technology in order to maximize the recovery of valuable re- ■■ Collection as part of the recycling system sources from waste streams. For this purpose it promotes a Product-Centric approach which ■■ Design for Resource Efficiency (DfRE) takes account of the multi-material composi- ■■ Material and resource efficiency targets tion of modern products and applies the avail- ■■ Education, information, R&D and system & able technological know-how of recovering metals from complex geological minerals to these process simulation 8 Geological Designed Copper Mineral Copper “Mineral”

Chalcopyrite CuFeS2

More than More than 15 Minors e.g. 40 Elements Au, As, Pd, Se, etc. Complexly Linked as Alloys, Compounds etc. for Product Functionality Reasons

Geological Product Design and Material Combina- Material Joined Linkages tions Create New “Minerals” Connections Materials

Product-Centric recycling: application of economically viable technology and methods throughout the recovery chain to extract metals from the complex interlinkages within designed “minerals” i. e. products, gleaning from the deep know-how of recovering metals from complex geological minerals.

9 RecyclingRecycling economics, economics technology and legislation

Policy framework for environmen- The minor metals challenge tally sound recycling Functional product requirements lead to com- Economics, technology and legislation are three plex material mixtures in design, making diffi- core issues of metal recycling. They need to cult the recovery of minor metals. Weight-only be designed in a way that promotes high re- EoLrecycling targets in legislation further ag- cycling rates for many metals simultaneously gravate existing difficulties. Minor metals like so as not to limit the recycling of a metal while palladium and indium are embedded in small another one is maximized. This point is cru- concentrations in million or even billion units cial because the lack of legislation and control of End-of-Life devices like discarded mobile leaves room for actors in the recycling chain to phones, notebooks or cars. Often ending in in- just extract the most valuable components from formal recycling chains, these metals are of- the waste and carelessly discard the rest. Often ten lost. Therefore in the case of minor met- rooted in poverty and in a lack of understanding als effective international arrangements will be of the characteristics of recyclates this behav- required to facilitate transparent cross-border ior causes considerable harm to man and envi- transportation to large central plants which ful- ronment as several of the non-valuable compo- fill the requirements of Best Available Tech- nents contain hazardous substances which re- niques (BAT). Bulk material like steel or alu- quire adequate treatment and disposal. minium fractions dismantled from EoLproducts could be addressed at local level. This could foster for instance the steel and aluminium recycling industry in some African countries. Very often complex EoLproducts are treat- >> Create a global level playing field for ed in an inappropriate way which poses risks all stakeholders to health and environment and loses relevant >> Promote an adequate legislative quantities of material. The main challenges are framework for BAT-based recycling the global establishment of an efficient collection and dismantling/separation infrastructure, >> A metallurgical infrastructure is key knowledge transfer to and appropriate collabo- to metal recycling Policy Messages ration with the informal recycling sectors in developing countries and the creation of new business models for international co-operations.

10 Creation of a level playing field

There is a need to create a level playing field The technology required for each step (collec- within the recycling sector through the inter- tion, pre-processing, recycling) can vary consid- nalization of external costs. In some cases the erably: while for the pre-processing stage care- support of promising recovery solutions is nec- ful manual dismantling offers very high recov- essary even if they are currently not economic ery rates, for the recovery of critical metals from so as to prevent recycling practices which can special metal fractions high-tech and large- harm human health and the environment. scale metallurgical refining plants may be the best solution. These plants are often operated Common international standards have to be de- by companies with large experience in metallur- fined and to be agreed upon for pre-treatment gy of primary as well as secondary material. and refining processes/plants. This helps stakeholders in the recycling system to operate on a Concerning the collection of waste by private or ‘best practice’ basis, along social, environmen- public operators economic incentives are need- tal, technological and economic considerations. ed which guarantee that all components arriv- In this regard, the design ing in the waste streams are collected and pro- >> Policy and regulations of policies and regulations cessed to the next stages in the BAT recycling aimed at improving recycling chain. Measures include extended producer re- must be supported by results must be supported by sponsibility, deposit schemes, and the fair dis- thermodynamics and thermodynamics and realis- tribution of the profits obtained from the recy- realistic economics Policy Messages tic economics. cling of the valuable fractions among all actors in the recycling chain. Promotion of best available techniques (BAT)

In the first place a much wider use of Best Avail- able Techniques (BAT) is necessary to increase metal recovery rates. These BAT should be de- fined as the processes which promise the high- est material efficiency with lower overall environmental impacts along each step of the recycling chain.

11 AdaptiveAdaptive infrastructureinfrastructure and technology

Recycling infrastructure and technology

The nature of today´s products is becoming in- and metallurgical processing infrastructure creasingly complex: to provide the multitude of to produce high quality metals from complex ever new functionalities many different materi- multi-material recyclates. This requires all als are closely combined. The challenge of re- stakeholders in the recycling chain (product de- cycling such products can be illustrated by the signers, collectors and processors) to under- separation of a thoroughly mixed cup of coffee stand the whole system and the respective infra- into its primary components: pure extracted cof- structure to be adaptive to the changing com- fee, water, milk and sugar crystals. position of the EoLproducts. Therefore, expert knowledge is needed to be able to deal with in- The general lines of the appropriate recycling creasing complexity. Moreover, recycling tech- system can be developed following the Prod- nologies need to be flexible and optimally linked uct-Centric approach: based on the holistic view to simultaneously maximize the recovery of vari- of all elements contained in an EoLproduct, it ous and often vastly chemically different, metals maintains and innovates a sophisticated physical and elements.

Taking the multi-material- Product-Centric Approach composition of Initial general question Steel (Fe) modern products How can we use a product as resource? into account, Aluminium (Al) the Product- Centric approach Cobalt (Co) | Nickel (Ni) answers the Precious metals | Copper (Cu) question of how to best recycle Others, e.g. Indium (In) a product in order to achieve EoL Product Pre-treatment Metallurgical Processing maximum resource efficiency. Less waste

12 >> Create the right environment to promote >> Use physics depth to understand the a Product-Centric approach-based recy- metallurgical complexity to create metals cling system from recyclates Policy Messages

Pre-treatment The Metal Wheel

Pre-treatment breaks down complex products The primary metallurgy-derived Metal Wheel of- into components that can be directed into the fers valuable lessons on how to design recycling appropriate recycling streams. Therefore, the systems in order to achieve maximum recovery EoLproducts are separated and sorted mechani- of the different metals. Centered on the EoL- cally. Already at this stage the degree of separa- product at first the main metal components, the tion and sorting determines the possible future so-called carrier metals, are differentiated (see qualities of the recyclate. Suitable dismantling, Figure “Metal Wheel”). Each corresponding slice sorting and robust, adaptive and high-tech ex- in the Metal Wheel represents the complete in- tractive metallurgical (both hydro- and pyromet- frastructure for carrier metal production and allurgy) infrastructure are hence needed to deal refining. During refining operations the carrier with two major developments in product design: metals are recovered while accompanying met- miniaturization and the variability of products als (in the form of alloys, compounds and imper- and their composition. Highly adaptive manual fectly sorted and liberated materials) undergo dismantling and sorting is also an example of different fates: in the best case (green circles) the requirements needed to ensure the needed they are compatible with the carrier metal and flexibility in recycling systems. can be recovered alongside or they are recoverable from other output streams (e. g. dust, slag) in subsequent processing. In the other cases, In analogy to the Recycling and refining depicted with yellow and red circles, the accom- geological minerals processed by The metal fractions leaving pre-treatment are panying metals are mainly lost or only recovered primary met- supplied to the secondary metals industry which for low-quality products like cement. As a criti- allurgy, EoL- recovers the different metal elements or alloys cal example, the processing of copper and pre- products can of economic value. In order to maximize the re- cious metals like platinum group metals, gold be considered covery care has to be taken that the metal mixes and silver in the iron processing route has to be human-made de- entering a specific recycling route have com- avoided by proper sorting as far as possible be- signed minerals. patible characteristics. Only then metallurgical cause there these valuable elements are lost. Thus the recy- processing will succeed in economically sepa- On the other hand, the processing of precious clers of complex rating them. As the characteristics of metals are metals with copper as a carrier allows their re- modern products determined by their physicochemical properties, covery with high rates. increasingly need knowledge of primary metallurgy is an equally the expertise of important requirement for improved recycling metal miners. processes.

13 ExamplesExamples of for carrier carrier metal routes routes

Fe Au Ag W Mn Nb Mo Si l eta M e) er F ri l ( Au Ag Pt Pd Rh Cu Si ar e C e t S Steel recycling route Au Ag Pt Pd Rh FeOx FeOx

Steel, which predominantly consists of iron along with some other alloying elements, is the metal with the largest global volumes and its recycling infrastructure has been established for centuries. Today Au Ag Pt Pd Rh FeOx FeOx up to 90 % ofCu the steel reaching its End-of-Life is recycled. However, various steel incompatible metals through incomplete liberation, mixed recyclates, complex product designs etc., which enter the steel recycling route are not recoverable. While in some cases they still contribute to the functionality of the recycled steel as alloying elements (e. g. silicon, molybdenum, niobium, manganese and tungsten, if they dissolveFe and do not oxidize to slag or volatilize) other elements (e. g. copper or platinum-group metals (PGMs)) are lost and even detrimental to the quality of the recycled product. In very specific PM and PGM recyclingAu processesAg iron can Ptserve as aPd solvent andRh then beCu sent to theSi copper route in which the precious metals are recovered and the small quantity of iron used is lost to slag.

Cu Au Ag Pt Pd Rh FeOx FeOx l eta u) M (C er r ri e ar p Copper recycling route C p o C The physico-chemical properties of copper make it act as a collector for many precious metals (e. g.

gold, silver, platinum, palladium, rhodium) during pyro-metallurgical processing (metal smelting). These metals, e. g. present in complex products and recyclates such as printed wiring boards and electronic components, which have high value but in commercial products generally occur in trace quantities only, are concentrated in the copper phase during smelting and can subsequently be recovered through further hudro- and pyrometallurgical technology. Also nickel can be won back this way after dissolving in the copper and recovered through hydrometallurgical methods. Aluminium, rare earths or lithium accumulate as oxides in the slag and are generally not recovered due to the high related effort. Slags are generated in pyro-metallurgical processes in large volumes and today are mainly used as low- grade products e. g. in road construction. Copper metallurgy is a key for the recycling of various metal mixtures occurring in complex recyclates. Its infrastructure and deep know-how are therefore a prerequi- ste for a sustainable society, as it has the robustness to take care of the recyclates shown on page 9.

14 al et ) M Al2O3 V O r e SiO2 2 5 e F MgO SrO ri ( SrO r l CaO CaO REOs KCl a e WO3 FeOx BaO C CaF2 e TiO ZrO MgO t 2 In O 2 2 3 Al2O3 S Ga O K P Cd 2 3 Na Hg BaO F ZrO2 ThO2 Cl Na REOs Hg Bi Pb TiO2 Ta O Ag P 2 5 As K Nb2O3 Pb Cd Au Sn Zn Ti Sb CaF2 Zn Sb Cr SiO2 Fe Ta Mn Si Br REs Th Mg Ni Nb V Sn Ni Cr Al2O3 Co W Cu B Cu Ti V Nb Al2O3 Au Pd Si Cr Ag Zr Mo Pd Pt Mo Cl SiO2 Pb Rh Sn Si Zn FeOx Pt Al Al Al REs Fe Remelt Ti Th MgO CaO Pyro Steel (BOF&EAF) Refine F Fe Metallurgy Si F/Cl Zr Al Br Mn Remelt Mg CaO FeOx Cl Ni TRIP Steel Hydro Metallurgy Austenitic Remelt K/Na The “Metal Zn P2O5 MgO Fe Li Ni/Cr Hydro&Pyro Wheel”, based on Cr Stainless Steel MnO An metallurgy primary metal- RE AIXy Al2O3 Zn EoL Hydro-Metallurgy Cu Co RLE/Fume lurgy but equally RE(O)s Sb2O3 MgO Product In RE CaXy SiO2 valid for metals In Pb Special Battery Ga/As SrO Cu Pt Smelt Recycling Bi Refine P recycling reflects Ni SiXy CaO Au P Ge Sn Cu/Ni Sn the destina- Smelt/Refine Smelt/Refine Co REOs Ga Sb Au tion of different Pt Cd FeOx Se Th K elements in base- Al2O3 Ag Pd Ag CaO Rh Te Cu Li2O metal minerals Pb REs As Mo SiO 2 FeO Hg Br Co As as a function of x Zn Sb Sb In Bi V2O5 Bi Cd interlinked met- In2O3 F Na Pb ZrO2 TiO2 Sn REOs Ta O SrO Ga2O3 P Zn allurgical process 2 5 Ge MnO Nb O FeOx 2 3 Cl K technology. Each MgO In MgO ZrO2 MnO CaO Nb2O5 In2O3 V2O5 WO3 Al O Ta O

2 3 SiO 2 5 slice represents BaO 2 FeOx TiO2 SiO2

REOs Al2O3

) CaO Cu2O WO3

the complete u ThO2

C NiO

(

e p p

infrastructure for

e i r base or carrier r a C

metal refining.

Essential Carrier Metals. El Mainly Recovered Element.

Metal phase: Dissolves mainly in Carrier Metal if Metallic (Mainly to Pyrometallurgy). El Mainly element in Alloy or Compound in Oxidic Product, not recovered separately, but not detrimental and even possible Compounds mainly recovered from Dust, Slime, Speiss, Slag functionality. (Mainly to Hydrometallurgy). El Mainly Element Lost, not always compatible with Carrier Compounds not recovered from Dust, Slime, Speiss, Slag, but Metal or Product. mainly to Benign Low Value Products. 15 CollectionCollection as part of the recycling system

All steps are relevant tion is hence a crucial issue in order to improve resource efficiency but the establishment of a Recycling is a chain of activities: collection, pre- suitable collection infrastructure still poses chal- processing (separation & sorting), and final pro- lenges, mainly from an economic point of view. cessing (recycling & refining). The overall recov- Additionally, consumer acceptance plays an im- ery efficiency for each material results as the portant role. product of the efficiencies of each step. Thus, its The main metal-containing resources for post- optimization requires the combination of the re- consumer waste are cars, electronic applianc- spective best-performing technologies, both in es, packaging and diverse small metal products, terms of recovery efficiency and environmental e. g. toys or bikes. The main collection options soundness. for these goods are collective municipal or commercial collection, individual producer and re- Collection is key tailer collection, and collection by the informal sector. Charity initiatives, small-scale pilot proj- As collection stands at the beginning of the re- ects, or event-based collection can also contrib- cycling chain it is a prerequisite in order to en- ute to the collection of electrical and electron- able any subsequent activity. Moreover, especially ic equipment waste (WEEE), which in terms of in industrialized countries, it often constitutes a metal recovery constitutes a high-value stream Material-Centric- weak link in the overall recycling chain. Collec- (depending of precious metal content). Recycling-Chain All steps in the recycling chain System Collection Pre-processing Final processing Net yield are relevant for the overall Formal recovery efficiency formal mainly (Europe, integrated – illustration take-back mechanical UNU 2008, 60 % 25 % 95 % smelter 15 % based on the Chancerel system processes example of gold et al. 2009) recycling from printed wiring boards by a formal Informal manual system in Europe individual backyard (India, Keller sorting and 80 % collectors 50 % 50 % leaching 20 % and the informal 2006) dismantling sector in India.

16 CollectionCollection as part of the recycling system

The balance between these collection routes costs and effort and can, in general, be econom- depends on the policies and economics of the ically and environmentally feasible. The opti- different countries. Thus, in OECD-countries mal ranges for segregation are affected by poli- in general the formal sector prevails while cies and collection schemes as well as recycling developing countries have a strong informal technology, economics and metallurgical infra- sector. As an example, in Europe, the con- structure. sumers pay for collection, whereas in devel- In any case, the identification of the suitable oping countries usually the waste collectors waste stream for an EoLproduct requires data pay consumers for their obsolete appliances on its compositional structure. To date, informa- and metal scrap. In the latter case often im- tion on product composition is still incomplete, but it is indispensable for optimizing recycling pressive collection rates are reached because systems with suitable process simulation tools poor people rely on the income generated that map the complete recycling chain. from the valorization of the waste. This shows how strong economic stimulus for collection is a key factor. Quantitative aspects of collection The economics of recycling depend on the avail- Qualitative aspects of collection able quantities reaching the pre-processing and recycling facilities. The supplies, which need to A large variation in the properties of the col- be assured by the appropriate collection sys- lected waste will adversely affect product qual- tems, have to be sufficient in volume and stable ity and recovery, thus increasing losses, during in order to provide economic reliability. the subsequent processing steps. The streams In many developing countries the establishment may even become economically unviable for of a formal sector is hampered by the fact that processing when incompatible materials and collectable waste volumes are insufficient for compounds are mixed. In general products to economic operation because they are recovered be recycled must be separated, liberated, sorted by the informal sector at higher prices. etc. into recyclates streams that can be treated economically in appropriate BAT metallurgical infrastructure. Thus source-segregated collec- >> Enhance availability of information on tion offers the quality that is best suited for the material composition of products subsequent steps if the recyclate mixtures are >> Process metallurgy must be under- compatible with Carrier Metal process metal- stood by all actors

lurgy with a Product-Centric context. However, Policy Messages it is constrained by stream values and collecting 17 CollectionCollection as part of the recycling system

This is possible due to the fact that informal Collection infrastructure recycling practices tend to avoid costs by just extracting the valuable components from the Collection infrastructure can be set up by the waste. However, the leftovers could cause con- authorities, by product manufacturers and re- siderable harm to human beings and environ- tailers (corresponding to their enhanced pro- ment if they are not treated properly. This is why ducer responsibility) or by companies, individu- formal recyclers are obliged to comply with par- als or charities wishing to earn money from the tially costly environmental standards. value in the waste or to reduce environmental Some critical metals, e. g. present in WEEE, are impact. One crucial part for setting up that infra- recoverable at high rates in high-tech indus- structure is the knowledge base, the motivation trial plants. With a view to material efficiency it and the availability of physical infrastructure for is hence desirable that corresponding fractions dealing with separate streams of collected waste. reach these plants which offer BAT for the recy- Another part is the incentive structure: some col- cling of low-concentrated critical metals. How- lectors may act out of ethical or environmental ever, in order to offset high initial investment considerations, but nearly all work because they costs, these plants are often large-scale so that earn money from collection, or face penalties for their supplies need to be sourced from a large failing to collect. pool of countries requiring a concentration to a few global facilities. Collection systems need to be designed in a way which channels all components in the collect- >> Promote the right incentives to collect ed waste streams into the right pre-processing and consequently recycling routes, ensuring in- >> Benefit from existing distribution creased material recovery rates as well as eco- structures for consumer goods to logical harmlessness. design collection schemes Policy Messages

18 19 to source segregation, clear guidance isneed example, to enable theconsumer to contribute need to betransparent andaccessible. Asan opportunities andinfrastructure ofthesystem The keys are convenience andawareness. The of individualscan lead to better recycling. interface: educating andchangingthebehaviour collection isto improve theperformance ofthis become waste. Oneaspectto facilitate increased ers where products leave theirusephaseand the recycling chain,there are billionsofconsum tors onthesidewhere thewaste streams enter logistical challenge. While there are thecollec e. The collection ofconsumer waste (asopposedto behaviour Consumer cling isaglobal issue itneedslocal execution. consumers are established. Thus,even ifrecy nicating, providing incentives andmotivating In different countries different waysofcommu cling. attitudes andmotivate individualstowards recy social mediacan beused to influence personal in the(separated) waste streams. Marketing and products andthecorresponding adequate fate ed concerning thecomposition ofEnd-of-Life g. industrial waste) forms anespecially difficult ------> > > > e. Guarantee convenient collection, towards recycling Increase consumer awareness g. byeasyaccess to collection points

Policy Messages DesignDesign for for Resource Resource Efficiency Efficiency (DfRE)

Recycling starts with product design during mechanical pre-processing. Apart from technical design, economic realities play a cru- Design for Resource Efficiency (DfRE) describes cial role here: if careful dismantling becomes a holistic technology- and economy-driven con- too costly, e. g. because labour costs exceed cept which aims at utilizing the combined capa- the value that can be recovered for the extract- bilities of the production and the complete re- ed components, the lack of economic incen- cycling chain in order to maximize resource ef- tives becomes critical/counter-productive to in- ficiency. It requires a Product-Centric approach creased recycling. which takes into account the complexity of products to allow for the optimized recovery of all elements contained within. As it is impossible to Design for Recycling optimize one factor without considering the oth- Design for Recycling takes into account the ers a lifecycle perspective is required: product physical and chemical realities of metallurgy as designers, as well as collectors and processors well as the technological and economic possibil- of End-of-Life products must be aware of the ities of recycling and refining operations. Based whole system. Modern product design should thereon it tries to avoiding incompatible material consider the complexity of recycling multi-mate- mixes so that the elements contained in the dif- rial products, and avoid designs that hinder re- ferent metal streams can be recovered as pure cycling. This is not always possible because the metals or in alloys by BAT practices to a maxi- primary function of the product will always pre- mum extent. Of course, this approach is equally vail but, if necessary, policy should reinforce this limited by the functionality demands of a prod- point. Moreover, product designers should scru- uct which might dictate that certain metals and tinize their designs within realistic boundaries of materials must be combined. Joints/constructs product functional demands. affect dismantle-ability and therefore material liberation. Linked materials in turn affect their Design for Dismantling respective recovery during process metallurgy.

As one sub-aspect of DfRE Design for Disman- Tools to aid decision making tling aims at designing products so that compatible groupings of metals are easy to disman- Metallurgical realities are concisely reflected by tle so that they can be directed into the correct the Metal Wheel, which indicates the possibili- metallurgical processes. This means, for ex- ties of combined metal recycling, refining and ample, constructing bondings or joints between recovery for various metallic elements. Physics- components in a way that they can be opened based recycling simulation tools capture the ef- 20 software software existing lead to simulated simulated to lead that, in turn, lead lead turn, in that, design infrastructure is is infrastructure to a recyclability arecyclability to index based on on based index product, which which product, environmental environmental efficiency data efficiency compositional for flowsheet flowsheet for metallurgical metallurgical prerequisite. prerequisite. analysis –a analysis Example of of Example processing processing , based on on , based data for a for data resource resource 21 recycling system. DfRE shoulddrive thecreation ofa BAT-based processes from alifecycle perspective. Thus assessments tools which evaluate theproposed interactively withecological (LCA) andeconomic identify BAT operations they needto becoupled data onitscompositional structure. Inorder to lutions andachievable recycling rates basedon given product, thesetools identifyrecycling so hence beusedto assist product design.For a in anunderstandable format, thesetools should ing critical issues andproviding theinformation and separate inrecycling processes. Pinpoint on recycling, basedonhow products break up fects ofdesign/material choices andlinkages Composition Product of allmaterials Detailed composition Design &functionality + Physical Separation Dismantling & qualitiy liberation affect srap Connection andmaterial losses flow sheetcontrols Physics, economics & + - - Recovery Metallurgical recovery tions determine Non-linear interac- mics technology &econo- Thermodynamics, > > > > > > of production andrecycling systems the interactive physics-basedsimulation Set realistic recycling targets basedon ment bymanufacturers Assist theadoptionoflifecycle manage - tion tools sign (CAD) andlinked process simula- sign usingsuitable Computer AidedDe- Support recycling friendly product de- = Index &Rate Recyclability mental impact mines trueenviron- Link to GaBideter- & materials of allelements Sum ofrecovery

Policy Messages Bulk materials (Steel, stainless steel, plastics, glass, copper)

Steel, stainless steel, copper, glass, and plastics make up over 95 % of the mass of EoL devices like washing machines. Electronic components Electronic amount to less than 5 %. Thus under existing, components mass-based recycling targets their recycling is often neglected. However, they contain specialty (Special and and precious metals, the recovery of which should precious metals) be increased. The definition of the recycling targets should hence be refined using a Product- Centric approach. 22 SystemicSystemic materialmaterial efficiency efficiency targets

Material efficiency targets

Policy tries to improve the recovery of valuable resources from End-of-Life products by setting physics and economics based material efficiency targets. These targets oblige the responsi- ble industries to ensure that certain quantities of materials (metals and others) are recovered. However, their effectiveness is under debate.

Mass-based rates and critical metals Key performance indicators

Existing mass-based End-of-Life recycling tar- To overcome this bottleneck the establishment gets are often counterproductive concerning of economics-based and environmentally be- critical metals embedded in complex products. nign key performance indicators (KPI) is sug- Due to their generally low quantities in many gested. These should adopt a Product-Centric End-of-Life flows their contribution to mass perspective and provide additional incentives for based End-of-Life recycling rates for entire End- the recovery of critical metals by taking into ac- of-Life products is marginal while the recycling count their criticality and relevance despite their of mass materials like steel, aluminium or cop- low volumes. The KPI could be calculated based per quickly increases the rates. Stakeholders in on interactive simulation tools which model the recycling chain get the clear message to fo- the proposed recycling processes from techni- cus on the recovery of bulk materials to fulfil the cal, economic and environmental points of view. minimum End-of-Life recycling rates and the Subsequently they should be used to define BAT recycling of critical metals like indium, gallium, processes. rare earths etc. is often neglected.

>> Define key performance indicators on the basis of physics, technology and economics >> Adapt the legislative framework accordingly Policy Messages 23 Metal & Energy Recovery

Heat 100°F 50°F Heat

Thermodynamics Technologies Metallurgy Economics

24 Education,Education, Information Information and R&D and R&D

The basis for recycling Improved research

Better education, information and R & D are For the processing of key metals and for driving global key challenges to enhance the overall re- innovation, improved research is critically im- cycling rates of metals. Multidisciplinary sys- portant. It must be nurtured to preserve know- temic education approaches, improved research how, especially of the processing of the key met- as well as activities to quantify the metal poten- als, and for driving innovation that maximizes tial embedded in the techno-sphere are essen- resource efficiency. Dissemination of the phys- tial building blocks to achieve this objective. ics-based system simulation approach to recycling is a need to identify the true crucial needs for R&D, product design and system innovation. Multidisciplinary education

Following the Product-Centric approach multi- Quantification of the urban orebody disciplinary systemic education must be applied that is based on a thorough understanding of The stock of products in society - the designed thermodynamics, process engineering, physics, minerals - constitutes an “urban orebody”. The chemistry as well as social sciences, econom- quantification of the metals contained in this ics and law. Existing tools and knowledge from stock, their locations and fate in waste flows is primary metallurgy have to be used consistent- crucial to allow for high recovery rates and a ly to close the recycling loops. This ambitious prerequisite to support decisions on R&D ac- approach will be a key challenge to gain suc- tivities and investments in metal recycling in- cess with optimized metal recycling in the future frastructure and technologies. In this context which could address the increasing complexity policies should be developed based on geologi- of EoLproducts composition. The effect of metal cal approaches known from primary metallurgy. substitution and future material combinations Databases must include similar structures as must be continually evaluated with rigorous used for processing of minerals enabling rigor- simulation tools. ous process simulation.

>> Apply multi-disciplinary systemic engineering education >> Quantify the metals and their “mineralogy” in market products >> Deep process metallurgy and technology knowledge is critical for recycling and a

sustainable society Policy Messages 25 The figure presents information for the metals in whatever form (pure, alloy, etc.) recycling occurs. To reflect the reliability of the data or the estimates, data are divided into five bins: > 50 %, > 25 – 50 %, > 10 – 25 %, 1 – 10 % and < 1 %. It is noteworthy that for only eighteen of the sixty metals the experts es- timate the End-of-Life recycling rate to be above 50 %. Another three metals are in the 25 – 50 % group, and three more in the 10 – 25 % group. For a very large number, little or no End-of-Life recycling is occurring today. To increase these Material-Centric determined recycling rates, an in-depth understanding of physical separation, process metallurgy, metallurgical infrastructure, product design and composition/mineralogy and economics is required. The Product-Centric approach discussed in this report shows how to increase recycling rates using process simulation and other deep technological know-how.

1 2 H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li Be B C N O F Ne Lithium Beryllium Boron

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Magne- Aluminum sium

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manga- Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germani- Arsenic Selenium nese um

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybde- Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium num

55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismut

87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Sg Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uug Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

> 50 % 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 > 25–50 % La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Lantha- Cerium Praseo- Neodymi- Samarium Europium Gadolini- Terbium Dysprosi- Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium > 10–25 % num dymium um um um 1–10 % 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 < 1 % Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

26 OutlookOutlook

Resource efficiency: a joint mission The role of the metallurgical of industry, science and policy industry

Increasingly complex products in the 21st cen- The role of the metallurgical industry to en- tury need to be addressed by a Product-Centric hance the overall recycling rates of many met- approach to foster recycling results for many als in the future is two-fold. First, based on the metals. The previous UNEP Report 2a: Recy- comprehensive experience of the sector dealing cling Rates of Metals has confirmed that mainly with complex natural orebodies since many de- for many specialty metals the current Materi- cades, this essential knowledge should be used al-Centric EoLrecycling rates are very poor or and transferred to other stakeholders within the almost zero. The Report 2b: Metal Recycling – recycling chain so as to build their capacity to Opportunities, Limits, Infrastructure also shows take the right decisions regarding collecting and that recycling rates of different metals are prod- sorting procedures of increasingly complex EoL- uct-dependent and that a Product-Centric ap- products (or “designed minerals”). Taking the proach is required to increase recycling rates lessons from the metal wheel into account, the above their, in some cases, low values. Deep knowledge about the relevance of carrier metals metallurgical knowledge and associated realis- and other important metallurgical issues should tic product design will – among other interven- be disseminated to promote optimized recycling tions – help to increase these values to accept- infrastructure for metals. able levels. Even in the case of base metals and Second, the metallurgical industry could con- precious metals there is still considerable room tribute to better EoLrecycling rates of many for improvement. metals – especially critical metals – in the fu- The current pre-treatment of complex products ture by fostering R & D and subsequently invest- which can contain many different base, specialty ment decisions regarding new metallurgical and precious metals (more than 40 different ele- processes which could deal with new material ments) can fail Best Available Techniques (BAT) compositions. Interesting examples are for in- requirements if there is a mismatch between stance the recycling of rare earths from discard- recyclate and carrier metal process metallurgy. ed neodymium-iron-boron magnets or the re- The recycling challenges posed by increasingly cycling of cobalt, lithium and other metals from complex products need to be jointly addressed lithium-ion batteries. by combined efforts from policy and legislation, research and education, and the metallurgical industry.

27 28 OutlookOutlook

The role of research and education Policy actions across the global system are necessary to overcome the bottlenecks that Research and education are key for addressing currently hold back optimized recycling. That the increasing variability and complexity of prod- means that the existing legislative systems for ucts and hence (metals) recycling in the future. waste management and recycling have to be Quantification of the “urban orebody” and its monitored regarding room for improvement “mineralogy” in products needs to be simulat- to enhance the End-of-Life recycling for many ed on the basis of rigorous simulation as used metals, namely critical metals like rare earths in the metallurgical processing industry. This which show significant environmental impacts in should be consequently linked to the design of the primary production routes by the generation recycling tools that provide physics based re- of radioactive waste streams and by hazardous cyclability indexes. Rigorous understanding of emissions into air, soil and groundwater. thermodynamics, kinetics, metallurgical process engineering as well as physical separation This includes enhancing the availability of in- physics and process economics is a pre-requi- formation on material composition of products. site to increase recycling rates. Recycling-friendly product design has to be supported as well as the setting of realistic recycling targets based on the interactive physics- The role of policy and legislation based simulation of production and recycling systems. A better quantification of the metals Policy and legislation have to create a global contained in market products is a necessary level playing field for all stakeholders and have policy action to promote recycling. to promote the use of Best Available Techniques (BAT) on a Product-Centric basis (equivalent to Policy should apply multidisciplinary systemic geological minerals based processing), multi- education and should promote a robust systemi- material/metal system economics, and efficient cally linked metallurgical infrastructure without collection systems. In addition, Design for Re- which no metal recycling is possible. source Efficiency capturing all inherent material and metal connections and non-linearities (e. g. by adoption of life cycle management) and definition of suitable key performance indicators for recycling capturing the multi-material intercon- >> Maintaining deep process metallurgy nections that maximize resource efficiency, is and technology knowledge at essential. engineering faculties is critical for recycling and a sustainable society

29 Policy Messages CategoriesCategories of ofMetals Metals

Ferrous Metals Specialty Metals V – Vanadium Li – Lithium Ta – Tantalum Cr – Chromium Be – Beryllium W – Tungsten Mn – Manganese B – Boron Re – Rhenium Fe – Iron Sc – Scandium Hg – Mercury Ni – Nickel Ga – Gallium Tl – Thallium Nb – Niobium Ge – Germanium Bi – Bismuth Mo – Molybdenum As – Arsenic Se – Selenium Sr – Strontium Non-Ferrous Metals Y – Yttrium Zr – Zirconium Mg – Magnesium Cd – Cadmium Al – Aluminum In – Indium Ti – Titanium Sb – Antimony Co – Cobalt Te – Tellurium Cu – Copper Ba – Barium Zn – Zinc La – Lanthanum Sn – Tin Ce – Cerium Pb – Lead Pr – Praseodymium Nd – Neodymium Sm – Samarium Precious Metals Eu – Europium Gd – Gadolinium Ru – Ruthenium Tb – Terbium Rh – Rhodium Dy – Dysprosium Pd – Palladium Ho – Holmium Ag – Silver Er – Erbium Os – Osmium Tm – Thulium Ir – Iridium Yb – Ytterbium Pt – Platinum Lu – Lutetium Au – Gold Hf – Hafnium

30 31 THIS BOOKLET SUMMARIZES Report 2b: Metal Recycling – Opportunities, Limits, Infra- structure of the Global Metal Flows Working Group. The full report is available on CD-Rom (see page 31 of this summary booklet). UNEP’s International Ressource Panel addresses the metals recycling challenge comprehensively.

A Product-Centric approach is necessary to promote metals recycling in the 21st century. This means the application of economically viable technology and methods throughout the recovery chain to extract metals from the complex interlinkages within designed “minerals”, i. e. products, derived from the thorough know-how of recovering metals from complex geological minerals. These products can be re- garded as designed “minerals”, which provide the basis for recycling as geological minerals provide the basis for extracting metals from minerals. Adaptive and robust recycling and metallurgical infrastructure, systems and technology as well as thorough knowledge are essential to gain economic success and the required resource efficiency. It is therefore essential to use and evolve existing thorough economically viable metallurgical process knowledge and infrastructure. Both are available in the primary and secondary metals processing industry, which thus needs to be preserved in order to allow for the most resource efficient recycling of increasingly complex End-of-Life products.