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The Functioning of Diplomatic Protection and the Case of Giulio Regeni

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The Functioning of Diplomatic Protection and the Case of Giulio Regeni Master’s Degree programme – Second Cycle (D.M.270/2004) in Comparative International Relations Final Thesis The functioning of diplomatic protection and the case of Giulio Regeni Supervisor Ch. Professor Sara De Vido Assistant supervisor Ch. Arianna Vettorel Graduand Sofia Franceschini 854168 Academic Year 2019/2020 1 2 Be the change you want to see in the world 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..pg 8 Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………….pg 14 Introduction………………………………………………………………………....pg 16 Chapter I – Diplomatic Protection: the origins……………………………………..pg 20 Premise……………………………………………………………………..pg 20 1. Diplomatic Protection: an historical overview……………………………pg 21 2. The Calvo Doctrine: diplomatic protection as a weapon for supremacy....pg 29 3. The diplomatic protection of individuals and their properties, as one of the raison d’être of diplomatic and consular relations…………………………….……………………………………..pg 36 4. The State internationally responsible for a wrongful act and the mechanism of diplomatic protection: two sides of the same coin?....................................pg 40 Chapter II – Diplomatic Protection: an explanation of the conditions necessary for its invocation…………………………………………………………………………..pg 56 Premise……………………………………………………………………..pg 56 1. The evolution of the concept of nationality as a precondition for a State to act on behalf of an individual injured abroad………………………………pg 57 2. The European Citizenship enforcing the right of diplomatic protection on behalf of European citizens: the dilemma between consular and diplomatic protection……………………………………………………………….pg 71 3. The rule of prior exhaustion of local remedies: an outdated customary principle?.................................................................................................pg 78 4 4. The clean hands doctrine: a principle of international law excluded from the Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection………………………………..pg 83 5. The use of force to protect citizens abroad applied to implement the mechanism of diplomatic protection. Is this principle legally accepted by the international jurisprudence? ........................................................................................pg 88 Chapter III – International human rights development and the effect on the mechanism of diplomatic protection 1. The birth and evolution of the human rights regime: an overview from Europe to Africa…………………………………………………………………pg 93 2. The effects that the human rights regime has had on the functioning of diplomatic protection…………………………………………………....pg 100 3. The co-existence of diplomatic protection and individual mechanisms enshrined by the international legal framework…………………………pg 107 4. The evolution of diplomatic protection: a right of the State or an individual right?........................................................................................................pg 111 Chapter IV – A case of diplomatic protection: Giulio Regeni…………………….pg 115 Premise …………………………………………………….……………...pg 115 1. Egypt and the politics of human rights: from recognition to the “legal” breach of law violation…………………………………….…………………...pg 116 2. Giulio Regeni: from Fiumicello to El Cairo…………………………….pg 132 3. The reactions and diplomatic actions implemented by the Italian government against the Egyptian State in relation to the case of Giulio Regeni……………………………………………………………...…pg 136 4. The European Union – Egypt relation: European Parliament resolutions as a consequence to Egypt’s violations……………………………………………………….….……pg 143 5 5. The International responsibility of Egypt for the human rights violations in relation to the murder of Giulio Regeni: potential scenarios available to the that Italian government in order to implement the mechanism of diplomatic protection………………………………………………………………pg 146 5.1 The legal scenario provided by the invocation of article 30 of the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment……………………...pg 152 5.2 Italian domestic remedies available to punish the human rights violation perpetrated against Giulio Regeni……………....pg 155 5.3 A mention to article 21 of the Articles on Responsibility of States for International Wrongful Acts and an overview of the international scenarios that cannot be implemented in order to provide justice to Giulio Regeni…………………………..pg 161 6. Giulio Regeni: five years after his death………………………...…….pg 164 Conclusions…………………………………………………………...…………. pg 170 Bibliography…………………………....……………………...………………….pg 176 Ringraziamenti………………………………………..….……………………..…pg 206 6 7 Abstract L’istituto di protezione diplomatica, le cui origini risalgono alla creazione dello Stato Nazione formalmente sancito dal Trattato di Vestfalia nel 1648, è uno degli elementi cardine su cui poggia il sistema giuridico internazionale. Il seguente elaborato tratta lo studio del funzionamento di questo meccanismo di protezione dell’individuo, partendo dalle sue origini e dai principi fondamentali a cui esso fa fede. Benché la creazione dell’istituto di protezione diplomatica venga convenzionalmente accostata alla nascita dello Stato Nazione, verrà dimostrato come, già in epoche precedenti, si sviluppò una forma, seppur primordiale, di protezione diplomatica alla quale si aggiunse una rete di relazioni diplomatiche, anch’esse definibili come primordiali, preludio di un sistema giuridico internazionale che a poco a poco verrà istituendosi. Se la creazione del concetto di protezione diplomatica, così come la sua formalizzazione, venne approvata dai paesi del “vecchio continente”, lo stesso non può essere affermato in relazione ai paesi del Centro e del Sud America, i quali non riconobbero tale istituto come un elemento volto a garantire una tutela ai cittadini all’estero i cui diritti fossero stati violati a seguito di illeciti perpetrati da uno Stato straniero, ma bensì come un’intromissione nella giurisdizione interna dello Stato ritenuto responsabile. Questo pensiero, sviluppatosi possibilmente come conseguenza al lungo periodo coloniale imposto dalle potenze Europee nei confronti dei paesi oltreoceano, spianò la strada alla dottrina Calvo, dalla quale nacque poi la Clausola Calvo1. La Dottrina Calvo2 prese il nome dal giurista argentino Carlos Calvo, il quale definì come ingiusta e soprattutto non necessaria, l’applicazione del principio di protezione diplomatica, basandosi sulla necessità di riconoscere internazionalmente il concetto di eguaglianza tra individui. Nonostante la clausola Calvo - attraverso la quale la controparte straniera di un contratto stipulato tra cittadini o istituzioni si impegnava a rinunciare al diritto di protezione diplomatica da parte del suo Stato di origine – venne comunemente utilizzata nell’America Centrale e Meridionale, la sua applicazione fu comunque soggetta a delle 1 Lipstein, K., The Place of the Calvo Clause in International Law, 22 BYIL, 1945. 2 Calvo, C., Le Droit International Théorique Et Pratique: Précédé D’un Exposé Historique Des Progrès de la Science Du Droit Des Gens, Vol. III, 1896. 8 eccezioni, le quali contribuirono a limitarne gradualmente l’importanza e la rilevanza nel contesto internazionale. L’applicazione dell’istituto di protezione diplomatica viene definita dalla dottrina consuetudinaria come un diritto dello Stato, il quale può essere dallo stesso esercitato nel solo caso in cui un proprio cittadino sia vittima di illecito internazionale all’estero. Chiaramente, il ricorso a questo meccanismo internazionale deve rispettare alcune condizioni, tra cui: il principio della nazionalità e il principio del previo esaurimento dei mezzi di ricorso interni. Condizioni le quali nel tempo e attraverso l’evoluzione della dottrina internazionale - e quindi dell’istituto stesso - , hanno subito delle modifiche, rendendo la protezione diplomatica un diritto non più solamente orientato a tutelare lo Stato leso, ma piuttosto diretto a tutelare l’individuo, vittima diretta dell’illecito. A questo proposito, è fondamentale citare il progetto di articoli sulla protezione diplomatica adottato nel 2006 dalla Commissione di Diritto Internazionale, la quale ha ritenuto necessario sottolineare la direzione nella quale il processo di evoluzione della protezione diplomatica in corso, si stia orientando: da diritto dello Stato a dovere dello Stato nei confronti del cittadino vittima di violazioni di norme fondamentali. A conferma di ciò, l’articolo 19 della stessa Commissione sancisce come uno Stato, laddove fosse nella piena condizione di agire attraverso l’applicazione dell’istituto di protezione diplomatica, dovrebbe considerare sia la gravità dell’illecito subito dal proprio cittadino sia le volontà e la posizione dello stesso a riguardo3. Tuttavia, una considerazione legata al principio delle mani pulite - secondo il quale né lo Stato né il suo cittadino devono aver tenuto in passato una condotta biasimevole nei confronti della controparte responsabile dell’illecito - sancito dalla dottrina classica, merita di essere avanzata. Il suddetto principio, la cui applicazione limita, di fatto, il diritto di tutela garantito agli Stati nei confronti dei propri cittadini all’estero, venne applicato a numerosi casi risalenti al diciannovesimo secolo4, malgrado con il tempo la sua applicazione venne, soprattutto dalla Commissione di Diritto Internazionale e dagli 3 United Nations General Assembly, International Law Commission, Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection, Supplement No. 10, A/61/10, vol. II, 2006. 4 Per citarne alcuni: Revue Générale de droit international public, Chronique des
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