European Interest in Egyptian Stability

Home , Murder of Giulio Regeni, Paolo Gentiloni

2 59 of the relations to death by the t and North African African North and t ated by strategic and and strategic by ated lio Regeni, the Italian Italian the Regeni, lio re European project is is project European re ic consequences for the the for consequences ic becomes a vital interest interest vital a becomes nsidering the Schengen Schengen the nsidering nd so difficult to handle handle to difficult so nd at the ensuing diplomatic diplomatic ensuing the at he fight against terrorism, terrorism, against fight he istential threat to the EU. EU. the to threat istential Indeed, the fact that many many that fact the Indeed, , an Italian magazine on security on magazine Italian an ,

Analisi Difesa Analisi Valentina Cominetti Valentina The Case of Italy Case The The so-called Arab Spring has generated prolonged generated has Spring Arab so-called The 1 | Volume 21 | No. 1 | April 2018 21 | No. Volume | European Interest in Egyptian Stability: in Egyptian Interest European In these circumstances, support of those Middle Eas Middle those of support circumstances, these In A dramatic example of this phenomenon is the story

ategic Assessment ategic

(MENA) states have always been overwhelmingly domin overwhelmingly been always have states (MENA) t control, migration including priorities, security energy. to access and dramat with states, Arab local the of many in chaos northern side of the among Mediterranean these as is well. the Foremost a numbers in significant so is which crisis, refugee states member Union European the between relations undermines it that organization. the of existence very the as well as reco and borders national reinstating are countries enti the that hypothesize to some led has agreement challenge a just not is crisis migration the that demonstrating jeopardy, in ex an but EU the of stability organization’s the to stability their preserved somehow have that states only not readiness their demonstrated have which states, member EU for to sacrifice parts of their democratization projects in the area but also to leverage little how reveal they as credibility international of issues ignore on local governments they actually have. Giu of murder the following Egypt and Italy between researcher who was allegedly kidnapped and tortured th fact The 2016. early in services secret Egyptian Valentina Cominetti is an analyst and researcher at MM~Law, an American law firm specializing in civil cases for the compensation of victims of terrorism, crimes against for writes She crimes. war and humanity, and defense analysis. and defense Relations between European countries and Middle East and North Africa North and East Middle and countries European between Relations S F ITALY F ITALY unions. Regeni n, it alone cannot tial or total, of the which was opposed opposed was which orld but particularly particularly but orld rief shows how “the sity’s Girton College, College, Girton sity’s tigation of the affair. e authorities, Regeni ed that Giulio Regeni hich ultimately caused caused ultimately hich ed to his supposed ties ties supposed his to ed on of relations between between relations of on e this case had severe however, however, the Egyptian and because the Egyptian Egyptian the because and The Italian investigators never never investigators Italian The 4 | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O Indeed, Rome’s economic and security ties with Egypt are Egypt with ties security and economic Rome’s Indeed, 3

ALENTINA COMINETTI V The purpose of this paper is to analyze the evoluti the analyze to is paper this of purpose The w the throughout debate heated a triggered case The

standoff between the two countries was relatively b relations between Italy and Egypt go far beyond the traditional forms of cooperation.” behind interests the and Regeni Giulio of murder the after Egypt and Italy the relatively quick resolution of the crisis. Whil consequences for Italian and European public opinio European-MENA broader of state the about generalization valid generate is migration of issue the crucial how of sense a give does it Still, relations. for European politicians and the price they are willing to pay in order to contain that issue. Background Univer Cambridge at student PhD a was Regeni Giulio researching independent Egyptian independent trade 2011 the of anniversary ﬁfth the 2016, 25, January on Cairo in disappeared in found was corpse half-naked and mutilated His protests. Square Tahrir The 3, 2016. a ditch alongside the Cairo-Alexandria highway on February body showed signs of extreme torture, with contusions, abrasions, cuts, a wounds, stab multiple burns, extensive more and cigarette ribs, broken w vertebra, cervical broken a and hemorrhage, brain attribut been has murder Regeni’s Giulio death. his Movement, Union Trade Independent Egyptian the with el-Sisi. to the central government of President Abdel Fatah in Italy, because of the suspected involvement, par Egyptian secret services in his death. The suspicions were aggravated by the Egyptian authorities’ behavior during the inves At the very outset, the Egyptian authorities declar died as a result of a car accident. By March 2016, had kidnappers four Regeni’s that announced Affairs Foreign of Ministry been killed by the Egyptian police. According to th uniforms. police wearing kidnappers professional of gang a by killed was As evidence, they claimed that they found Regeni’s documents after the criminals. the of one of house the in shooting it in gaps several of because version this believed essential, rather than merely important for the prosperity and stability of stability and prosperity the for important merely than rather essential, the country.

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6 ompted ompted ch 2015, ch 2015, F ITALY F ITALY alvanizing force d one of the victims victims the of one d y Abd el-Ghaffar as as el-Ghaffar Abd y tained, and subjected subjected and tained, Egypt under the Sisi ch 2011 announced its its announced 2011 ch o replace the SSI when when SSI the replace o positive force, with the the with force, positive ations under Mubarak, Mubarak, under ations nced to prison terms or or terms prison to nced foreign nationals, and d el-Ghaffar held senior senior held el-Ghaffar d re held incommunicado incommunicado held re internal dissent in Egypt. Egypt. in dissent internal hat an average of three to to three of average an hat nment crackdown. Egypt Egypt crackdown. nment ly 2013, tens of thousands thousands of tens 2013, ly to enforced disappearance disappearance enforced to articipation, and workers’ workers’ and articipation, By the government’s own own government’s the By Finally, phone records placing placing records phone Finally, 5 7 | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O Indeed, the draconian new counter-terrorism law pr law counter-terrorism new draconian the Indeed, 8 This pattern of abuse has become evident since Mar 9

ALENTINA COMINETTI V Regeni’s murder was more likely related to the fact that independent From a wider perspective, Regeni could be considere be could Regeni perspective, wider a From authorities changed the story several times. several story the changed authorities Regeni’s of time the at Cairo from km 100 than more gang the of leader the disappearance proved that the government’s scenario was not viable. labor unions are a particularly sensitive issue in government, which views them as having been a key g revolution. Many democracy advocates in and outside Egypt, in the 2011 political Egyptian supervisor, Cambridge his and Regeni Giulio including a as this regarded Rahman, Abdel Maha Dr. scientist p democratic society, civil strengthen to potential rights – elements that seem threatening to a military regime determined to repress autonomous sources of power. eliminate to intended repression government the of Ju in Morsi President ousted forces armed the Since sente or trial without detained been have people of legitimacy. dubious of trials after often death, to admission, 34,000 in persons 2016, (and possibly thousands more) were bars. behind the response by the authorities after the rise in violent attacks by armed groups against the police, judicial army, ofﬁcials, gover Morsi’s the followed which citizens, ordinary has also seen the emergence of a new pattern of human rights violations children, and students including protesters, and activists political against de arrested, arbitrarily been have whom of hundreds did way this in detained Those agents. state by disappearance enforced to we and families or lawyers their to access have not t allege NGOs Local oversight. judicial without and subjected arbitrarily and abducted are people four every day. Magd General Major appointed el-Sisi President when Ab post, this assuming Before Interior. of Minister force police secret the (SSI), Investigations Security State the in positions viol rights human serious for notorious became that t formed (NSA), Agency Security National the in and Mar in and pressure public to bowed authorities the has NSA the minister, new the of appointment the Since dismantlement. opposition suppressing in engaged agency state principal the as emerged

12 16 Egyptian

14 F ITALY F ITALY 15 l, the abduction ed, but Suleiman from both the area area the both from t Regeni had been hem would violate sonally denounced decision was made rtant primary source source primary rtant n Minister of Foreign Foreign of Minister n his body was found. was body his gypt’s assistant state “serious human rights rights human “serious e than 2000 requested. requested. 2000 than e y deleted. The Egyptian Egyptian The deleted. y “Marò case,” when India India when case,” “Marò ofﬁcially for “consultation “consultation for ofﬁcially o put pressure on Egyptian Egyptian on pressure put o and Egyptian investigators. Egyptian and loped after Regeni’s murder. murder. Regeni’s after loped According to Amnesty International, “Given International, Amnesty to According The Italian investigators likewise demanded 10 13 | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O

ALENTINA COMINETTI As a consequence of the failed meeting, then-Italia meeting, failed the of consequence a As In response, between August and September 2016, the

to the government and committing torture and other other and torture committing and government the to impunity.” with violations this cycle of widespread abuse and government denia and murder of raised Italian doctoral student Giulio Regeni in early 2016 who disappearance enforced of victim a been have may he that suspicion died under torture while detained by Egyptian state agents.” and Resolution of Italian-Egyptian Crisis Stalemate Diplomatic ambassador its recall to was Egypt against action diplomatic major Italy’s to Egypt, Maurizio Massari, Italian on April 8,between This2016. meeting failed a after immediately In the weeks preceding the meeting, the Italian authorities had asked for numerous materials from the investigation, but the Egyptian authorities mor the of out documents of pages 30 only presented In particular, Italy had asked for phone records; E prosecutor Mostafa Suleiman stated that providing t the Egyptian constitution. CCTV footage of the area where Regeni had disappear automaticall been had footage the then by that said authorities did not even hand out their own autopsy report. Italy, to Massari recalled Gentiloni Paolo Affairs t tactic diplomatic a as essentially but purposes,” deve that crisis international the with authorities for Minister then-Italian by 2014 February in taken was measure similar A so-called the in Mogherini Federica Affairs Foreign and Girone Salvatore riflemen, navy two the for trial the postponing kept Maurizio Latorre, accused of killing two Indian fishermen. records phone mobile over hand to agreed government where place the and seen been last had Regeni where Then, and during more a significantly, visit to Rome in early September, Egyptian prosecutors admitted for the first time tha insisted they (though disappearance his surveillancebefore police under that the checks on him lasted only three days). This admission followed the publication of an interview with Mohammed Abdullah, leader of the impo most the and union vendors’ street independent for Regeni’s research, who revealed that he had per

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17 Then, Then, 18 apter of a F ITALY F ITALY 19 ne. Following the ite the fact that he GO-ECRF) and the the and GO-ECRF) ch was apparently n his research was , Italian magistrates magistrates Italian , i, to Cairo. Officially, Officially, Cairo. to i, erating with foreign tigation into Regeni’s Regeni’s into tigation ion of the Families of of Families the of ion ffices. Yet according to to according Yet ffices. ive relationship before before relationship ive or the last time. last the or mation to the Egyptian Egyptian the to mation interview Dr. Rahman, Rahman, Dr. interview with the policemen who who policemen the with Rome and Cairo “go far far “go Cairo and Rome harged with “managing “managing with harged Claudio Pacifico, a former former a Pacifico, Claudio government announced its its announced government or (Marco Minniti), Defense Defense Minniti), (Marco or La Repubblica La | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O 20

ALENTINA COMINETTI This Investigation Order appears to be the final ch 21 In late January 2017, the In Egyptian late police Januaryagreed to 2017, make available for After the return of the Italian Ambassador to Cairo in September 2017, 2017, September in Cairo to Ambassador Italian the of return the After On November 2, 2017, the Egyptian lead in the inves the in lead Egyptian the 2017, 2, November On analysis by Italian and German experts the footage recorded in the Dokki the in recorded footage the experts German and Italian by analysis Regeni to the authorities because he considered Regeni’s questions to be result a as that said government Egyptian The vendors.” street about “not of Abdullah’s tip, it placed Regeni under investigation, but decided after interest to national security.” a few days that his research was of “no f seen been had Regeni where Giza, in station Metro its to sent office prosecutor’s public Egyptian the after 2017, 14, August on interviews about material some Rome in counterpart Italian the murder, Regeni’s investigated first had Cantin Giampaolo ambassador, new a send to decision the government justified its decision by citing the improved cooperation o prosecutors’ Italian the and Egyptian the between the of result the were ties ambassadorial-level renewed the media, several Interi the of Minsters the of efforts “realpolitik” Affairs (Angelino Alfano). (Roberta Pinotti), and Foreign Associat the of founder the Hegazy, Metwaly Ibrahim infor provides that association (an Disappeared the N Cairo-based a Freedoms, and Rights for Commission c and arrested was Cairo, in lawyer family Regenis’ an illegal group, spreading false news … [and] coop organizations.” case seems to have been dropped in favor of a new o newspaper the by article an of publication to requesting Order Investigation European a issued Regeni’s supervisor at the who university, insisted on focusing Regeni’s research on independent trade unions in Egypt, desp had expressed concerns and fears about the directio taking. diplomatic stalemate between the two countries, whi never intended to last very long. Ties Italy Unavoidable and Egypt: cooperat and close a enjoyed always Egypt and Italy by stated As it. over shadow a cast case Regeni the between relations the Egypt, to ambassador Italian

25 29 30 rge: has has Moreover, Moreover, 28 is the biggest biggest the is F ITALY F ITALY hat the Egyptian considerable. In For Italy, Egypt is Italy, For tries that received 23 ter Matteo Renzi, ‘‘a ntries, which makes e through investment investment through e it has ranked fourth nd Regeni’s killers. al increase in exports is Italy’s main partner partner main Italy’s is o 474.1 million euros. million 474.1 o n security cooperation cooperation security n fter the outbreak of the the of outbreak the fter s the pressure to solve ows the leaders of many many of leaders the ows lcementi, Pirelli, Italgen, Italgen, Pirelli, lcementi, s project alone accounted accounted alone project s ng Banca Intesa San Paolo Paolo San Intesa Banca ng wo countries, in particular particular in countries, wo 30 | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O Since 2014, the volume of Italian exports to Egypt to exports Italian of volume the 2014, Since 24 The Italian business presence in the country is la 26 and trade volume between the two countries rose by 22

ALENTINA COMINETTI Among them, ENI, the main Italian energy company, company, energy Italian main the ENI, them, Among 27 Italian economic interests in Egypt range from trad from range Egypt in interests economic Italian In addition, Italian investments in the country are Italian-Egyptia that fact the is signiﬁcant less No

the sixth largest export market in the MENA region and the thirty-second the and region MENA the in market export largest sixth the beyond the traditional forms of cooperation”: Egypt cooperation”: of forms traditional the beyond Italy to essential is role its and Sea Mediterranean the of side other the on a Moreover, reasons. security and business for both refugee crisis, maintaining good relations with that country has become even more vital to Italy. Egypt is Italy’s main trading partner in opportunities to access to energy. North Africa, billion euros in the percent first to quarter 1.3 of 2017. world. entire the in risen and consistently, given the estimated potenti t amount to projected is 2020 by Egypt, to Italy from Italy was the largest European source Direct of Investment 2016, Foreign in Africa, and Egypt ranks third among African coun Italian investments; over the last seventeen years in this category. 957 out of the 3500 Italian companies in the MENA region are located in Egypt. ga Zohr the in investments ENI’s 2015, In investor. billion Italian FDI in Egypt. for $6 billion out of a total of $7.4 Italy is one of Europe’s most energy-vulnerable cou ENI, in the words of the former Italian Prime Minis intelligence and policy foreign policy, energy Italian of piece fundamental kn Descalzi Claudio executive chief ENI’s policy.’’ countries better than do Italy’s ministers. Thus, a Regeni’s murder mounted, Descalzi gave assurances t authorities were ‘‘putting in maximum effort’’ to fi Beside ENI, there are many other important Italian companies that have includi country, the in capital significant invested Ita Alessandria), of Bank the bought 2006 in (which presence This Valtur. and Alpitour, Caltagirone, Gruppo Techint, Danieli is expected to increase because, according to forecasts, steady economic and population growth make Egypt a promising investment opportunity even for small and medium-size enterprises. t the between relations the in role crucial a plays

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t are 33 Since 2013, 2013, Since 31 F ITALY F ITALY , the number of plomatic crisis was nd the titular Libyan Libyan titular the nd ooperation. Indeed, gle most important laws against human nts became more vital vital more became nts al immigration. This cy in Libya as possible, possible, as Libya in cy n 2016, arriving by sea. sea. by arriving 2016, n ignificantly because of of because ignificantly ered the best Northern Northern best the ered s dropped significantly significantly dropped s from Italy. from e friendly relationship ccused the government government the ccused e state from which most most which from state e onomic support to Khalifa Khalifa to support onomic 36 Yet Libya is Yet still divided between 34 Thus in the words of former NATO 35 | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O Moreover, most of the migrants apprehended in Egyp 32

ALENTINA COMINETTI Finally, and more crucially, Italy’s relationship with Egypt is essential is Egypt with relationship Italy’s crucially, more and Finally, with regard to immigration. Indeed, Egypt is consid is Egypt Indeed, immigration. to regard with African partner for Italy in the fight against illeg for providing one including agreements, several by framed is cooperation immigrants Egyptian illegal of expulsion speedy the s grown has Italy in landing migrants of number the agreeme these and region, MENA the in upheavals the migrants the of percent 7 only if even Indeed, government. Italian the for wider a countryplays the Egypt, from left actually 2016 in Italy in landing role of migration containment because of its harsh traffickers. detained in camps indefinitely; when not subjected to forced expulsion, their only option is to go back country at their own expense. for the stabilization of Libya, which is Rome’s sin th been has Libya Indeed, objective. policy foreign of the migrants landing in Italy departed in recent years, because it is the i 180,000 than more refugees, for point embarkation Libyan the support to mission a launched Navy Italian the 2017, August In Coast Guard in fighting human trafficking. Since then ha Libya from coast Italian the on landing migrants percent, to from 2017). 2016 (by 30.13 commander military the Haftar, Khalifa and governments competing two of the eastern government, could impede effective c a government Italian the between agreement the when a Haftar signed, was al-Sarraj Fayez Minister Prime in of Tripoli betraying the Libyan people, menacing the implementation play to role important an has Egypt context, this In itself. agreement the of because despite recognizing al-Sarraj as the legitimate Prime Minister of ec and logistical, technical, provides Cairo Libya, Haftar in his efforts to confront the Islamists. Th between Haftar and Egypt could help facilitate the effective operation of the Italian naval mission in Libya. ambassador to Italy Stefano Stefanini before the di diploma regional much as need ideally “We resolved, and the Regeni case is a stumbling block.” Indeed, Overall, Overall, 37 40 The same The 39 F ITALY F ITALY ically privileged d to focus on the iticians choose to te the fact that for , acknowledged the the acknowledged , The consequences d to answer public e path. For example, example, For path. e racy, human racy, rights, en the two countries countries two the en 41 The fact that leaders’ leaders’ that fact The onomic and security an Democratic Union Union Democratic an ntroversial NGO law 42 ization of ties following following ties of ization ation is one of the most political priority. political 38 | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O

ALENTINA COMINETTI Nor is Italy alone. Germany seems to follow the sam the follow to seems Germany alone. Italy is Nor At the same time, the repression that helps preserve stability in Egypt in preservestability helps that repression the time, same the At

The return of the Italian ambassador and the normal the and ambassador Italian the of return The the Regeni case underscore the prioritization of ec cooperation over support for human rights and the rule of law. Italian policy toward the MENA countries has histor economic and security ties over human rights. Despi the first time the Italian government has been force concerns about its dealings with the Egyptian government, it is unlikely that Italian policy in the region will change. a number of foreign NGOs, Adenauer including Stiftung Konrad in 2011 Christi Merkel’s Angela Chancellor with (associated an Egyptian court party) were raided by the Egyptian police, and in 2013, guilty workers NGO some found and organizations the of assets the froze 250,000 a paid has Germany abroad.” from financing “illegal receiving of euro bond for each worker in order to circumvent the ban on leaving the betwe relationship the and them, on imposed country has been affected by a crisis that still needs to be resolved. Nonetheless, Chancellor Merkel said very little about Egypt’s co to priority higher gave and el-Sisi, President with meeting 2017 her during Africa. from migrants of flow the curb to deal a cut to effort the European new the Indeed, generally. more Union European the for true is 2015 November in revised (ENP), Policy Neighborhood importance of sustained efforts in support of democ fundamental freedoms, and the rule of law, but aime main the as countries partner the of stabilization and migration illegal against defense” of line “first a as Egypt sees EU the leverage over the country. consequently makes little attempt to exercise go power of abuses if chaos of driver a into turn term, long the over could, unquestioned and people’s expectations go unmet. of such a scenario would not only affect migration flows toward Europe but the stability of the entire region. Still, migr the in role undeniable an plays it and voters European of concerns urgent Europe. throughout campaigns electoral of shaping many in elections of outcome the influences immigration tackle to ability EU countries makes a scenario in which European pol ones term short over considerations term long on based policies promote Conclusion

, October 4, F ITALY F ITALY , May 5, 2016, , May 5, 2016, , April 9, 2016, , April 9, 2016, The Guardian ong term issues. After all, all, After issues. term ong , March 26, 2016, , March 26, 2016, Il Post The Telegraph Il Post , August 15, 2017, https://bit. 2017, , August 15, , January 22, 2017, https://bit.ly/2jFN2a4. , January 22, 2017, La Stampa , September 13, 2017, https://bit.ly/2EtGbJN. 2017, , September 13, | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O , April 10, 2016, https://bit.ly/2GKTabV. https://bit.ly/2GKTabV. 2016, , April 10, La Repubblica , Amnesty International, 2016, https://bit.ly/2HDXDxx. , Amnesty International, 2016, The Guardian The Guardian

ALENTINA COMINETTI “Regeni – Egypt Says Yes to Italian Experts Getting the Latest Images before to Italian Experts Getting the Latest Images “Regeni – Egypt Says Yes the Disappearance,” Ibid. Stille, “Who murdered Giulio Regeni.” “Italian Ambassador Recalled from Cairo after Lack of Progress in Murder “Italian Ambassador Recalled from Cairo after Lack of Progress in Murder Probe,” Ibid. https://bit.ly/1S2uADT. https://bit.ly/1S2uADT. “Italy has Recalled its Ambassador from Egypt.” “Italy has Recalled its Ambassador from Egypt.” “Italy has Recalled its Ambassador from Egypt,” “Italy has Recalled its Ambassador from Egypt,” Francesca Schianchi, “New Dossiers on the Death of Regeni. The Italian Francesca Schianchi, “New Dossiers on the Death of Regeni. Ambassador Returns to Cairo,” Ibid., p. 10. Ibid., p. 10. Ibid. Egypt: “Ofﬁcially You Do Not Exist”: Disappears and Tortured in the Name of Do Not Exist”: Disappears and Tortured Egypt: “Ofﬁcially You Counter-Terrorism Ibid. Ruth Michaelson, “Egypt Charges Lawyer Investigating Italian Student’s Murder,” ly/2vDPuno. Alexander Stille, “Who Murdered Giulio Regeni?” Ibid. 2016, https://bit.ly/2doVjk7. 2016, http://www.ilpost.it/2016/03/26/morte-giulio-regeni/. http://www.ilpost.it/2016/03/26/morte-giulio-regeni/. “The Egyptian Version on Regeni’s Death,” on Regeni’s Death,” “The Egyptian Version “The Interview: Frienship between Italy and Ambassador Pacifico, Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Egypt is Even Stronger after a Year,” https://bit.ly/2qgaazJ. Cooperazione Internazionale, July 29, 2010, Camino Mortera-Martinez, “The Collapse of Schengen would have Only Parties,” and Populist Terrorists Winners: Two https://bit.ly/2qfHneM. Rosa Balfour, “EU Conditionality after the Arab Spring,” European Institute “EU Conditionality after the Arab Spring,” Rosa Balfour, http://www.epc.eu/documents/uploads/ of the Mediterranean, 2012, pub_2728_papersbalfour_for_euromesco16.pdf.

18 17 16 13 15 14 12 19 11 10 9 8 7 20 6 5 4 3 2 unlikely. This seems to be the major reason why Italy, along with other EU other with along Italy, why reason major the be to seems This unlikely. member states, is likely to shape its relationship with Egypt according to l on than rather considerations security term short possible enough; is stability precarious Egypt’s today, elections the win to long term consequences will probably be someone else’s problem. Notes 1 , Europae , January, 25, F ITALY F ITALY s between Italy and and Italy between s , 2017, https://bit. , 2017, , 2017, , 2017, ttps://bit.ly/2jhbWNQ. ttps://bit.ly/2jhbWNQ. The Guardian Formiche , August 22, 2017, https://bit. August 22, 2017, , Sicurezza Nazionale , November 2, 2017, https://bit. , November 2, 2017, l’Espresso , August 15, 2017, https://nyti.ms/2wLV2wC. https://nyti.ms/2wLV2wC. 2017, , August 15, The Telegraph | EUROPEAN | INTEREST IN EGYPTIAN STABILITY:THE CASE O , March 3, 2017, https://bit.ly/2Ev9o6W/. , March 3, 2017, , September 14, 2017. , September 14, , September 28, 2017. , September 28, 2017. New York Times New York ALENTINA COMINETTI

The New Arab ly/2HhFeqV. ly/2HhFeqV. Giacomo Gilglio, “Italy and Egypt: Economiv Reasons Come First,” Giacomo Gilglio, “Italy and Egypt: Economiv Reasons Come First,” John Phillips, “Italy Seeks to Question Cambridge University Professor John Phillips, “Italy Seeks to Question Cambridge University of Murdered Student,” Ibid. “Embassy of Italy: Agreements with Cairo,” https://bit.ly/2JrX2QM. https://bit.ly/2JrX2QM. “Embassy of Italy: Agreements with Cairo,” February 18, 2016, https://bit.ly/2qgqwYX. 2016, 18, February “The Real Data on Migrants Landing in 2017,” “The Real Data on Migrants Landing in 2017,” Ahmed Gomaa, “Italy, Egypt Renew Relations Despite Unresolved Murder,” Murder,” Egypt Renew Relations Despite Unresolved Ahmed Gomaa, “Italy, al-Monitor “Country Card Egypt,” Sace Gruppo CDP, (2017), https://bit.ly/2FrcYj3. https://bit.ly/2FrcYj3. (2017), Sace Gruppo CDP, “Country Card Egypt,” ly/2GHQqjx. Ibid. Mattia Toaldo, “The Common Thread Connecting Regeni‘s Death and MattiaToaldo, the Migration Agreements,” http://formiche.net/2017/04/30/sbarchi-migranti-2017/. Declan Walsh, “Why was an Italian Student Tortured and Murdered in “Why was an Italian Student Tortured Declan Walsh, Egypt?” “The Seventh Annual SRM Report on Economic Relation Economic on Report SRM Annual Seventh “The h 2017, SRM, Presented,” been has Mediterranean the “Egypt, the Other Northern African Border of Europe,” ADIF, 2017, https:// 2017, ADIF, “Egypt, the Other Northern African Border of Europe,” bit.ly/2HhH8b3. Ibid. Sofia Cecinini, “Italy: Landings Decreased from 30.13%, but Fluxes from Sofia Cecinini, “Italy: from 30.13%, Landings Decreased and Algeria are on the Rise,” Tunisia Massimo Zaurrini, “Africa: Italy at the Top of the Investment Ranking,” of the Investment Ranking,” Italy at the Top Massimo Zaurrini, “Africa: Affari Internazionali ly/2GHHV8h. Ruth Michaelson and Stephanie Kirchgaessner, “A Year On, Giulio Regeni Giulio On, Year “A andRuth Stephanie Kirchgaessner, Michaelson Rossella Lombardi, “European Elections and Migration: What We’ve Learnt Rossella Lombardi, “European Elections and Migration: What We’ve https://bit.ly/2qeAIS3. 2017, Politheor, – and What to Expect,” “Merkel Ignores Sisi’s Human Rights Record for Immigration-Curbing Deal,” Ibid. Matteo Colombo, “A Year after Regeni’s Death: How Italian Foreign Policy Policy after Regeni’s Death: How Italian Foreign Year Matteo Colombo, “A https://bit. 2017, ISPI, January 27, Changing.” in the Mediterranean is ly/2H6hfNz. Ghafar, “A Stable Egypt for a Stable Region.” Stable Egypt for a Region.” “A Ghafar, Adel Abdel Ghafar, “A Stable Egypt for a Region: Socio-Economic “A Adel Abdel Ghafar, Directorate General for European Parliament Challenges and Prospects,” 2018. External Policies, 2017, https://bit.ly/2jQbq9g. https://bit.ly/2jQbq9g. 2017, Death Casts Shadow over Italy-Egypt Relations,” over Italy-Egypt Death Casts Relations,” Shadow

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