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$Q HOHFWURQLF YHUVLRQ RI WKLV WKHVLV LV DYDLODEOH DW KWWSUHSRVLWRU\WXGHOIWQO To Jacob Gabriel (Bill) Gerstenbluth 1924-2011 ”My Soul thirsts for you”

Acknowledgements

The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support and guidance of many. Some close by in Delft and Deventer, others far away in Curac¸ao and Beira. While only a minor token of appreciation, I would like to acknowledge their contribution. Graduation committee prof. dr. ir. Luuk Rietveld, TU Delft – Delft the Netherlands dr. ir. Bas Heijman, TU Delft – Delft, the Netherlands prof. dr. ir. Huub Savanije, TU Delft – Delft, the Netherlands ir. Raphael¨ van der Velde, Witteveen+Bos – Deventer, the Netherlands Beira Master Plan 2035 project Mr. Mario Jose Guina, CMB – Beira, Mozambique ir. Ben Lamoree, Lamoree consult – Leusden, the Netherlands ir. Peter Letitre, Deltares – Delft, the Netherlands Mr. Daviz Mbepo Simango, President CMB – Beira, Mozambique Peter van Weelden, MSc., Witteveen+Bos – Deventer, the Netherlands Witteveen+Bos (Deventer, the Netherlands) ir. Jochem Schut, ir. Michel Bretveld, ir. Franca Kramer, dr. ir. Arjen van Nieuwenhuijzen, ir. Rafael Romero and ir. Peter Tienhoven ETAR Beira (Beira, Mozambique) Enga. Filda Miguel Langa and Mr. Carlos Morais FIPAG (Beira, Mozambique) Mr. Augusto Chipenembe, Mr. Fernando Nhongo, Enga. Carmen Sing Sang and Ing. Wilco van der Wal (Vitens Evides International) TU Delft (Delft, the Netherlands) prof. dr. ir. Jan Peter van der Hoek and dr. Andre´ Marques Arsenio´ Lastly, I would like to thank my parents and sisters, as well as my grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunts and cousins for their inﬁnite love and patience.

vii

Summary

What will the desired status of potable water and sanitation infrastructure be in Beira in 2035?

Beira Beira is the capital of Sofala province in Mozambique and is located at the mouth of the Pungue River at the Indian ocean. Currently, Beira is Mozambique’s second largest city. The limits of the municipality of Beira are deﬁned by the Mozambique channel to the east. The southern and western borders of the municipality are delineated by the Pungue river. The northern administrative border of Beira is shared with the town of Dondo. The total area of the municipality of Beira that lays between these deﬁned borders is 631 [km2].

Population and demand The current population of the municipality, according to the district statistics for the city of Beira, published in November 2012, encompasses 456 005 citizens.A number of growth scenarios for the future population of Beira can be distinguished. The “low- growth” as well as the “high-growth” scenario are believed to be the determinative scenarios for Beira 2035, corresponding with the likely minimum regional growth rate and the maximum anticipated population growth rate. These result in a future population of 827 000 or 1 422 000 inhabitants, respectively. These future populations, along with an average demand per capita and data on non-revenue water, have been translated into two drinking water demand estimates for Beira 2035: low and high demand. A third demand scenario has been generated using billing data from the municipal water utility: the trend scenario.

Legislation and institutions The main law covering Mozambican drinking water and sanitation is the Lei de Aguas. The institutions in charge of providing and regulating drinking water utilities in Beira can be divided into a few national and regional institutions. The regulatory body for the sector is the CRA. The DNA at national level delegates management of the urban water supply to FIPAG. VEI provides technical assistance to FIPAG in Beira. Sanitation is tasked to the municipal council of Beira, the CMB.

Drinking water The Pungue river is the raw water source for Beira, with the primary intake located over 100 [km] upstream. The treatment works at Mutua have a designed capacity of 49200 [m3/day], providing water to Beira and Dondo. The treatment scheme is made up by pre- chlorination, coagulation/ﬂocculation, RSF and chlorination. The two water transmission mains

ix x Summary between Mutua and Beira follow the EN-6 road for over 40 [km] and must be considered when increasing the capacity of the DWTP. The treatment capacity can be increased by doubling or tripling the current capacity. This will satisfy the low-damand scenario and the trend scenario. It is believed that the high-growth scenario will only be satisﬁed by 60% in 2035. Conventional treatment options at Mutua and RO desalination in Beira have been considered as options.

Wastewater and sanitation The first process line for the wastewater treatment plant for the city of Beira was completed in July of 2012. This completed section the WWTP, ETAR Beira, boasts a capacity of 7500 [m3/day]. The treatment scheme at ETAR Beira encompasses preliminary-, primary-, secondary as well as partial tertiary treatment, with an additional disinfection step for a part of the process flows. The mean daily influent of ETAR Beira is 2450 [m3]. Short- and long term goals have been set for the sanitation part of the Beira Master Plan 2035. The aim of the short term goals is to increase the flow to the wastewater treatment plant by relining existing sewers, rehabilitating pumping stations and increasing the amount of sewer connections to the existing sewer. Long term goals for the master plan will be set by identifying neighborhoods where improvements to the sanitation network is most necessary. The aim of the long term goals is to increase the access to improved sanitation services by investing in condominial sewer connections for unplanned urban neighborhoods and latrines in peri-urban neighborhoods. By 2035, over 150 000 extra wastewater connections should be in place, requiring an approximate investment of US$ 104 million. This will provide over 1.2 million citizens of Beira with adequate sanitary facilities. Once the short term goals have been met, three treatment options for wastewater reuse have been proposed, aiming to supply Beira industry and shipping to reduce the demand on the municipal treatment works. These treatment schemes are based on an average influent of 5000 [m3/day].

Evaluation The proposed drinking water and wastewater treatment schemes have been evaluated using a MCA. The evaluation has shown that the increased drinking water demand should be met by investing in the expansion of the conventional treatment works at Mutua and the rehabilitation of one of the transmission mains between Mutua and Beira. A pumping station could be built halfway, if the capacity has been tripled. This expansion will involve total investments estimated over AC80 million euro and AC0.68/m3 exploitation costs. For wastewater reuse, the evaluation indicates that RSF in combination with GAC should be considered. Investment and exploitation costs for this option are estimated AC4 million and AC0.47/m3, respectively. Contents

Abbreviations ...... xvii

List of Tables ...... xx

List of Figures ...... xxii Foreword ...... xxiii

Introduction ...... xxv

1 The city of Beira ...... 1

1.1 Geography...... 1 1.2 A brief history of Beira...... 1 1.3 Climate...... 2 1.4 Urban administration...... 3 1.5 Transport infrastructure...... 3

2 Water supply background ...... 5

2.1 Drinking water demand...... 5 2.2 Water distribution networks...... 6 2.3 Drinking water treatment...... 6 2.4 Wastewater efﬂuent reuse...... 7

3 Beira population and drinking water demand ...... 9

3.1 Beira population...... 9 3.2 Beira population growth...... 10 3.2.1 National growth rate for the Republic of Mozambique...... 10 3.2.2 Urban growth rate for the Republic of Mozambique and its relation to neighboring countries...... 10 3.2.3 Urban growth rates within the Republic of Mozambique...... 10 3.2.4 Population growth in Sofala province...... 11 3.3 Future population and growth scenarios for Beira...... 12

xi xii Contents

3.4 Beira demand based on water utility data...... 13 3.4.1 Billed volume for Beira...... 13 3.4.2 Number of drinking water connections in Beira...... 15 3.4.3 Average drinking water demand per neighborhood...... 17 3.5 Generating demand scenarios for Beira 2035...... 19 3.5.1 Demand based on billed trend...... 19 3.5.2 Demand scenarios based on population, NRW and average water demand per inhabitant...... 20 3.6 Demand scenarios for Beira 2035...... 24

4 Drinking water in Beira ...... 27

4.1 Drinking water legislation in Mozambique...... 27 4.1.1 Potable water...... 27 4.1.2 Protection of water quality...... 28 4.1.3 Protection zones...... 28 4.2 Drinking water institutions in Beira...... 28 4.3 Raw water source...... 29 4.4 Drinking Water Treatment Plant Mutua...... 30 4.5 Beira drinking water distribution infrastructure...... 33 4.5.1 Fontenarios - public standpipes...... 34 4.5.2 Beira drinking water distribution network...... 34 4.6 Water treatment and supply scenarios for Beira 2035...... 37 4.6.1 Conventional treatment works...... 37 4.6.2 Reversed Osmosis treatment works...... 44

5 Wastewater in Beira ...... 47

5.1 Legislation...... 47 5.2 Wastewater treatment...... 48 5.2.1 ETAR Beira treatment scheme...... 48 5.2.2 Chemical analysis...... 52 5.3 Sewerage...... 54 5.4 Wastewater reuse for Beira 2035...... 58 5.5 Sanitation planning for Beira 2035...... 62 5.5.1 Current sewer system...... 62 5.5.2 Impact...... 66

6 Weighing the options: evaluating the alternatives for Beira 2035 ...... 69

6.1 Multi Criterea Analysis...... 69 6.2 Drinking water treatment and -infrastructure...... 70 6.3 Wastewater treatment...... 70 6.4 Costs...... 71 6.5 Lifetime...... 72 6.5.1 Drinking water treatment - Lifetime...... 73 6.5.2 Wastewater treatment - Lifetime...... 73 6.6 Impact...... 73 6.7 Spatial conﬂict...... 74 6.8 Robustness...... 75 Contents xiii

6.9 MCA...... 76

7 Conclusions and recommendations ...... 77

7.1 Conclusions...... 77 7.2 Recommendations...... 80 7.2.1 Wastewater...... 80 7.2.2 Drinking water...... 80

Appendix A: Costs per process step ...... 81

Appendix B: Pipeline calculations ...... 97

References ...... 103

Abbreviations

AR Sampling point at interior anaerobic reactor

ARin Sampling point at inﬂuent anaerobic reactor

ARout Sampling point at effluent anaerobic reactor Aw Koppen¨ climate classification - savanna climate BOD Biological Oxygen Demand Ca2+ Calcium CBA Cost Benifit Analysis CD Centro de Distribuiçao˜ (Distribution Center) CFU Colony Forming Units Cl− Chloride CMB Conselho Municipal da Beira Beira municipal council COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CRA Conselho de Regulaçao˜ do Abestecimento de Agua´ Council for regulation of water supply DO Dissolved Oxygen concentration DWTP Drinking Water Treatment Plant EE Estaçao˜ Elevatoria´ Pumping station/Lifting station ETA Estaçao˜ de Tratamento de Aguas´ Water treatment station (see DWTP) ETAR Estaçao˜ de Tratamento de Aguas´ Residuais Station for Treatment of Residual Waters (see WWTP)

xv xvi Abbreviations

FIPAG Fundo de Investimento e Patrimonio´ de Abastecimento de Agua´ National urban water investment and asset holding fund GAC Granular Activated Carbon HDPE High-density polyethylene I&E investment and exploitation INE Instituto Nacional de Estatistica National Institute of Statisctics LDPE Low-density polyethylene MCA Multi Criterea Analysis MDPE Medium-density polyethylene Mg2+ Magnesium + NH4 Ammonium NRW Non-revenue water PAC Powdered Activated Carbon PB Posto de Bombagem Pumping Station pH Acidity PFD Process Flow Diagram PP-R Polypropylene PS Sampling point at influent WWTP after the pumping station PVC Polyvinyl chloride Q Flow or demand RO Reversed Osmosis RSF Rapid Sand Filter or Rapid Sand Filtration 2− SO4 Sulphate SS Suspended Solids TDS Total Dissolved Solids TF Sampling point at effluent trickling filter TH Total Hardness TOC Total Organic Carbon TSS Total Suspended Solids UASB Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket UN United Nations Abbreviations xvii

UF Ultra ﬁltration UV Ultra Violet VSS Volatile Suspended Solids WW Wastewater WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant

List of Tables

1.1 Average maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation in Beira...... 3 2.1 Municipal drinking water balance, showing different types of NRW...... 7 3.1 Beira population data by INE (1950-2012)...... 9 3.2 Annual growth rates for urban centers in Mozambique...... 12 3.3 Growth scenarios for Beira 2035...... 12 3.4 Average potable water demand per neighborhood...... 17 3.5 NRW data for a number of large Southern African cities...... 22 3.6 Relative demand per neighborhood per demand scenario...... 25 4.1 Effluent water quality data from DWTP Mutua (Jan-Jul 2013)...... 33 4.2 Inventory of Beira drinking water pipes by material and cumulative length...... 35 4.3 Costs per conventional treatment supply scenario...... 37 4.4 Estimated total costs per treatment step - 2QMutua ...... 39 4.5 Estimated total costs per treatment step - 3QMutua ...... 39 4.6 Estimated total costs per treatment step - 2QMutua+QMutua ...... 39 4.7 Overview of scenarios...... 42 4.8 Estimated costs for changes in transmission mains...... 44 4.9 Estimated costs per RO supply scenario...... 45 4.10 Estimated total costs per treatment step - RO 3QMutua ...... 45 4.11 Estimated total costs per treatment step - RO 2QMutua ...... 45 4.12 Estimated total costs per treatment step - ROsmall ...... 45 5.1 Temperature in [◦C] measured throughout the WW treatment process...... 53 5.2 pH in [-] measured throughout the WW treatment process...... 53 5.3 DO, measured in [mg O2/L], throughout the WW treatment process...... 54 5.4 BOD and COD in [mg O2/L], for WW treatment process...... 54 5.5 Various parameters measured in process activated sludge...... 55 5.6 Sewer coverage Beira (2004)...... 58 5.7 Average influent and number of low-influent days at ETAR Beira...... 58 5.8 Costs per Wastewater reuse scenario...... 61 5.9 Estimated total costs per treatment step - WW reuse - PAC+UF...... 61 5.10 Estimated total costs per treatment step - WW reuse - RSFOpen + GAC...... 61 5.11 Estimated total costs per treatment step - WW reuse - RSFPressurized + GAC...... 61 5.12 Estimated costs for conventional and condominial sewer connections...... 64 5.13 Increase in drinking water connections for select Beira neighborhoods...... 64 5.14 Cost estimates for improved sanitation in Africa...... 65 5.15 Increase in drinking water connections for select Beira neighborhoods...... 66

xix xx List of Tables

6.1 Percentage of each demand scenario met per treatment alternative...... 74 6.2 Percentage of each demand scenario met per treatment alternative including current installed capacity...... 74 6.3 Industrial RO installations in Sub-Saharan Africa...... 75 6.4 MCA per treatment alternative...... 76 A1 Engineering share - Intake - Conventional...... 82 A2 Engineering share - Microsieves - Conventional...... 83 A3 Engineering share - Flocculation - Conventional...... 84 A4 Engineering share - Lamella - Conventional...... 85 A5 Engineering share - RSF - Conventional...... 86 A6 Engineering share - Clear water reservoir - Conventional...... 87 A7 Engineering share - Intake - RO...... 88 A8 Engineering share - microsieves - RO...... 89 A9 Engineering share - membranes - RO...... 90 A10 Engineering share - Clear water reservoir - RO...... 91 A11 Engineering share - PAC - WW reuse...... 92 A12 Engineering share - UF - WW reuse...... 93 A13 Engineering share - RSF - WW reuse...... 94 A14 Engineering share - GAC - WW reuse...... 95 A15 Engineering share - Clear water storage - WW reuse...... 96 B1 Total ﬂow per transport main by scenario...... 97 B2 Head loss over transport mains - current situation...... 97 B3 Head loss over transport mains - Scenario I...... 98 B4 Head loss over transport mains - Scenario II...... 98 B5 Head loss over transport mains - Scenario III...... 98 B6 Head loss over transport mains - Scenario IV...... 99 B7 Head loss over transport mains - Scenario V...... 99 B8 Head loss over transport mains - Scenario VI...... 99 List of Figures

1.1 Beira, situated at the Pungue and Buzi rivers...... 2 1.2 Average maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation in Beira...... 3 3.1 Total billed monthly volume per connection type January 2010 - June 2013...... 14 3.4 Total connections per type January 2010 - June 2013...... 15 3.2 Trends in billed monthly volume per connection type January 2010 - June 2013.. 16 3.3 Billed residential monthly volume per neighborhood January 2010 - June 2013... 16 3.5 Trends in per connection type January 2010 - June 2013...... 18 3.6 Connections per neighborhood January 2010 - June 2013...... 18 3.7 Average demand per neighborhood - geographically...... 19 3.8 Total billed monthly volume January 2010 - June 2013...... 20 3.9 Population input for demand scenarios...... 21 3.10 NRW input for demand scenarios...... 23 3.11 Average demand per capita...... 24 3.12 Demand versus supply for Beira 2035...... 25 4.1 Physiography and drainage pattern of the Pungue River Basin...... 30 4.2 Water intake for the Beira Water Supply at Dinghy-Dhingy...... 31 4.3 Secondary intake canal at DWTP Mutua...... 31 4.4 Schematic of FIPAG Beira drinking water supply...... 32 4.5 Cumulative lenghth of pipeline in Beira network, by material...... 35 4.6 Beira distribution mains: cumulative length, material and diameter...... 35 4.7 Map of Beira drinking water network...... 36 4.8 PFD for expansion of Beira drinking water treatment (conventional)...... 38 4.9 Schematization of Beira transmission mains...... 40 4.10 Flow increase per scenario...... 43 4.11 Pressure drop over pipelines for different scenarios...... 43 4.12 PFD for expansion of Beira drinking water treatment (RO)...... 44 5.1 Process flow diagram or treatment scheme at ETAR Beira...... 49 5.2 Preliminary/Primary treatment structure at ETAR Beira...... 50 5.3 Froth from oil and fat separation at preliminary treatment...... 50 5.4 Upflow anaerobic reactors at ETAR Beira...... 50 5.5 Sludge drying beds at ETAR Beira...... 50 5.6 Buffering chamber to trickling filters at ETAR Beira...... 51 5.7 Trickling filter at ETAR Beira...... 51 5.8 Secondary clarifier at ETAR Beira...... 51 5.9 Schematic of Beira sewerage lines and pumping stations...... 56

xxi xxii List of Figures

5.10 Daily influent at ETAR Beira from July 2012 to June 2013...... 57 5.11 Histogram of daily influent at ETAR Beira...... 57 5.12 Daily number of hourly precipitation reports from August 2012 to July 2013...... 59 5.13 Daily influent to ETAR Beira for February 2013...... 59 5.14 Process flow diagram for wastewater reuse treatment - Option A...... 60 5.15 Process flow diagram for wastewater reuse treatment - Option B...... 60 5.16 Connection types per neighborhood...... 67 6.1 Investment and exploitation costs for each treatment and distribution scenario.... 72 A1 I&E costs for intake - conventional treatment...... 82 A2 I&E costs for microsieves - conventional treatment...... 83 A3 I&E costs and flocculation volume- conventional treatment...... 84 A4 I&E costs and lamella area for lamella sedimentation - conventional treatment... 85 A5 I&E costs and filter area for RSF - conventional treatment...... 86 A6 I&E costs and volume for clear water storage - conventional treatment...... 87 A7 I&E costs for intake RO...... 88 A8 I&E costs andl as sieve area for microsieves - RO...... 89 A9 I&E costs and membrane are for RO-membranes...... 90 A10 I&E costs and volume for clear water storage - RO...... 91 A11 I&E costs and storage volume for PAC - WW reuse A...... 92 A12 I&E costs and membrane area for UF - WW reuse A...... 93 A13 I&E costs and filter area for RSF - WW reuse B...... 94 A14 I&E costs and filter area for GAC - WW reuse B...... 95 A15 I&E costs and volume for clear water storage - WW reuse...... 96 B1 Flow per pipeline and pipe diameters over pipeline length...... 100 Foreword

A recent study by the Instituto Nacional de Gestao˜ das Calamidades (INGC) in Mozambique indicates that the city of Beira is under serious threat of climate change impact in the absence of a clear strategy for climate change adaptation. This is most relevant for coastal protection, as the city is situated a few meters above sea level, where the Pungue River meets the Indian ocean. Besides coastal protection, there is the challenge to provide safe drinking water to the city from the Pungue river. Recent agricultural developments such as the Beira Agricultural Growth Corridor (BAGC) will increase the demand for water for irrigation purposes. In terms of environment, there is a substantial demand for (newly reclaimed) land in and around Beira. Supplementary space is required for the expanding industrial sector, as a consequence of coal mining in the neighboring province of Tet´ e.´ New space is also needed for housing, as a result of a growing urban population. The increased abstraction from the river for agriculture, industry and sanitation will strain the status of the Pungue river as fresh water source. Saltwater intrusion has already caused the intake of the drinking water treatment plant to be over 100 [km] upstream. In 2010 the Municipality of Beira has developed Plano Beira as a short term strategic plan. This plan concentrates on the current state of municipal affairs and the short term measures required to alleviate the present shortcomings of the municipal infrastructure. The plan also emphasizes that the Municipality of Beira intends to develop a master plan as key planning instrument for the long term. In February 2012, a mission was organized by a consortium consiting of Wit- teveen+Bos, Deltares and NIIRAS, in co-operation with the Municipality of Beira. The aim of this mission was to determine the required scope of the Master Plan Beira 2035.

xxiii

Introduction

The objectives of the Master Plan Beira 2035 with respect to drinking water and sanitation have been set as the scope of this Master of Science thesis work. The scope includes the assessment of the current water treatment facilities, the drinking water distribution infrastructure as well as the wastewater treatment facilities in Beira.

Research question Within the described scope, the objective of the research is to set a framework for the urban water of the city of Beira in 2035. The resulting research questiion is then: What will the desired status of potable water and sanitation infrastructure be in Beira in 2035? A systematic approach has been chosen to provide an answer to this research question, dividing the research into three parts. The ﬁrst part of the report covers background information on the city of Beira and the basics of water supply. The report will then focus on the drinking water- and wastewater utilities of Beira before considering the 2035 situation of the Beira urban water utilities. In turn each part is devided into chapters. The reports’ chapters will each investigate different sub-questions related to the main research question.

Chapter1 provides general data on the city of Beira, including the city’s geography, climate and history as well as a brief outline of the urban administration and transport infrastructure.

Where is Beira and what does it look like?

Chapter2 Serves as a review on background information covering water supply and demand in municipal areas, as well as the incorporation of wastewater reuse in municipal demand- management.

What has been done for urban water utility planning in other places?

Chapter3 looks into the population and demographics of the city as well as population dynamics, aiming to characterize the future population of the city. The chapter wll then assess the demand for potable water in the city of Beira, based on population growth and utility billings.

What will the population of Beira be in 2035? How much water will is consumed in Beira? What will the drinking water demand be in Beira in 2035?

xxv xxvi

Chapter4 will also identify the relevant drinking water legislation in Mozambique and the different institutions on the topic of drinking water in Beira. Furthermore, an overview of the different facets pertaining to potable water supply in Beira will be given, including the raw water source and treatment works. A summary of the drinking water distribution network in Beira will also be given, paying special attention to the materials used for the pipes. A number of treatment options for meeting the demand scenarios given in chapter3 will be given. Conventional treatment options, as well as desalination by reversed osmosis will be ex- plored. Moreover, it is shown which alterations to the drinking water transport mains will be necessary to deliver the increased supply capacity to the city of Biera. Changes to the pipeline material, pipeline diameter and operating pressure are investigated as possible options.

What is the legislation on potable water in Mozambique? What institutions are responsible for potable water in Beira? What is the current state of potable water infrastructure in Beira? What is the state of the distribution mains in the drinking water network? How can the 2035 demand be met? How must the drinking water transport mains be organized?

Chapter5 will elaborate on the current situation regarding the wastewater treatment facility as well as sewerage for the city of Beira. Wastewater reuse options will also be presented. Furthermore, attention will be paid to planning for sanitation for Beira 2035. This will give an indication as to the future investments and required sanitation infrastructure.

What is the legislation on the subject of sanitation and sewerage in Mozambique? What is the current state of sanitation and sewerage assets in Beira? What are the options for wastewater reuse for Beira? How must the sanitation in Beira be organized in 2035 and what will that cost?

Chapter6 aims to evaluate the options presented in Chapter4 and Chapter5 and prioritize them. In order to accomplish this, criteria for assessing the scenarios will be put forward. The different scenarios will then be judged according to these criteria using a multi criteria analysis (MCA).

According to which criteria can the scenarios be judged? Using these criteria, which scenario is most suited for Beira 2035?

Chapter7 provides an interpretation of preceding sections, culminating in an answer to the main research question: What will the desired status of potable water and sanitation infrastructure be in Beira in 2035? Chapter 1 The city of Beira

This chapter provides general data on the city of Beira, including the city’s geography, climate and a short history of the city. A summary of the urban administration of Beira is also given. Furthermore, the transport infrastructure for the city is outlined.

1.1 Geography

The Republic of Mozambique is located on the eastern coast of southern Africa. The country encompasses an area of around 802 00 [km2] and boasts a coastline of approximately 2 800 [km]. The Republic of Mozambique borders the United Republic of Tanzania, the Republic of Malawi and the Republic of Zambia to the North. The western border of the country is shared with the Republic of Zimabwe as well as the Kingdom of Swaziland and the Republic of South Africa to the South-West. Mozambique’s eastern border is deﬁned by its coastline on the Indian Ocean. Beira is the capital of Sofala province in Mozambique and is located at the mouth of the Pungue River at the Indian ocean (19.83◦S, 34.84◦E). The Buzi river forms an estuary, emptying to the Mozambique channel, west of Beira. Figure 1.1 shows the city of Beira as well as the courses of the rivers Pungue and Buzi, ﬂowing towards the Mozambique channel [1].

1.2 A brief history of Beira

Beira was established by the Portuguese in 1887, receiving city-status in 1907. Beira was the headquarters of the Companhia de Moc¸ambique and the administration of the city passed from this trading company to the Portuguese government in 1942 [1]. After Independence from Portugal in 1975, Mozambique was ravaged by a civil war from 1977 to 1992. In Beira this led to a collapse of municipal infrastructure, as the surrounding rural population ﬂed towards the city, resulting in a large population increase in short time. Currently, Beira is Mozambique’s second largest city [2].

1 2

Fig. 1.1: Beira, situated at the Pungue and Buzi rivers

1.3 Climate

From historical weather data, the average monthly climate of the city of Beira can be calculated from a 17-year dataset. Average monthly precipitation, calculated from a 82-year dataset, is also given. These data are shown in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.2, respectively [3][4]. According to this data, the climate in Beira is classiﬁed by the Koppen-Geiger¨ climate classiﬁca- tion as a tropical wet and dry or savanna climate, denoted by the abbreviation ”Aw”. This climate is characterized by a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation of less than 60 [mm/month] and a yearly precipitation of no more than 2500 [mm/year] [5]. 1 The city of Beira 3

Table 1.1: Average maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation in Beira [4]

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Avg. high [◦C] 32 32 31 30 27 28 Avg. low [◦C] 24 24 23 22 19 18 Avg. precipitation [mm] 272 210 259 103 62 32

Month Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg. high [◦C] 25 26 28 31 31 31 Avg. low [◦C] 16 17 18 22 22 23 Avg. precipitation [mm] 30 28 21 117 119 240

Fig. 1.2: Average maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation in Beira [3]

1.4 Urban administration

The limits of the municipality of Beira are deﬁned by the Mozambique channel to the east. The southern and western borders of the municipality are delineated by the Pungue river. The northern administrative border of Beira is shared with the town of Dondo. The total area of the municipality of Beira that lays between these deﬁned borders is 631 [km2][6].

1.5 Transport infrastructure

A brief summary of the transport infrastructure in Beira can be given by considering the city’s port and its pipeline connection, its main roads, the railway lines linking Beira and Beira international airport. 4

Port The port of Beira acts as a gateway for central Mozambique as well as for the landlocked nations of Malawi, Zambia and Zimabwe. The principal exploit of the port of Beira is the import of commodities and fuel as well as the export of coked coal, grains and fertilizer. The port of Beira has an advantage over the other ports in the region, such as Durban in South Africa and Dar-Es-Salaam in Tanzania, due to its relative proximity to major urban centers in South East Africa as Lusaka in Zambia, Blantyre in Malawi and Harare in Zimbabwe [7].

Pipeline Companhia do Pipeline Moçambiqe-Zimbabwe (CPMZ) owns and operates a fuel- pipeline transporting 1.6 million [m3/year] of refined petroleum oil from Beira to Feruka in Zim- babwe. The refined petroleum enters Beira by ship, as no oil refineries are located in Beira [8].

Roads Because of its port, Beira is connected by road to Malawi (EN102/103), Zambia (EN102/221) and Zimbabwe (EN6) [9].

Railways Two railway lines provide a connection to the city of Beira. The Machipanda railway line links Beira, and its port, to Zimbabwe in the west. Trains transport wheat and fertilizer to Zimbabwe and return to Beira with containers for shipping. The Sena railway line has recently been reconstructed, linking Beira to the coal mines in Moatize, in Northern Mozambique. This railway transports 3 million tons of coal per year from the mines in the North to the harbor of Beira. Additionally, the Sena railway continues to Malawi and Zambia to the north [7].

Airport Beira’s airport was opened in 1952 and serves international ﬂights to Johannesburg (South Africa) and Harare (Zimbabwe) as well as ﬂights to Chimoio, Maputo, Nampula, Pemba and Tete within Mozambique. Chapter 2 Water supply background

This chapter serves as a review of background literature on drinking water supply to municipal areas. The structure of the chapter will follow the trends in municipal drinking water demand as well as the most important terminology in distribution network management. In the section on the drinking water distribution network, special attention will be placed on non-revenue water; its deﬁnition and statistics. Next, the chapter will assess the functions and risks of drinking water treatment works. Lastly, this chapter will highlight cases of wastewater treatment plant efﬂuent reuse. The goal of this chapter is to reference other drinking water supply master plans which have been realized or in the process of being implemented. Special attention will be paid to those master plans implemented in urban areas in developing countries.

2.1 Drinking water demand

In addressing the basic water requirements for human activities, it has been recommended to international organizations, national- and local governments and water providers to adopt a basic potable water requirement standard for human needs of 50 liters per person per day. It is also recommended to guarantee access to this water independent of economic, social or political status [10]. The ﬁrst phase of planning the future drinking water supply is the characterization of the drinking water demand by sector. Thus, the drinking water demand can not only be expressed by the demand per capita, but also by the demand for household use, commercial use and industrial use. While municipal water use currently constitutes a 10% share of the current global water use, several studies project a signiﬁcant increase of municipal water use in the future. In particular, the WaterGAP2 model projects a sectoral withdrawal of 31% for the municipal sector in 2075, while the ANEMI model produces a municipal water share of 20% by that time. These models take into account socio-economic factors, namely GDP growth and population [11]. Past trends show that greater water demand was met by expanding the supply infrastructure to secure the amount of water needed. Recently, competition among water users (e.g. municipal

5 6 water, industry, energy and agriculture) shows a change in focus from supply management to demand management [12]. For example, water-use efficiency has been promoted in municipalities as Windhoek (Namibia) and Alexandira (Egypt), by moving away from a flat rate pricing system to a volumetric and block tariff structure [13][14]. Yet another example of demand management can be found in the implementation of indoor conservation technologies, such as those implemented in the municipality of Windhoek (Namibia). In this case, restrictive measures, such as the prohibition of automatic flushing devices without user activation, and the ban on watering gardens during high-evaporation times were implemented. Pro-active measures, such as retrofitting water efficient equipment in the instances of dual-flush toilets and obligatory water metering were also put into practice in Windhoek [13].

2.2 Water distribution networks

The coverage of the drinking water supply network can be coarsely characterized by equating the per capita demand to the water produced. Yet, this ﬁgure will only be a coarse indication, as water loss resulting from poor infrastructure, poor sanitation and intermittent supply, causes the total coverage within a municipality to decrease. These factors also often pose a serious health risk to the municipal population [15]. However, excessive misuse of water and “apparent losses”, combined with inadequate metering procedure and low tariff structure, could result in “apparent” losses of the distribution network. So, these apparent losses are not physical losses from the distribution system, but are comprised of unauthorized consumption and customer metering inaccuracies. [16] The real losses from the system are made up from leakage in distribution mains, leakage and overﬂows at the drinking water utilities storage reservoirs and leakage at service connections up to the point if customer metering [16]. Together, the real and apparent losses make up the total water losses. Combining these water losses with authorized unbilled metered consumption and authorized unbilled unmetered consumption gives the non-revenue water (NRW), as shown in Table 2.1[15]. It is believed that it is not unrealistic to reduce that physical losses can be reduced by half in developing countries, where non-revenue water amounts to 35% of the system input, on average. Physical losses make up over 60% of these losses in developing countries. NRW accounted for 34% of the system input in Nairobi (Kenya) and 14% of the system input for Windhoek (Namibia) [17]. In the Toson-Abu kir and Hadara neighborhoods in Alexandria (Egypt), the apparent losses were reduced from 35% to 15% and 50% to 36%, respectively [14].

2.3 Drinking water treatment

The WHO sets the global standard for potable water quality. Potable water is water of a suf- ﬁciently high quality that can be consumed without risk of immediate or long-term harm. The 2 Water supply background 7

Table 2.1: Municipal drinking water balance, showing different types of NRW [15]

Billed Billed Metered Consumption Revenue Authorized Authorized Consumption Water Billed Unmetered Consumption Consumption Unbilled Unbilled Metered Consumption Authorized Consumption Unbilled Unmetered Consumption System Input Unauthorized Consumption Commercial Volume Non Losses Metering Inaccuracies and Revenue Data Handling Errors Water Water Leakage on Transmission and/or Losses Distribution Mains Physical Leakage and Overflows Losses at Utility’s Storage Tanks Leakage on Service Connections up to Point of Customer Metering primary role of a drinking water treatment works is to ensure a standardized quality of water for distribution, reducing the risks to immediate or long term harm [18][19]. The implementation of drinking water treatment works should reduce three main risks. Firstly, risks arising from waterborne infections. Second, risks arising from chemical contaminants. Third, risks arising from the acceptability aspects of water [18]. The first issue of waterborne infections can be directly linked to Beira, as the city experienced an outbreak of El Tor Ogawa cholera between January and May 2004. Pathogens not removed during the treatment process cause an increased burden to public health. [20] Chemical contaminants, such as organic compounds and heavy metals, cause toxicological effects. An increased number of organic compounds with carcinogenic and/or mutagenic prop- erties was found in 1981 in the Netherlands, leading to legislation concerning the detection and removal of these compounds. Some of these chemical contaminants are naturally occur- ring, while others originate from industrial installations or agricultural activities (e.g. pesticides). Chemicals used for coagulation and disinfection, as well as disinfection by products from the treatment works can also form a chemical contaminant risk [19]. Lastly, acceptability risks are constituted by organoleptic parameters: color, taste and odor. These parameters could indicate the presence of, for instance, iron or manganese, but also undermine the confidence of consumers and could lead to the use of water which are less safe and/or unregulated [19].

2.4 Wastewater efﬂuent reuse

Faced with fully exploited water sources within a 500 [km] radius, uncertain rainfall and the occurrence of long dry spells and severe droughts, the city of Windhoek (Namibia) approved the reuse of reclaimed wastewater, accounting for 26% of the total municipal water supply. Currently, the city diversifies its water sources, abstracting water from the Von Bach dam reservoir (66%) 8 and 50 municipal wells (8%). Additionally, sports fields, parks and cemeteries are irrigated by sewage treatment plant effluent, thus lowering the withdrawal from freshwater sources [13]. Similarly, with population increasing and the availability in freshwater reducing by 50% from 1947 to 2007, the city of Alexandria has assessed its supply-demand balance by also focusing on effluent reuse. The reuse of wastewater for industrial and agricultural purposes has been projected to keep below the set limit for freshwater extraction from the Nile river until 2037 [21]. Chapter 3 Beira population and drinking water demand

This chapter looks into the population and demographics of the city as well as population dynamics, aiming to characterize the future population of the city. Typifying the growth of the city’s population will lead to possible scenarios for the size of the Beira’s population in 2035. Also, the billing data for drinking water consumption in the city will be given, including both demand and total connections. This data will be divided into residential-, industrial- and public consumption and connections. Furthermore, the residential consumption and connections will be itemized per neighborhood. Lastly, the population and billings statistics will be used as a basis for three 2035 drinking water demand scenarios for the city of Beira.

3.1 Beira population

The current population of the municipality, according to the district statistics for the city of Beira, published in November 2012, encompasses 456 005 citizens. This number is based on the national census of 2007 and adapted by INE in the national yearly projections. The growth of the population in Beira over selected intervals from 1950 is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Beira population data by INE (1950-2012) [22]

*projected Year 1950 1960 1970 1980 1992 1997 Population [-] 42 000 58 200 113 770 230 744 409 260 412 588

Year 2007 *2008 *2009 *2010 *2011 *2012 Population [-] 444 369 441 865 449 238 451 749 454 003 456 005

9 10 3.2 Beira population growth

The population growth for the city of Beira over the coming years can be projected using different sets of data. Firstly, national statistics on total population growth, and their relation to the growth rates of neighboring countries. Secondly, the national statistics on the urban growth rate and their relation to urban growth in neighboring countries. Thirdly, the population dynamics of the urban centers within Mozambique. Lastly, the population growth in Sofala province, where the city of Beira is located.

3.2.1 National growth rate for the Republic of Mozambique

The United Nations (UN) statistics database projects a decline in total population growth rate for the Republic of Mozambique. This receding trend started around 1992. The current yearly population growth for the country is 2.2%. The projected yearly population growths for 2025 and 2050 are 2.0% and 1.4%, respectively [23]. In the neighboring countries, the United Republic of Tanzania and the Republic of Zambia, the population growth is approximately 1% higher, and in the Republic of South Africa the yearly population growth is 1.75% lower than the national yearly growth rate in Mozambique [23][24] [25][26].

3.2.2 Urban growth rate for the Republic of Mozambique and its relation to neighboring countries

Another trend is the population growth in urban areas, which can be different than the national average or the population growth rate in rural areas. The current projected urban growth for Mozambique is between 3.0% and 3.5% and shows an increasing trend until 2025. This growth rate is 1.0% to 1.5% higher than the national projected growth rate. For the neighboring countries, Zambia and Tanzania, the urban growth rates are 4.0% and 4.5%, respectively. In South Africa, the urban growth rate is below 2.0% and shows a recessive trend [23][24][25][26].

3.2.3 Urban growth rates within the Republic of Mozambique

The urban population and annual population growth rate for the major population centers in Mozambique are shown in Table 3.2. The annual growth in this table is calculated from 1997 to 2007. The population growth in Beira, totaling 1.1%, is among the lowest of all major towns and cities in Mozambique, and is lower than the national growth rate of 2.2% and the national urban growth rate, numbering between 3.0% and 3.5% [27]. 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 11

Table 3.2 shows a spatial variation in population dynamics in Mozambique. In general, it seems that the population centers in the southern regions in Mozambique experience a relatively low population growth, when compared to the other listed cities and towns. An exception to this observation is found for the city of Matola, the satellite city of the capital Maputo, possibly due to the presence of a port and the largest industrial area of Mozambique in that city. [27] The highest population growth is observed in the northern regions, at the cities of Lichinga, Pemba, Nacala, Nampula and Tete. The two other centrally located towns of Chimoio and Que- limane show an average population growth. In this central region, Beira shows the lowest annual population growth of 1.1% [27].

3.2.4 Population growth in Sofala province

Using the data from Table 3.2 and expanding on the population dynamics within Beira from 1970 onwards, it is calculated that the annual population growth for the city amounted 7.3% between 1970 and 1980. This high growth rate during these years can be attributed to displaced peoples from the countryside seeking refuge in the city during the civil war years [27]. From 1980 to the 1997 census, the population growth for Beira is calculated to be 3.5%. Linking the 1997 census with the census data from 2007, the population growth for the city is set at 1.1% [28]. Relating this relatively low growth rate to the population dynamics within the province of Sofala could offer an outcome in explaining the background of this statistic. The annual population increase in Sofala province between 1997 and 2007 was 2.7%, as compared to 2.2% national population growth. Five districts in Sofala province recorded an average annual population growth exceeding 4%, while Beira city recorded the lowest population increase within the province [28]. Now, this low population growth rate could be explained when relating Beira to the regions in its immediate surroundings within Sofala province [29]. Firstly, the age distribution in Beira compared to the other districts within Sofala province show a relatively high representation of working age adults (aged 20-55) in Beira, as well as fewer children between the ages of 0 years and 10 years. Furthermore, the illiteracy rate in Beira, registered at 16%, is substantially lower than the average illiteracy rate of 43% in Sofala province. It has been proven that birth control measures are adopted ﬁrstly by those with higher level of education, and particularly those living in cities and towns. This is reﬂected by the lower birth rate in Beira as compared to the other districts with illiteracy levels equal to the Sofala province average [27][28]. Lastly, for 7 of the 13 districts in Sofala province, there was a positive migration balance. For Beira this migration balance was negative. This could be due to post-civil war effects, as it appears that most of the recorded migration to Beira within the civil war years originated from within the boundaries of Sofala province [28]. 12

Table 3.2: Annual growth rates for urban centers in Mozambique [27][28]

City Province Region Population (2007) [-] annual growth [%] Maxixe Inhambane South West 106 000 0.56 Maputo Lourenco Marques South West 1 100 000 0.90 Xai-Xai Gaza South West 116 000 0.90 Beira Sofala Center West 444 300 1.10 Inhambane Inhambane South West 64 000 1.31 Quelimane Zambezia Center West 193 000 1.96 Nacala Nampula North East 208 000 2.06 Chimoio Manica Center West 239 000 2.67 Tete Tete Center East 153 000 3.52 Nampula Nampula North West 478 000 3.79 Matola Maputo South West 675 000 3.88 Pemba Cabo Delgado North West 141 000 4.31 Lichinga Niasse North East 142 000 4.40

3.3 Future population and growth scenarios for Beira

Taking into account these statistics, a number of growth scenarios for the future population of Beira can be distinguished. The first scenario, as characterized by the INE in which the city of Beira experiences an annual population growth rate of 1.1%, The second scenario will assume a growth of 2.25%, which uses the national as well as the provincial annual growth rates as a guide. This second scenario will be defined as “low-growth”. A third scenario, defined as the “middle-growth” scenario, can also be identified, where the annual population growth for Beira is related to the average growth rate for urban populations in Mozambique. Lastly, a scenario defined as “high-growth” scenario is created, where a 4.25% annual population growth is assumed for the city of Beira, keeping into account the maximum national urban growth rates at Pemba and Lichinga. Within these scenarios, the “low-growth” as well as the “high-growth” scenario are believed to be the determinative scenarios, corresponding with the likely minimum regional growth rate and the maximum anticipated population growth rate. These scenarios are outlined in Table 3.3. The projected population of Beira in 2035 is given for each scenario, as well as the reference for the assumed growth numbers.

Table 3.3: Growth scenarios for Beira 2035

Scenario INE low growth middle-growth high growth Growth rate 1.1% 2.25% 3.25% 4.25% Basis INE National growth rate, Average national Maximum national projection provincial growth rate urban growth rate urban growth rate Population (2035) 604 000 827 000 1 088 000 1 422 000

Taking a look at section 3.3, the 2035 population of Beira is forecasted using a low-growth scenario and a high-growth scenario. The forecasted populations a given in Table 3.3, showing population of 827 000 inhabitants in the low-growth situation and a population of 1 422 000 inhabitants in the high-growth forecast. 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 13

These projected demands can be translated into a required treatment capacity, as approximated by equation 3.1: Population × Demand Capacity = (3.1) 1 − NRW

Where the capacity is calculated in [m3/day]. The variable ”Population” is the number of inhabitants of the city. ”Demand” is the average personal consumption per inhabitant in [m3/person/day]. The variable ”NRW” is the fraction of non-revenue water. For example, an unaccounted-for-water of 10% equates to NRW=0.1. The following sections will elaborate on possible values for these variables for Beira 2035, using billings data from the drinking water utility as well as regional statistics.

3.4 Beira demand based on water utility data

One approach to calculating the required treatment capacity can be found by analysing data from FIPAG, the municipal water utility in Beira. The drinking water company in Beira has made the total monthly billed volume as well as the number of connections available starting from January 2010 until June 2013. In this section, these data will be divided by connection type and by neighborhood.

3.4.1 Billed volume for Beira

The bar chart in Figure 3.1 shows the billed monthly volume in thousands of [m3]. The billed volume is subdivided into industrial- and residential connections as well as public standpipes. The most recen data from June 2013 shows a total billed volume of 740×103 [m3]. In this month, residential connections totaled 620×103 [m3], accounting for 84% of the overall billed volume. Industrial connections made up 14% of the total billed volume: 105×103 [m3]. The public standpipes - or fontenarios, as they are called in Mozambique - made up for the remaining 2% of the total billed volume. These public connections consumed 13×103 [m3] of the total billed volume. The data from Figure 3.1 has been decomposed into the three trend graphs shown in Figure 3.2, showing distinct trends for the consumption of potable water by the different connections. A declining trend for the public standpipes is shown. This trend coincides with Mozambican national policy, stating the public connections are to be slowly phased out in favor of residential connections [27]. 14

Connection type /month] 3 Industrial Public.standpipes Residential x 1000 [m billed Q 0 200 400 600 800 Jul−2013 Jul−2012 Jul−2011 Jul−2010 Apr−2013 Apr−2012 Apr−2011 Apr−2010 Oct−2012 Oct−2011 Oct−2010 Jan−2013 Jan−2012 Jan−2011 Jan−2010

Fig. 3.1: Total billed monthly volume per connection type January 2010 - June 2013

The residential connections, in turn, show a linear trend in consumption over the time series. The trend in industrial consumption is less clear. A drop in in industrial consumption is noticeable around October 2011, falling to a minimum industrial demand of 88×103 [m3] in February 2012. The industrial trend rises again, stabilising again in October 2012. The lack of a clear trend can be attributed to the nature of industrial consumption in Beira, with a relatively large portion of the total billed volume (14%) is used by 0.3% of the clients (see ﬁgure 3.5). Thus, the closing of one large industrial consumer will have a noticable effect on the industrial potable water use.

Trends per neighborhood - residential consumption A breakdown of the residential use by neighborhood is given in Figure 3.3, where the distribution area in the neighborhoods of Manga & Inhamizua accounted for over 25% of the total biled volume in June 2013. This area als shows an the highest increase in potable water consumption over the period between January 2010 and June 2013. 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 15 3.4.2 Number of drinking water connections in Beira

A similar approach as in section 3.4.1 can be made for the number of drinking water connections in Beira over the same deﬁned period of time. Analysis of the amount of connections serve to corroborate and explain the trends in section 3.4.1. This data is also used to calculate the average water demand per person per day per neighborhood in Beira.

Trends per connection type - connections A bar chart akin to Figure 3.1 is given in Figure 3.4, showing the total number of connections, divided into industrail-, residential- and public use. It can be seen that the amount of residential connections is signiﬁcantly larger than the number of connections for industrial- and public use. In June of 2013, 50482 residential connections were registered at FIPAG - 99% of the total amount. In the same month 194 connections were active for industrail use and 556 connections were listed for public standpipes, 0.3% and 0.7% of the total number, respectively. Figure 3.5 gives a breakdown of the trends per connection type. Residential connections have been increasing linearly since January 2010, at a rate of 589 connections per month. Public connections have stagnated around 555 connections, corresponding with national policy, as elaborated in section 3.4.1.

Connection type Industrial Public.standpipes Residential Number of connections [−] 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 Jul−2013 Jul−2012 Jul−2011 Jul−2010 Apr−2013 Apr−2012 Apr−2011 Apr−2010 Oct−2012 Oct−2011 Oct−2010 Jan−2013 Jan−2012 Jan−2011 Jan−2010

Fig. 3.4: Total connections per type January 2010 - June 2013 16

Fig. 3.2: Trends in billed monthly volume per connection type January 2010 - June 2013

Chaimiti Chipanhara Dondo Esturro 0 10 20 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 40 0 20 40 60 Macurrungo Macuti Manga&Inhamizua Maquinino /month] 3 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 10 20 30 Matacuane Muchatazina Munhava Munhava.Mananga x 1000 [m billed Q 0 20 40 60 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30 Palmeiras.I Palmeiras.II Pioneiros Ponta.Gea 0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13

Fig. 3.3: Billed residential monthly volume per neighborhood January 2010 - June 2013 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 17

Industrial connections show an exponential growth. These conections are deﬁnied by the municipal water utility as connections with a diameter larger than 50 [mm]. This growing trend in industrial connections does not correspond with the decrease in consumption shown in Figure 3.2. However, this can be ascribed to the unique nature of the industrial connections, where one connection can account for a consumption of over 20×103 [m3/month].

Trends per neighborhood - residential connections Corroborating Figure 3.3, the number residential connections over the time series are given in Figure 3.6. The 17735 connections in the distribution area of Manga & Inhamizua in June 2013 are good for over 35% of the total residential connections. While that distribution area shows a signiﬁcant growth in the number of connections, special attention must also be paid to the neighborhoods of Munhava Mananga and Matacuane, where the number of connections since January 2010 has doubled.

3.4.3 Average drinking water demand per neighborhood

Using the data on billed volume per neighborhood and the number of connections per neighborhood, together with the average occupancy rate per household as given by INE in the 2007 census data, the average consumption per person per day is calculated per neighborhood. The fontenario occupancy is given as 250, as explained in section 4.5.1. Table 3.4 shows the average consumption per neighborhood as well as the average consumption for the city. Two averages for the city are given, one including fontenarios and another excluding these public connections. Figure 3.7 shows the consumption per neighborhood in geographical context.

Table 3.4: Average potable water demand per neighborhood

Served Consumption Avg.Consumption Neighborhood Occupancy Connections population [m3/month] [L/person/day] Chaimiti 5 1059 5295 22650 143 Chipanhara 4 3399 13596 32347 79 Dondo 5 4225 21125 38215 60 Esturro 5 2785 13925 41689 100 Macurrungo 6 3713 22278 42720 64 Macuti 5 1911 9555 28876 101 Mafambisse 5 1001 5005 5370 36 Maquinino 5 1172 5860 23318 133 Matacuane 6 4174 25044 51681 69 Muchatazina 5 1552 7760 14937 64 Munhava 5 1215 6075 13676 75 Munhava.Mananga 6 2727 16362 32512 66 Palmeiras.I 5 338 1690 9068 179 Palmeiras.II 5 409 2045 8209 134 Pioneiros 7 919 6433 20493 106 Ponta.Gea 6 2148 12888 44623 115 Manga & Inhamizua 8 17735 141880 190427 45 Fontenarios 250 600 150000 13252 3 Avg.fontenarios - - 466816 634063 45 Avg.no.fontenarios - - 316816 620811 65 18

Fig. 3.5: Trends in per connection type January 2010 - June 2013

Chaimiti Chipanhara Dondo Esturro 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 Macurrungo Macuti Manga&Inhamizua Maquinino 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 5 10 15 0.000.250.500.751.00 Matacuane Muchatazina Munhava Munhava.Mananga Number of connections x 1000 [−] 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 Palmeiras.I Palmeiras.II Pioneiros Ponta.Gea 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13 Apr−10 Oct−10 Apr−11 Oct−11 Apr−12 Oct−12 Apr−13

Fig. 3.6: Connections per neighborhood January 2010 - June 2013 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 19

Fig. 3.7: Average demand per neighborhood - geographically

3.5 Generating demand scenarios for Beira 2035

In this section, three demand scenarios will be given. The ﬁrst scenario is generated using the trend in billed water volume and the trend in residential connections. Two scenarios are based on the population growth numbers.

3.5.1 Demand based on billed trend

This demand scenario follows the linear trend in the billed water consumption for the city over the period between January 2010 and June 2013. Figure 3.8 shows the total billed monthly volume over the defined time series. This figure includes a blue trendline and a 95% confidence area, indicated by gray shading. This trendline can be approximated with a linear function, as described in equation 3.2: 20

Qbilled = 3.7486 × nmonths + 612.04 (3.2)

3 Where Qbilled is given in thousands of [m /month] and nmonths is the number of months starting in January 2010. Equation 3.2 agrees with the trendline in Figure 3.8, with an R2 coefﬁcient of 96%.

Treatment capacity based on monthly billed volume Using this formula to predict the future drinking water demand for 2035 would mean to predict the drinking water demand over 25 years - 300 months. The expected future billed volume will then amount to 1.74×106 [m3/month], or conversely 58×103 [m3/day].

Fig. 3.8: Total billed monthly volume January 2010 - June 2013

3.5.2 Demand scenarios based on population, NRW and average water demand per inhabitant

Besides using the billed waster trend, two scenarios have been generated for the 2035 situation in Beira. These demand scenarios use equation 3.1 and must then take into account take into account population growth, NRW and an average water demand per inhabitant. 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 21

3.5.2.1 Population growth scenarios for Beira

The 2007 census in Beira gives a baseline population of 444 300 [inhabitants] for the city of Beira. The modeled population of the city for each scenario is shown in Figure 3.9. The ﬁgure shows that an average population growth was used from the census data until June 2013, at which different growth rate scenarios have been modelled.

High demand The high-demand scenario uses a population growth of 4.25 [%].The modeled scenario begins in July 2013 with a population of 0.55×106 inhabitants. With this growth rate, the population of the city will amount to 1.34×106 inhabitants at the start of 2035.

Low demand An annual growth of 2.25 [%] was used for the low-demand scenario, with a modeled population of 0.55×106 inhabitants in July 2013 and a population of 0.88×106 in January 2035.

Billed trend For the billed trend, an average population growth of 3.25 [%] was used, resulting in 0.55×106 inhabitants in July 2013. At the start of 2035, a population of 1.1×106 persons is used.

Population growth Scenario High − 4.25% Low − 2.25% Average − 3.25% Population x 1000 [inhabitants] Population 600 800 1000 1200

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 Year

Fig. 3.9: Population input for demand scenarios 22

3.5.2.2 NRW scenarios for Beira

Table 3.5 gives unaccounted for water ﬁgures for a number of large Southern African cities. Unaccounted for water ﬁgures vary from 16% for Walvis Bay in Namibia up to 65% for Mwanza in Tanzania. As a reference, according to data collected by the World Bank the mean level of non-revenue water for waterutilities in developed countries is 16% [30]. The trends in NRW used for the calculation of the NRW is shown are in Figure 3.10.

Table 3.5: Non-revenue water data for a number of large Southern African cities [30]

city country metered connections [%] NRW [%] Luanda Angola 40 60 Gaborone Botswana 100 20 Kinshasa DR Congo 76 47 Maseru Lesotho 97 32 Port Louis Mauritius 100 45 Maputo Mozambique 100 34 Windhoek Namibia 100 11 Greater Victoria Seychelles 100 26 Mbabane Swaziland 100 32 Dar Es Salaam Tanzania 10 60 Lusaka Zambia 44 56 Harare Zimbabwe 85 30

The current treatment capacity of the Beira water treatment works is 49200 [m3/day] and has not increased since 1997 (see section4.4) . Then, the water produced in June 2013 is 1.48×106 [m3]. The total billed consumption in June 2013 was 0.74×106[m3]. Using this data, the NRW in Beira is calculated to be 50 [%]. While the treatment capacity has remained constant, the billed water volume in January 2010 has was 0.61×106 [m3]. For this month, NRW is calculated to be 60.2[%]. With the billed consumption during this period increasing linearly, it is expected that the fraction of NRW will decrease linearly by the same rate. Thus, the 10.3 [%] decrease in NRW over the 42 months between January 2010 and June 2013 quantify a rate of decline of 0.25 [%] per month or 3 [%] per year. The trend in NRW over the period between January 2010 and June 2013 is shown in Figure 3.10, in red.

High demand Keeping into account the 0.25 [%] monthly decline in NRW from the billings data, the NRW for the high demand scenario is modeled to decrease with this tendency, until an overall NRW of 34 [%] has been reached September 2018. The NRW percentage is then modeled to remain at 34 [%]. This percentage of NRW is equal to that in the Mozambican capital of Maputo, as indicated by Table 3.5.

Low demand For this case, the World Bank the mean level of NRW for water utilities in developed countries will be used. This is given at 16 [%]. So, assuming a constant annual decline of 3 [%] for NRW in Beira, a NRW percentage will be reached in September 2024. The NRW is then modeled to remain constant until January 2035. 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 23

Billed trend The total demand for this scenario does not explicitly take NRW into account. The NRW is implicit in the billed volume over the period between January 2010 and June 2013. From the billed data over this period, a formula for the water demand was derived, given in equation 3.2.

NRW Scenario FIPAG billings High NRW Low NRW Non−revenue water (NRW) [%] (NRW) water Non−revenue 20 30 40 50 60

2011 2014 2017 2020 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 Year

Fig. 3.10: NRW input for demand scenarios

3.5.2.3 Scenarios for average demand per inhabitant in Beira

This demand-deﬁning characteristic is modeled to linearly increase over the period between July 2013 and January 2035 for the high-demand and low-demand scenario. The average demand for the city at the end of June 2013 is 45 [L/person/day], in accordance with Table 3.4.

High-demand For this case, the linearly increases from 45 [L/person/day] to 133 [L/person/day] between July 2013 and January 2035. The monthly demand increase is 0.34 [L/person/day].

Low-demand The linear monthly demand increase for the low-demand scenario is 0.21 [L/person/day]. The demand in January 2035 is modeled at 100 [L/person/day].

Billed trend With the total demand extrapolated from the billed data, the average demand for this case has been calculated by dividing the total demand by the population. The highest average demand is 58 [L/person/day]. 24

Average per capita demand FIPAG billings High Low Installed capacity Average demand [L/person/day] Average 40 60 80 100 120

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 Year

Fig. 3.11: Average demand per capita

3.6 Demand scenarios for Beira 2035

Combining the population, NRW and average demand gives the demand trends shown in Figure 3.12. The figure shows that while NRW decreases, the growth in total demand is moderated. From September 2018 in the high-demand case and from September 2024 in the low-demand case, the growth in total demand is less restrained. The dotted lines in the figure represent the supply of drinking water in Beira. The current capacity of the drinking water treatment plant at Mutua of 2050 [m3/h] (see Chapter4) is indicated by the bottom line in the figure. By expanding the existing the tertiary treatment capacity of the Beira wastewater treatment works to 5000 [m3/day] (see Chapter5), doubling and/or tripling the capacity of the drinking water treatment works, an attempt is made to meet the set demand scenarios. Table 3.6 shows the relative demand per neighborhood per scenario. 3 Beira population and drinking water demand 25

WW reuse + 3x capacity Demand

/month] Scenario 3 FIPAG billings High demand WW reuse Low demand

[ x 1000 m + 2x capacity Trend demand Q

2000WW reuse 4000 6000

current capacity

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 Year

Fig. 3.12: Demand versus supply for Beira 2035

Table 3.6: Relative demand per neighborhood per demand scenario

Demand Trend Low demand High demand Neighborhood 2013 [%] scenario[%] scenario[%] scenario[%] Chaimiti 4 1 1 0 Chipanhara 5 2 1 0 Dondo 6 12 15 19 Esturro 7 2 2 1 Mucurrungo 7 7 7 7 Macuti 5 5 3 1 Manga & Inhamizua 31 47 47 48 Maquininho 4 1 1 0 Matacuane 8 7 10 11 Muchatazina 2 1 1 0 Munhava 2 1 1 0 Munhava.Mananga 5 5 9 9 Palmeiras.I 1 1 0 0 Palmeiras.II 1 0 0 0 Pioneiros 3 1 1 0 Ponta.Gea 7 3 2 1

Chapter 4 Drinking water in Beira

In this chapter, the drinking water legislation in Mozambique as well as the different institutions on the topic of drinking water in Beira will be identiﬁed. Furthermore, an overview of the different facets pertaining to potable water supply in Beira will be given, including the current raw water source, drinking water treatment and drinking water distribution.

4.1 Drinking water legislation in Mozambique

The main article of legislation covering drinking water in Mozambique is the Lei de Aguas´ (Law of Waters). This law covers the general use of natural water resources in Mozambique for public use as well as industrial and agricultural applications for Mozambique’s water resources. This law establishes which water resources belong to the public domain, the national guidelines for water management, the necessity to create an inventory if all existing water resources in Mozambique, the general scheme for water use in Mozambique and the prioritization of the different water uses and the general rights and duties for water consumers. In relation to inland waters, the law aims to define the public water domain and its relevant state policy and general management as well as the general legal regime of activities concerning protection and conservation, inventory, control and oversight of the water resources. In relation to inland waters, the law also defines the capabilities attributed to the government in relation to the public water domain. Mining waters, fisheries resources, waste water as well as riverbanks, -borders and -floodplains are also covered by the Lei de Aguas´ [31].

4.1.1 Potable water

Chapter III, section IV, Article 45 in of the Lei de Aguas´ deals with the use of potable water. In this article, potable water is deﬁned as water destined for intended for nourishment, the preparation and conservation of food and products for feeding, personal hygiene, household use and the manufacture of soft drinks, mineral waters and ice [31].

27 28

Furthermore, the article states that the grants for the exploitation of potable water by private concessions cannot be given or held at the expense of the right to potable water by the population. The rights holders of these private concessions will have to allow the neighboring population to procure the privately held potable water, when not being able to get it otherwise [31].

4.1.2 Protection of water quality

In addition, this article affirms that it will be up to the minister of health to supervise and control the quality of potable water. Firstly, by defining detailed rules concerning the control of the facilities for the collection, treat, store, transport and distribution of water. Secondly, by defining the bacteriological, chemical and physical parameters for potable water and the rules for controlling and analyzing these parameters, as well as the details for methods and products used for the treatment and improvement of water. Thirdly, by defining the special protection measures that should be implemented in excep- tional situations. Lastly, by subjecting those working on the treatment, transport and distribution of water for consumption, to sanitary controls [31].

4.1.3 Protection zones

Protection zones around raw water intakes and treatment facilities for the production of drinking water for cities and urban centers are defined by the details given in Chapter IV, section IV, article 57 of the Lei de Aguas´ [31]. Each protection zone is defined by ministerial order. Furthermore, in those protective areas, and beyond the restrictions and constraints dictated by ministerial order for the specific features of each case, it is forbidden to construct dwellings or buildings whose use can lead to degradation of water quality. It is also forbidden to build a slaughterhouse or raise cattle in the protected area. In addition, digging graves, leaving heaps or stockpiles resulting from mining, introducing animals and burying garbage or filth of any kind are also forbidden in the protection zones. Also, it is forbidden to install conduits or reservoirs for hydrocarbons or used waters of any kind in the protection zones. Lastly, it is prohibited to establish a field for cultivation of crops and spread manure, fertilizer or any other product destined for to fertilize the soil or crop protection [31].

4.2 Drinking water institutions in Beira

The institutions in charge of providing and regulating drinking water utilities in Beira can be divided into a few national and regional institutions, whose directives are in service of the exec- utive branch of the national government. 4 Drinking water in Beira 29

At the national level in Mozambique, the Direccao˜ Nacional de Aguas´ (DNA - National Direc- torate for Water), is responsible for policy making and planning in the fields water resources management and water supply and sanitation. Furthermore, the inventory and maintenance of adequate information of water resources and water needs at national and regional levels is a function of the DNA. The establishment of water legislation and monitoring its application is also task performed by the DNA. The DNA also handles the execution of investments for studiesa and development projects [32]. The DNA delegates management of the urban water supply from within the Ministry of Public works, transferring the assets of the utilities in larger cities to an asset management company, the Fundo de Investimento e Patrimonio do Abastecimento de Agua (FIPAG - National urban water investment and asset holding fund). FIPAG contracts private operators for the operations of the water utilities in each city [33]. There are two FIPAG offices located in Beira; the city office, near the municipal square in down- town Beira as well as the FIPAG regional office, located at the main FIPAG pumping station in Munhava. The FIPAG regional management governs the drinking water assets of 4 provinces in the central region of Mozambique: Sofala, Zambezia, Manica and Tete [33]. With both municipal and regional offices in Beira, the operational management of the drinking water treatment plant in Mutua is controlled by the regional office, while the Beira distribution infrastructure outside the main pumping station at Munhava is handled by the municipal FIPAG management. Since 2006, Vitens-Evides International has been providing technical assistance to large cites in central Mozambique, amongst which Beira is also included. Their work is focused on technical and management assistance for drinking water infrastructure, with a consultant on-site in central Mozambique at all times and technical specialists coming over to the region periodically. Vitens- Evides International has assisted FIPAG in preparing tender documents for the Emergency Investment Programme [34]. Furthermore, the Conselho de Regulacao do Abestecimento de Agua (CRA - Council for regulation of water supply) is the regulatory body for the drinking water sector in Mozambique. The mandate of this council is to set tariffs for drinking water use, as well as setting service quality targets, monitoring compliance and reviewing investment programs [33].

4.3 Raw water source

The Pungue river originates in the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, with its source on the western slopes of the Inyangani mountains at an altitude of 2 500 [m] above mean sea level. Until reaching the Pungue Falls, the river flows to the south. After this point the the Pungue river flows in easterly direction, crossing the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border at an altitude of 579[m] above mean sea level. The river continues flowing in south-easterly direction, through mixed farmlands and continues along the southern border of Gorongosa National Park. After Gorongosa National Park, the river enters the floodplain and the intertidal zone at the Pungue estuary. The Pungue river discharges into the Indian Ocean at the port of Beira. The physiography and drainage pattern of the Pungue River Basin is shown in Figure 4.1[9]. 30

Fig. 4.1: Physiography and drainage pattern of the Pungue River Basin [9]

The mean annual discharge is in the order of 100 [m3/s]. However, the Pungue river experiences both severe ﬂoods as well as periods of prolonged droughts. The average monthly discharge varies between 8 [m3/s] (October 1971) and 893 [m3/s] (March 1978) [35]. The tidal variations in the Pungue estuary are considerable, being in the order of 7-8 [m] [9]. The tidal variation causes salt water from the Indian Ocean to intrude inland into the Pungue river basin. This intrusion has been observed at a distance of 80 [km] upstream. The Pungue river is used as the raw water source for drinking water supply the cities of Beira and Dondo in the Pungue estuary. Water from the Pungue river is also used as a source for drinking water in for the city of Mutare in Zimbabwe. Although outside the river basin, the city of Mutare receives water through a tunnel, at a maximum rate of 0.7 [m3/s] [35][36].

4.4 Drinking Water Treatment Plant Mutua

Water for the urban water supply for the cities of Beira and Dondo used to be abstracted from the Mafambisse Sugar Estate. This intake was located approximately 80 [km] upstream from the mouth of the river. Due to salt water intrusion, the location of the raw water intake for the municipal water supply was moved an additional 40 [km] upstream to Dinghy-Dinghy in 2007 [37] (-19.403694 ◦S, 34.555837 ◦E). Figure 4.2 shows the primary raw water intake station at Dhingy-Dhingy. At Dinghy-Dinghy, there are three intakes, each with a capacity of 1350 [m3/h]. From the intake, the raw water is fed to the drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) at Mutua using 10.7 [km] pipe with a diameter of 900 [mm] and a canal of approximately 0.9 [km] in length. The width and average depth of the canal are 8 [m] and 3.5 [m], respectively. Figure 4.3 shows the secondary intake canal at Mutua. 4 Drinking water in Beira 31

At the end of the canal there is a second intake stage, comprising another three intake gates with a capacity of 1013 [m3/h] per intake gate. Before entering the treatment works, the water undergoes a pre-chlorination step and is stored in two 350 [m3/h] tanks. In the rainy season, roughly from November to April, surface runoff discharges into the canal. This surface runoff contains more organic material than the water abstracted at Dhingy-Dhingy. Chlorination using calcium hypochlorite is then employed to remove this surplus organic material and to prevent algal growth.

Fig. 4.2: Water intake for the Beira Water Supply at Dinghy-Dhingy Fig. 4.3: Secondary intake canal at DWTP Mutua

At DWTP Mutua, the abstracted river water undergoes a coagulation and flocculation step, followed by rapid sand filtration. Aluminium sulphate is used as coagulant. The coagulant dosage depends on jar-test results, conducted at least twice daily on-site. The treatment plant is divided in three streets, each boasting a coagulation, flocculation, uplflow clarification and a filtration step. One of these streets, ETA1, produces 950 [m3/h], while another street, ETA3, produces 1100 [m3/h]. The third possible street, ETA2, is not in use. This makes the total production capacity of the treatment works at DWTP Mutua 2050 [m3/h] or 49 200 [m3/day]. These numbers are based on the design capacity and on-site experience at DWTP Mutua. A method in teh appendix elaborates on a technique to measure the actual capacity of the treatment works. The volume of the secondary intake canal is 25 200 [m3]. With this treatment capacity, the minimum total residence time in the canal is then 12.3 [hours]. ETA1 and ETA2 were completed around 1955, while ETA3 entered service in 1997. ETA2 is currently not in use due to the building being dilapidated. ETA1 boasts 4 flocculation tanks as well as 8 upflow clarifiers and 8 rapid sand filters. ETA3 is made up from 2 larger upflow clarifiers and 4 rapid sand filters. The treated water is then stored in two undergorund 1500 [m3] clean-water reservoirs. Before being pumped into the distribution network, the treated water is chlorinated as disinfecting step, again using Calcium hypochlorite. These processes, from abstraction to treatment and distribution are schematically shown in Figure 4.4. 32

Fig. 4.4: Schematic of FIPAG Beira drinking water supply 4 Drinking water in Beira 33

The main issue concerning water quality at the DWTP Mutua is experienced turbidity. In the rainy season, between November and April, turbidity of the water at the secondary intake can be as high as 500 [NTU], with an average value of 400 [NTU]. Outside of the rainy season, the turbidity levels at the secondary intake range between 60 [NTU] and 100 [NTU]. Table 4.1 shows the average efﬂuent water quality data taken from DWTP Mutua between the months of January 2013 and July 2013. These measurements are conducted at the FIPAG Beira regional ofﬁces at Munhava. Iron- and nitrite concentrations, as well as total- and fecal coliforms were also sampled at 0.00 [mg/L] and 0 [CFU/100ml], respectively.

Table 4.1: Efﬂuent water quality data from DWTP Mutua (Jan-Jul 2013)

+ 2+ Conductivity pH TDS Turbidity NH4 Ca [mhmo/cm] [-] [mg/L] [NTU] [mg/L] [mg/L] Min 88.71 6.64 44.57 1.20 0.02 7.03 Avg 118.29 7.33 59.39 6.54 0.18 8.51 Max 187.43 8.19 90.57 17.97 0.73 11.86

− 2+ 2− Chlorides Cl TOC Mg SO4 [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] Min 4.29 0.20 0.60 1.14 4.56 Avg 6.97 0.48 1.00 3.09 12.31 Max 9.50 1.05 1.66 5.40 21.36

4.5 Beira drinking water distribution infrastructure

Figure 4.4 also schematizes the FIPAG distribution infrastructure, from the abstraction at Dhingy-Dhingy to Beira. From the treatment plant at Mutua, two main pipes follow the EN-6 road, one PVC-pipe with a diameter of 850 [mm], the other an asbestos cement pipe having a diameter of 600 [mm]. At the Manga neighborhood, the 600 [mm] pipe leads to the Manga pumping station, effectively the start of the current Beira drinking water distribution network. This pumping station includes a water tower, with a volume of 500 [m3], as well as two 10 000 [m3] reservoirs. Furthermore, the station includes 3 pumps, each with a capacity of 630 [m3/h]. The 850 [mm] pipe continues on to the main pumping station at Munhava, where the FIPAG regional ofﬁces are located. Nine 1000 [m3] reservoirs, 4 pumps capable of 700 [m3/h] and one water tower of 500 [m3] comprise this main pumping station. Upon arrival at the pumping station, the water is once again disinfected using calcium hypochlorite, as the distance between the treatment at Mutua and the main pumping station at Munhava exceeds 55 [km]. The last pumping station in Beira is located in the eastern part of the city in the Macuti neighborhood. This station includes two 115 [m3] reservoirs, as well as a 200 [m3] water tower and two pumps capable of displacing 105 [m3/h] each. 34 4.5.1 Fontenarios - public standpipes

In areas without available house connections to the drinking water network, potable water services are offered to the residents of the area using fontenarios (public standpipes). These public water fountains serve around 500 persons each in Beira, in two turns of 250 persons each.

4.5.2 Beira drinking water distribution network

The Beira drinking water distribution network encompasses over 580 [km] of pipes. The network and the main distribution pipes within it are identiﬁed and are shown in Figure 4.7. The red markers in Figure 4.7 indicate pumping stations. The green and yellow markers indicate the primary intake works and the treatment plant, respectively. Table 4.2 gives a summarized inventory of the piping network. The table shows the different materilas used in the network and the cumulative length of the piping network for each material. Figure 4.5 shows the data from the table graphically. The charts and table indicate that, overall, the main materials used in the Beira drinking water distribution network are asbestos cement and PVC, accounting for over 89% of the total length of the entire network.

Mains The mains in the drinking water network are deﬁned as those pipes with an internal diameter equal to or larger than 200 [mm]. These mains total over 110 [km] in cumulative length - 18% of the total distribution network. The main distribution lines are now divided into different classes, according to diameter. This is shown in Figure 4.6, in order to illustrate the relationship between the diameter of the pipe and the material used. It can be seen that PVC is used for diamters up to 450 [mm], while HDPE is used for the pipes with a diameter of 650 [mm] and 750 [mm]. It can be noted that 100% of the ductile iron pipelines and HDPE pipelines in the Beira drinking water network are of an internal diameter equal to or larger than 200 [mm]. Cast iron, galvanized iron, MDPE and PP-R are not used as transmission mains in the current network. Furthermore, 30% of the asbestos cement pipes are used as transmission mains in the drinking water network. Asbestos cement and PVC pipes comprise 75% of the distribution mains. HDPE pipes amount to 20% of the main distribution network, while the fraction of this material in the total network is 4%. 4 Drinking water in Beira 35

Table 4.2: Inventory of Beira drinking water pipes by material and cumulative length

Class Material Length [-] [m] Cement Asbestos cement 193110

Iron Cast Iron 37 Ductile Iron 1185 Galvanized Iron 1588 Total Iron 2810

Steel Steel 3221 length [km] Cumulative

Synthetic HDPE 22844 LDPE 16783 MDPE 202 PP-R 15102 0 100 200 300 AC PVC 328739 n/a PVC Steel LDPE PP−R C.Iron D.Iron HDPE G.Iron Total Synthetic 383670 MDPE

Unknown n/a 3290 Fig. 4.5: Cumulative lenghth of pipeline in Beira Total Beira 585202 network, by material

Cumulative length [km] 0 5 10 15 20 Asbestos.Cement Ductile.Iron 200−250 HDPE LDPE PVC Steel Unknown Asbestos.Cement Ductile.Iron 300−350 HDPE LDPE PVC Steel Unknown 400−430−450 Asbestos.Cement Ductile.Iron HDPE LDPE PVC Steel Unknown Asbestos.Cement Ductile.Iron HDPE 500 LDPE PVC Steel Unknown Asbestos.Cement Ductile.Iron HDPE 600 LDPE PVC Steel Unknown Asbestos.Cement Ductile.Iron HDPE 750 LDPE PVC Steel Unknown Asbestos.Cement Ductile.Iron 800−850 HDPE LDPE PVC Steel Unknown

Fig. 4.6: Beira distribution mains: cumulative length, material and diameter 36

Fig. 4.7: Beira drinking water network, including pumping stations, primary intake and treatment plant 4 Drinking water in Beira 37 4.6 Water treatment and supply scenarios for Beira 2035

Using the demand scenarios detailed in chapter3, this chapter elaborates on the manners in which the treatment capacities of Figure 3.12 could be realized for the Beira Master plan. Two treatment methods will be evaluated: conventional treatment and desalination by reversed osmosis. Costs will be given for an immediate installation of a capacity double- (2QMutua) or 3 triple the current capacity (3QMutua) of ETA Mutua (2050 [m /h]. Also, costs will be given for an incremental tripling of the current capacity (2QMutua+QMutua). Moreover, a third option for desalination by RO is given, amounting to 880 [m3/h]. The main focus of the chapter lies in an itemized cost-indication per treatment step, including investment and exploitation costs. Thus, a prioritization and sensitivity analysis can be made for each proposed treatment expansion for the Beira Master Plan 2035.

4.6.1 Conventional treatment works

The conventional treatment scheme shown in the PFD in Figure 4.8 is based on the current treatment scheme at ETA Mutua and is made up by an intake works; micro sieves; flocculation; lamella seperation; rapid sand filtration (RSF) and a clear water reservoir. Chemical dosages are not included in the cost calculation. Table 4.3 gives a broad overview of the costs of the conventional treatment supply scenarios, based on the chosen cost-defining parameters. An itemization per scenario is given in Table 4.4, Table 4.5 and Table 4.6. A breakdown of the costs per process step is given as Appendix.

Table 4.3: Costs per conventional treatment supply scenario

Scenario Index Q Investment Exploitation - [-] [m3/h] [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3]

2QMutua I 1968 27.1 23 3QMutua II 3936 46.7 19 2QMutua+QMutua III 3936 51.2 45 38

Intake

Grit removal screen

Pre- chlorination

Coagulant

Flocculation chamber

Sludge Lamella removal clariﬁer

Backwash water Rapid sand drying bed ﬁltration

Sodium hypcholrite dosage

Clean water reservoir

Fig. 4.8: PFD for expansion of Beira drinking water treatment (conventional) 4 Drinking water in Beira 39

Table 4.4: Estimated total costs per treatment step - 2QMutua

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] Intake 1.9 2 Micro-sieves 1.7 2 Flocculation 4.1 3 Lamella separation 7.1 5 RSF 5.2 5 Chlorination [38] 1.5 2 Clear water storage 5.6 4 Total 27.1 23

Table 4.5: Estimated total costs per treatment step - 3QMutua

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] Intake 3.5 2 Micro-sieves 3.2 2 Flocculation 8.2 2 Lamella separation 12. 2 4 RSF 8.9 5 Chlorination [38] 2.0 1 Clear water storage 8.7 3 Total 46.7 19

Table 4.6: Estimated total costs per treatment step - 2QMutua+QMutua

(Note that the investments and expoitation costs of the 2QMutua variant must be added to reach the total costs)

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] Intake 1.9 2 Micro-sieves 1.7 2 Flocculation 4.1 3 Lamella separation 7.1 5 RSF 5.2 4 Chlorination [38] 1.5 2 Clear water storage 5.6 4 Total* 54.2 45 40

4.6.1.1 Conventional treatment - required distribution infrastructure

The alternatives for the drinking water supply treatment for the Beira masterplan can only be compared after assessing the required changes to the transmission mains in the system. This chapter will present a number of alternatives for the changes in the main transmission lines leading from the treatment plant at Mutua to the the city of Beira. A short technical comparison between the alternatives will be given. The alternatives will be tested according treatment capacity used in section 4.6. Lastly, a cost overview for the alternatives will be given. Section 4.6 indicates that the treatment capacity of conventional treatment works at Mutua should be increased two- or threefold. Thus, the transission mains linking Mutua and Beira should be assessed.

Flow through two parallel pipelines The formulas used in network calculations for pressurized networks are one-dimensional, meaning that only one variable can be calculated. The Darcy-Weissbach equation in volume-ﬂow notation gives the variables governing pressurized distribution networks. The formula is shown in equation 4.1[39]

λL v2 λL ∆H = = 0.0826 Q2 (4.1) D 2g D5

In this equation, the factor λ is a friction factor. The value of λ is dependent on the hydraulic situation in the pipeline and is characterised by the Reynolds number, pipe diameter and roughness [39]. Furthermore, the internal diameter of the pipe in [m] is denoted by D. The length of the pipe in [m] is indicated by L. The letter Q represents the ﬂow in [m3/s]. The overall pressure drop over the pipe length in [mWc] is indicated by ∆H. The Beira transmission mains are schematized in Figure 4.9. These lines, leading from the treatment plant at Mutua, run parallel along the the national road EN-6. Using, Figure 4.7, the schematizaton indicates two pipes running parallel between the green marker and the ﬁrst red marker.

∆H

H1 H2 PipelineA

λA,DA,LA,QA

Mutua Qsupply Qdemand Beira

λB,DB,LB,QB PipelineB

Fig. 4.9: Schematization of Beira transmission mains 4 Drinking water in Beira 41

Current conﬁguration According to Kirchoff’s law, the pressure drop over both pipes is equal, with the pipelines in the current coniguration. Equation 4.2 and equation 4.3 show this relation. Note that a safety factor of 10% has been used for these calculations. In the current situation, the two pipes along the the EN-6 road towards the city are not made of the same material. Also, the newer pipe - Pipeline B - consists of different segments of varying materials, with decreasing diameters. The equation for calculating the pressure drop over the pipeline is given in equation 4.4. The equation shows that the total pressure drop over the pipeline is calculated by summming the pressure drops over the individual pipe segments.

∆HA = ∆HB (4.2)

λALA 2 λBLB 2 1.1 × 0.0826 × 5 QA = 1.1 × 0.0826 × 5 QB (4.3) DA DB

n n λA,nLA,n 2 λB,nLB,n 2 1.1 × 0.0826 ∑ 5 QA,n = 1.1 × 0.0826 ∑ 5 QB,n (4.4) i=1 DA,n i=1 DB,n

Pipelines There are currently two pipelines running from Mutua to Beira. The older pipeline – Pipeline A – is 42.5 [km] in length. The inner diameter of this asbestos cement pipeline is 600 [mm]. Pipeline B is 49.2 [km] long and is the most recent transport main. The pipe is comprised of different sections. The ﬁrst pipe segment has an internal diameter of 900 [mm] and a length of 30 [km]. This section is HDPE pipe. This segment is followed by an 850 [mm] diameter HDPE pipe of 70 [m] in length and an 11.8 [km] HDPE section with an internal diameter of 750 [mm]. Following this section is another HDPE segment with a length of 7.1 [km] and an internal diameter of 600 [mm]. The ﬁnal section is a steel segment of 96 [m] in length and 600 [mm] in diameter.

Friction factors The friction factor λAC and λSteel , for the asbestos cement and steel pipelines is 0.020 [-]. For the HDPE pipe segments a λHDPE of 0.018 [-] has been used as friction factor.

Meeting the supply Section 3.6 and section 4.6 indicate that the flow from the treatment plant to the city will have to increase by 100% to meet the 2035 demand. The supply could increase by as much as 200%. To accommodate this volume, the variables in the Darcy-Weissbach equation offer some insight for improving the transmission mains. With the flow Q increasing and the pipeline length L remaining constant, the alternatives for the new transmission main would have to include changing the roughness coefficient of the pipeline (λ); increasing the diameter (D), as well as influencing ∆H by increasing the pressure in the pipes or including a booster station in the tranismission line. Knowing that the sum of QA and QB amounts to the 3 treatment capacity at DWTP Mutua (49200 [m /day], ∆H as well as QA and QB ara calculated. With this in mind, a number of alternatives have been generated for the two transmission mains from Mutua to Beira.

Scenario I Operate the two existing pipelines using independent pumps. This way, Pipeline A will experience no increase in pressure, while Pipeline B will be operated under an increased pressure of 60 [mWc]. 42

Scenario II Another option is to include a booster station in Pipeline B, at the ﬁrst diameter change. Pipeline A will experience similar ﬂows and pressures as in the current situation. The pipelines will be operated independently.

Scenario III In this case, pipeline A will be reﬁtted as a HDPE pipe with an internal diameter of 800 [mm]. Both pipelines will be operated in parallel.

Scenario IV For this scenario, pipeline A will be reﬁtted as a HDPE pipe with an internal diameter of 850 [mm]. Both pipelines will be operated in parallel.

Scenario V This alternative, pipeline A will be reﬁtted as a HDPE pipe with an internal diameter of 850 [mm].Pipeline B will be reﬁtted, so the diameter in the pipeline remains 900 [mm] over the entire length of the pipe. Both pipelines will be operated in parallel.

Scenario VI This scenario entails the same changes to the pipelines as in scenario V, while including a pumping station after 23 [km], before the two pipelines split.

Table 4.7: Overview of scenarios

Scenario Description Parameter inﬂuenced Increase Q [%]

Scenario I Increase pressure in pipeline B ∆HB 17 Scenario II Booster station pipeline B ∆HB 27 Scenario III Diameter and material change pipeline A DA, λA 73 Scenario IV Diameter and material change pipeline A DA, λA 83 Scenario V Diameter and material change pipeline A DA, λA 117 Diameter change pipeline B DB Scenario VI Diameter and material change pipeline A DA, λA 205 Diameter change pipeline B DB Pumping station ∆HA, ∆HB

The total ﬂow per scenario is given in Figure 4.10. Figure 4.11 shows the pressure drop for over the entire pipeline for all scenarios.

4.6.1.2 Costs distribution mains

The costs of replacing the pipelines and adding a pumping station have been calculated for a dubble- and triple the current treatment capacity. These scenarios are refereed to as 2QMutua and 3QMutua in section 4.6. Only the scenario 3QMutua will require a booster station. The pipeline used for this calculation has an internal diameter of 850 [mm] and is made of HDPE. For the calculations, it was taken that the entire 42.5 [km] length of pipeline A would be refitted as a HDPE pipe with a diameter of 850 [mm]. The final 19 [km] of pipeline B would be refitted with HDPE sections of 900 [mm] in internal diameter. Table 4.8 gives an indication of the investment and exploitation costs. 4 Drinking water in Beira 43

Q+205 % 150

Q+117 %

100

Q+83 %

/day] Q+73 % 3 Q,supply met? No Yes x 1000 [m Q+27 %

total Q+17 % Q

50 Q,VI = 150 000 [m3/day] Q,V = 107 000 [m3/day] Q,IV = 90 000 [m3/day] Q,III = 85 000 [m3/day] Q,II = 62 712 [m3/day] Q,I = 55 712 [m3/day] Q = 49 200 [m3/day]

0

Current Scenario.I Scenario.II Scenario.IIIScenario.IVScenario.VScenario.VI Scenario

Fig. 4.10: Flow increase per scenario

Pipeline.A Pipeline.B 60 Current 40 20 0

60 Scenario.I 40 20 0

60 Scenario.II 40 20 0

Scenario.III Material 60 40 AC 20 HDPE H [mWc] 0 Steel 60 Scenario.IV 40 20 0 60 Scenario.V 40 20 0 60 Scenario.VI 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 Length [km]

Fig. 4.11: Pressure drop over pipelines for different scenarios 44

Table 4.8: Estimated costs for changes in transmission mains

Asset Investment Exploitation 2QMutua Exploitation 3QMutua [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3][AC ct/m3] Pipeline A 35.0 21 13 Pipeline B 16.6 10 6 Booster station 3.4 n/a 4 Total exploitation 31 23

4.6.2 Reversed Osmosis treatment works

The treatment scheme for the RO plants is shown in the PFD in Figure 4.12. The scheme includes intake works; micro sieves; RO-membrane ﬁltration; chlorination and a clear water reservoir. Chemical dosages are not included in the cost calculation. Table 4.9 gives a broad overview of the costs of the conventional treatment supply scenarios, based on the chosen cost-deﬁning parameters. An itemization per scenario is given in Table 4.10, Table 4.11 and Table 4.12.

Intake

Grit removal screen

RO RO concentrate to ocean membranes

Sodium hypcholrite dosage

Clean water reservoir

Fig. 4.12: PFD for expansion of Beira drinking water treatment (RO) 4 Drinking water in Beira 45

Table 4.9: Estimated costs per RO supply scenario

Scenario Index Q Investment Exploitation - [-] [m3/h] [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3]

RO 3QMutua A 4160 136 90 RO 2QMutua B 2080 71.5 93 ROsmall C 882 32.5 99

Table 4.10: Estimated total costs per treatment step - RO 3QMutua

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] Intake 9.1 2 Micro-sieves 7.2 1 RO-desalination 109 81 Chlorination [38] 2.0 2 Clear water storage 9.1 3 Total 136 90

Table 4.11: Estimated total costs per treatment step - RO 2QMutua

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] Intake 5.9 3 Micro-sieves 3.8 1 RO-desalination 54.5 83 Chlorination [38] 1.5 2 Clear water storage 5.8 4 Total 71.5 93

Table 4.12: Estimated total costs per treatment step - ROsmall

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] Intake 3.4 3 Micro-sieves 1.7 2 RO-desalination 23.1 84 Chlorination [38] 0.9 4 Clear water storage 3.4 6 Total 32.5 99

Chapter 5 Wastewater in Beira

This chapter will elaborate on the wastewater treatment facility as well as sewerage for the city of Beira. Firstly, a summary will be given of the legislation relevant to sanitation and sewerage in the Re- public of Mozambique. Next, a brief overview will be given of the wastewater treatment facilities of the city of Beira, including its location, treatment steps and water quality data. The sewerage system currently in place in Beira will then be discussed. A monthly indication of the total ﬂow from the sewer network to wastewater treatment plant will also be given. Looking towards the 2035 situation, the expansion of the tertiary treatment capacity of the wastewater treatment plant will be elaborated. Lastly, a sanition plan for Beira will be presented.

5.1 Legislation

The design of sanitation and sewerage in the Republic of Mozambique is stipulated in the following laws: • Regulamento de Inspecçao˜ e Garantia de Qualidade dos Produtos da Pesca (Decreto n◦ 17/2001); • Regulamento dos Sistemas Publicos´ de Distribuiçao˜ de Agua´ e de Drenagem de Aguas´ Residuais (Decreto n◦ 30/2003); • Regulamento sobre Padroes˜ de Qualidade Ambiental e de Emissao˜ de Efluentes (Decreto n◦ 18/2004); • Regulamento sobre a Qualidade da Agua´ para o Consumo Humano (Diploma Ministerial n◦ 180/2004); • Lei das aguas´ (Lei n◦ 16/91)

47 48 5.2 Wastewater treatment

The first process line for the wastewater treatment plant for the city of Beira was competed in July of 2012. This completed section the WWTP, ETAR Beira, boasts a capacity of 7500 [m3/day]. There are plans to double this capacity with a second process line, identical to the first process line. This expansion is set to begin in 2017. he Beira sanitation system cost AC62.65m, with the European Union providing AC52.95m, and the remaining AC9.7m provided by the Mozambique Government [37]. ETAR Beira is located next to the port of Beira and discharges into the Pungue River, specifically the Chicota branch, a stream of the Pungue River leading to the Pungue Estuary.

5.2.1 ETAR Beira treatment scheme

The treatment scheme at ETAR Beira encompasses preliminary-, primary-, secondary as well as partial tertiary treatment, with an additional disinfection step for a part of the process ﬂows. The main goals of the treatment at ETAR Beira are the removal of: • Organic material (BOD) • Suspended Solids (SS) The removal of nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as the removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) are not included in the treatment strategy. A process ﬂow diagram for the treatment at ETAR Beira is given in Figure 5.1. Using this PFD as a guideline, each process step will be discussed.

Pumping station The pumping station consists of 4 electric pumps and includes a by-pass for pumping wastewater directly to the Pungue River, each with a capacity of 105 [m3/h].

Preliminary/primary treatment works The preliminary and primary treatment works at ETAR Beira are combined into one structure, shown in Figure 5.2. The structure encloses the preliminary screening, two tanks for the removal of fats and oils as well as a grit removal chamber. Two mechanical coarse sieves and one manual sieve make up one part of the preliminary treatment step. After sieving, wastewater ﬂows into the two tanks, where a compressor in the base of each tank aerates the incoming wastewater for the separation of fats and oils as froth. The fats and oils are skimmed of the top of the tank by mechanical surface skimmers. The wastewater then ﬂows to the grit removal chamber. The froth from oil and fat separation in the preliminary treatment is shown in Figure 5.3. 5 Wastewater in Beira 49

Pumping station

Preliminary treatment Bypass works

UASB reactors

Buffering chamber to trickling ﬁlters

Bypass

Buffering Trickling Trickling chamber filter A filter B to clarifiers

Effluent Clarifier A distribution Clarifier B chamber

Sludge recirculation chamber

Recirculation Pungue chamber River to trickling ﬂiters

Process water

Sodium Treated Rapid UV Hypochlorite water Sand Filter desinfection dosage reservoir

Fig. 5.1: Process ﬂow diagram or treatment scheme at ETAR Beira 50

Fig. 5.2: Preliminary/Primary treatment Fig. 5.3: Froth from oil and fat separation at structure at ETAR Beira preliminary treatment

Upflow anaerobic reactors The wastewater then passes through the upflow anaerobic (UASB) reactors. Six anaerobic tanks make up this process step, shown in Figure 5.4. The anaerobic conditions in this step create living conditions for micro-organisms for the breakdown of hydrocarbons, proteins and lipids into methane and carbon dioxide. Sludge settles at the bottom of these reactors as a consequence of these reactions. This sludge acts a medium for the anaerobic bacteria to attach. The sludge is periodically discharged to the sludge drying beds shown in Figure 5.5. Replacement sludge is supplied by the sludge recirculation chamber after the secondary clarifiers (see: clarifiers).

Fig. 5.4: Upﬂow anaerobic reactors Fig. 5.5: Sludge drying beds at ETAR Beira at ETAR Beira

Trickling filters After passing through the anaerobic phase of the secondary treatment, the wastewater flows to a buffering chamber before being divided over two trickling filters. The buffering chamber is shown in Figure 5.6, while on trickling filter of the WWTP is shown in Figure 5.7. In the case of ETAR Beira, the bed medium is made up by rocks with a diameter of approximately 250 [mm]. The wastewater is sprayed on top of the trickling filters. The spraying, along with the porous character of the rocky medium, maintains aerobic conditions through the filter. In the trickling filter, the biochemical oxidation of organic compounds takes place, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This biochemical oxidation takes place on the surface of the rocky medium, where a layer of a layer of microbial slime keeps growing, until the layer becomes too large and ends up in the treated effluent as secondary sludge. 5 Wastewater in Beira 51

The micro-organisms in the filter require a continuous source of substrate to remain alive. There- fore, treated effluent from the clarifiers is recirculated to the trickling filter buffering chamber, allowing water to be sprayed when between peak operating hours.

Fig. 5.6: Buffering chamber to trickling ﬁlters Fig. 5.7: Trickling ﬁlter at ETAR Beira at ETAR Beira

Clarifiers The two clarifiers used at ETAR Beira remove the flocs formed by the growth of the microbial slime in the trickling filters. One of the clarifiers is shown in Figure 5.8. The suspended solids settle as sludge in the clarifiers. The treated supernatant effluent is then transported to the effluent distribution chamber, where the flow is divided into three equal streams: • Discharged into Pungue River • Recirculated to trickling filter buffer chamber (Figure 5.6) • To Tertiary treatment A part of the sludge is recirculated to the upflow anaerobic reactors, while most of the sludge is transported to the sludge drying beds shown in Figure 5.5.

Fig. 5.8: Secondary clariﬁer at ETAR Beira

Tertiary treatment A portion of the treated clarifier effluent is sent to for further treatment, used for irrigating the ETAR gardens and for washing the vehicles and equipment at the disposal of 52 the WWTP. The treated effluent is also used as service water within the ETAR Beira facilities. A 25 [m3] reservoir is filled daily with water treated secondary effluent. The reservoir is shown in Figure 5.8. In the tertiary treatment at ETAR Beira, the treated clarifier effluent is pumped through a rapid sand filter (RSF) for the removal of solids. After this filtration step, micro-organisms are elimi- nated by UV-disinfection. Before being stored in the service water reservoir, sodium hypochlorite is dosed as an additional disinfection step.

5.2.2 Chemical analysis

Since the opening of the WWTP in in July of 2012, the monitoring process can be defined by two stages. The first phase (I) is described as a startup-phase, lasting 6 months from July 2012 to December 2012. This phase involved the development of the biological processes and the adjustment of the equipment and hydraulic circuits for the operation of the WWTP. During this stage, samples were taken from the following points throughout the treatment: • PS Influent WWTP after the pumping station

• ARin Inﬂuent anaerobic reactor • AR Interior anaerobic reactor

• ARout Effluent anaerobic reactor • TF Effluent trickling filter • OUT Effluent ETAR discharged onto Pungue river The second monitoring phase (II) is labeled as the stabilization stage, which started in January 2013 and is expected to last 18 months. During this monitoring stage, the analysis focuses more on the inlet and discharge end of the treatment.

Temperature Table 5.1 shows the temperature measured at the defined measuring points per monitoring stage, in degrees Celsius. Temperature can affect the biological activity in the anaerobic filters as well as the trickling filters in different ways, including the metabolic rate of the bacteria and the solubility of the substrate. As such, a temperature above 35[◦C] should not be exceeded. pH Another factor influencing the growth behavior of bacteria is pH. Measurements monitoring the pH [-] at ETAR Beira are given in Table 5.2.

Disssolved oxygen concentration The dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) decreases as a result of respiration by bacteria. This comprises a series of reactions in which carbon compounds are broken down to yield cellular energy. This is biological oxidation and involves oxygen uptake by the bacterium. The purpose of respiration is to provide the energy that is required for growth and for the maintenance of the bacterium. Table 5.3 shows the sampled DO concentrations in [mg O2/L]. Mozambican legislation does not provide norms for dissolved oxygen concentrations for WWTP efﬂuent. 5 Wastewater in Beira 53

Table 5.1: Temperature in [◦C] measured throughout the WW treatment process

Phase Month PS ARin AR ARout TF OUT I Jul ‘12 26,9 25,6 25,9 24,7 22,2 23,5 Aug ‘12 25,7 25,6 25,7 24,6 21,7 21,7 Sep ‘12 26,9 26,8 26,6 26,2 24,1 24,2 Oct ‘12 27,9 28,1 27,7 27,6 25,8 26,5 Nov ‘12 29,1 28,8 28,6 28,5 25,8 26,5 Dec ‘12 24,7 28,4 28,1 29,0 26,4 24,8 II Jan ‘13 27,0 X 28,8 X X 25,6 Feb ‘13 24,6 X 28,5 X X 25,4 Mar ‘13 25,0 X 28,3 X X 24,2 Apr ‘13 25,4 X 26,8 X X 24,7 May ‘13 27,4 X 26,8 X X 24,6 Jun ‘13 26,8 X 25,8 X X 24,2

Table 5.2: pH in [-] measured throughout the WW treatment process

Phase Month PS ARin AR ARout TF OUT I Jul ‘12 7,32 7,46 7,17 7,42 7,85 7,8 Aug ‘12 7,27 7,22 7,06 7,13 7,6 7,54 Sep ‘12 7,37 7,36 7,11 7,38 7,66 7,6 Oct ‘12 7,37 7,4 7,15 7,34 7,84 7,8 Nov ‘12 7,48 7,55 7,27 7,5 7,67 7,54 Dec ‘12 7,72 7,59 7,37 7,73 8,07 7,97 II Jan ‘13 7,46 X 7,38 X X 9 Feb ‘13 7,83 X 7,84 X X 7,88 Mar ‘13 7,35 X 7,2 X X 7,86 Apr ‘13 7,35 X 7,29 X X 7,8 May ‘13 7,55 X 7,36 X X 7,8 Jun ‘13 7,04 X 6,88 X X 7,71

If oxygen concentrations in the trickling filter are below a limiting concentration of 1.5-2.0 [mg O2/L], the respiration rate of the bacteria will drop, due to the unavailability of Oxygen. While filamentous bacteria have a greater acceptance to lower oxygen levels than floc-forming bacteria, low oxygen levels in the secondary clarifier could induce filamentous bulking, interfering with the compaction and settling of the activated sludge. Furthermore, no samples were taken from inside the anaerobic reactor to verify anaerobic conditions.

Biological oxygen demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) BOD and COD indicate the amount of oxygen required for the breakdown of organic material. The values for BOD will always be lower than those found for COD. Firstly, because activated sludge bacteria from the WWTP cannot degrade compounds which are chemically oxidized in the COD test. Another reason for this is due to some of the organic material consumed by the bacteria in the BOD test becoming new biomass [40].

Legislation in the Republic of Mozambique provides a maximum concentration of 150 [mg O2/L] for the discharge of COD in WWTP efﬂuent [41]. 54

Table 5.3: DO, measured in [mg O2/L], throughout the WW treatment process

Phase Month PS ARin AR ARout TF OUT I Jul ‘12 1,25 0,62 X 3,2 6,74 6,26 Aug ‘12 2,4 2,17 X 3,26 7,61 6,68 Sep ‘12 1,42 1,74 X 2,57 7,38 6,4 Oct ‘12 1,04 0,5 X 2,26 7,3 6,4 Nov ‘12 1,68 0,99 X 1,06 6,88 6,75 Dec ‘12 2,49 3,25 X 5,21 7,71 6,17 II Jan ‘13 X X X X X 3,78 Feb ‘13 X X X X X 4,17 Mar ‘13 X X X X X 7,26 Apr ‘13 X X X X X 4,78 May ‘13 X X X X X 3,04 Jun ‘13 X X X X X 4,04

Table 5.4 shows measured values in [mg O2/L] for COD and BOD at for the influent and effluent of ETAR Beira. From February 2013, samples were also taken from the anaerobic reactor effluent.

Table 5.4: BOD and COD in [mg O2/L], for WW treatment process

PS ARout OUT Phase Month COD BOD COD BOD COD BOD I Jul ’12 680 310 X X 53 24 Aug ’12 339 140 X X 132 70 Sep ’12 346 124 X X 130 70 Oct ’12 399 194 X X 142 71 Nov ’12 332 151 X X 93 50 Dec ’12 545 272 X X 91 45 II Jan ’13 216 108 X X 93 47 Feb ’13 158 79 127 64 90 45 Mar ’13 213 126 194 106 89 50 Apr ’13 941 170 243 119 135 50 May ’13 228 215 179 123 106 53 Jun ’13 354 254 229 154 146 68

Sludge The sludge at ETAR Beira has also been dried and analyzed for different parameters, shown in Table 5.5. This sampling has only taken place one time in 2012.

5.3 Sewerage

The sewer system currently in place in Beira is a separated system, in which rainfall runoff and sewerage are collected in separate pipes. The rainfall runoff is discharged into the Pungue estuary, while sewerage is pumped through a series of pumping stations, classiﬁed either as posto de bombagem (PB) or as estac¸ao˜ elevatoria´ (EE). A schematic of the sewerage lines in 5 Wastewater in Beira 55

Table 5.5: Various parameters measured in process activated sludge

Parameter Unit Measured value pH - 7,3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) [%] 54 Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) [%TSS] 47 E.coli [CFU/g] 96x103 Cadmium (Cd) [mgCd/kgTSS] <5.2 Led (Pb) [mgPb/kgTSS] 68 Copper (Cu) [mgCu/kgTSS] 78 Chrome (Cr) [mgCr/kgTSS] 17 Mercury (Hg) [mgHg/kgTSS] 4,3 Nickel (Ni) [mgNi/kgTSS] 11 Zinc (Zn) [mgZn/kgTSS] 630

Beira, along with the PB and EE stations is given in Figure 5.9. Also included with in the project to construct ETAR Beira were the reconstruction of six kilometers of pressure sewer pipes and cleaning of 164 km of pipework [37]. Thus, in total there are 13 PB and 4 EE, of which PB11 and PB12 are currently are used for pumping rainfall runoff and do not form part of the sewer network. The PB’s the collected sewage under pressure to an EE, before ﬁnally arriving at the WWTP. This pumping can be described as follows: • PB1, PB2, PB3, PB4, PB5 and PB6 pump to EE1 • PB7, PB8 and PB9 pump to EE2 • PB10 and PB11 pump to EE1 • EE1 pumps to EE2 • EE2 pumps to EE3 • EE3 pumps to EE4 • EE4 pumps to ETAR Beira

Sewer connections in Beira Not all buildings in Beira are connected to the sewage network. The Beira Sanitation Strategic Plan of August 2004 gives an estimate of the sewer network coverage, shown in Table 5.6. While dated, a negligible amount of new sewer connections have been installed in the city of Beira, while the city’s population has grown to over 450 000 inhabitants.

Flows to ETAR Beira Table 5.6 shows a total population served by the sewage network of 43 474 inhabitants, while 16 359 inhabitants of Beira are provided with a septic tank according to the INE Beira district statistics. So, 59 833 inhabitants of Beira have a registered contribution to the WWTP influent. Using a wastewater flow of 120 [L/person/day], this would imply a total daily flow to the WWTP of 7180 [m3/day]. Table 5.7 shows the average monthly flow into the WWTP, as there was no other flow data from the individual pumping stations. The table also gives the amount of days per month that the WWTP had a daily flow under100 [m3]. Figure 5.10 shows the daily incoming flow, over the 56

Fig. 5.9: Schematic of Beira sewerage lines and pumping stations same time series where the horizontal blue line in the graph at 7 500 [m3/day] represents the designed capacity of the ETAR Beira. Figure 5.11 shows a histogram of the daily influents at ETAR Beira, recorded from July 2012 to June 2013. The binsize of the histogram is set at intervals of 500 [m3]. The vertical red- and blue lines in Figure 5.11, indicate the mean influent of 2450 [m3] and designed capacity of 7500 [m3], respectively. The number of days when the flow to the WWTP is under 100 [m3] increases after the end of the rainy season in Beira. Also, the month with the most precipitation observations was February, with 36 hourly present weather reports involving some form of precipitation, as shown in Figure 5.12. This data is from the weather station at Beira airport. This station provides hourly reports of significant weather events at and around the station, but does not report the quantity of precipitation at the station itself. Figure 5.12 is color coded according to precipitation type and stacked in order of severity. Thun- derstorms are coded orange. Rainfall is coded green, with heavy rainfall the darkest shade and 5 Wastewater in Beira 57 /day] 3 [m influent Q 0 2500 5000 7500 10000

Jul −’12 Sep −’12 Nov −’12 Jan −’13 Mar −’13 May −’13 Jul −’13

Fig. 5.10: Daily inﬂuent at ETAR Beira from July 2012 to June 2013

60

40 count

20

0

0 2500 5000 7500 3 Qinfluent [m /day]

Fig. 5.11: Histogram of daily inﬂuent at ETAR Beira from July 2012 to June 2013 Mean = 2450 [m3], binsize=500 [m3] 58

Table 5.6: Sewer coverage Beira (2004)

Population (2004) Served Coverage (2004) Neighborhood [-] [-] [%] Operational Area 1 - central Chaimite 20 544 3 346 15.3 Chipangara 32 094 3 545 11.1 Esturro 26 557 10 967 41.3 Macuti 23 970 11 386 47.2 Macurungo 15 259 0 0 Matacuane 32 329 3 480 10.5 Pioneiros 5 209 785 10 Ponta Gea 32 714 10 025 30.5 Operational Area 2 - North Vaz 8 398 0 0 Mananga 21 797 801 3.7 Maraza 32 115 0 0 Munhava 44 491 0 0 Chota 5 111 0 0 Total 300 588 43 474 14.5

Table 5.7: Daily average inﬂuent and number of days with inﬂuent below 100 [m3/day] at ETAR Beira

Month Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2012 Q [m3/day] 3233 2462 2410 2410 2414 2533 Q <100 [m3/day] 0 0 1 1 2 6

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun 2013 Q [m3/day] 2456 4363 2720 1626 1514 1532 Q <100 [m3/day] 7 0 1 8 7 7

light drizzle the lightest shade of green. The bar at the top of the graph is green if any precipitation was observed that day and white otherwise. Correlating this data with the daily influent at ETAR Beira for the month of February 2013 would show that this increased flow can be attributed to rainfall. The daily influent for the month of February 2013 is shown in Figure 5.13, peaking after the rainfall events of February 6th 2013 and February 13th 2013. Table 5.4 also indicates a significantly lower BOD concentration entering the WWTP in February 2013, pointing towards rainwater infiltrating into the sewage pipes in the rainy season.

5.4 Wastewater reuse for Beira 2035

Section 3.6 proposes the expansion of the tertiary treatment capacity of ETAR Beira. Examples have been taken from two wastewater reclamation plants in India and the Netherlands. In these cases, the efﬂuent was repurposed as boiler feed water. In accordance with the examples, three 5 Wastewater in Beira 59

Fig. 5.12: Daily number of hourly precipitation reports from August 2012 to July 2013 /day] 3 [m daily Q 2000 4000 6000 8000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Day

Fig. 5.13: Daily influent to ETAR Beira for February 2013 60 process schemes will be proposed in this section. All proposed schemes take into account an effluent flow of 5000 [m3/day]. The first scheme proposes the utilization powdered activated carbon (PAC) and ultrafiltration (UF). The second and third schemes propose the use of open rapid sand filtration in combination with granulated activated carbon (GAC) filtration. The difference between the two latter options is the choice to make use of a pressurized rapid sand filter [42] [43]. Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15 show the process flow diagrams. An overview of the total investment and exploitation costs is given in Table 5.8. Table 5.9, Table 5.10 and Table 5.11, give the investment and exploitation costs per process step.

Efﬂuent Efﬂuent distribution distribution chamber chamber

PAC Sludge Rapid Sand dosage drying bed Filtration

Backwash water UF GAC drying bed membranes ﬁlter

UV UV disinfection disinfection

Clear Clear water water reservoir reservoir

Fig. 5.14: Process ﬂow diagram for wastewater Fig. 5.15: Process ﬂow diagram for wastewater reuse treatment - Option A reuse treatment - Option B 5 Wastewater in Beira 61

Table 5.8: Costs per Wastewater reuse scenario

Scenario Index Q Investment Exploitation - [-] [m3/h] [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] PAC + UF I 175 4.9 66 RSFOpen + GAC II 200 4.0 47 RSFPressurized + GAC III 200 4.1 48

Table 5.9: Estimated total costs per treatment step - WW reuse - PAC+UF

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3] PAC 0.2 2 UF 3.7 50 Clear water storage 0.8 8 UV-desinfection 0.1 6 Total 4.9 66

Table 5.10: Estimated total costs per treatment step - WW reuse - RSFOpen + GAC

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3]

RSFOpen 1.3 15 GAC 1.7 19 Clear water storage 0.9 8 UV-desinfection 0.1 5 Total 4.0 47

Table 5.11: Estimated total costs per treatment step - WW reuse - RSFPressurized + GAC

Process Investments Exploitation step [×106 AC] [AC ct/m3]

RSFPressurized 1.4 16 GAC 1.7 19 Clear water storage 0.9 8 UV-desinfection 0.1 5 Total 4.1 48 62 5.5 Sanitation planning for Beira 2035

The improvements to the Beira wastewater system encompass the current sewerage infrastructure as well as those neighborhoods not connected in the sewer system. Short term goals for the improvements to the sanitation system will be set by looking at the ﬁgures provided by the ETAR Beira sanitation authority. The aim of the short term goals is to increase the ﬂow to the wastewater treatment plant. Long term goals for the master plan will be set by identifying neighborhoods where improvements to the sanitation network is most necessary. The aim of the long term goals is to increase the access to improved sanitation services.

5.5.1 Current sewer system

Figure 5.11 shows that the mean influent to ETAR Beira is 2450 [m3/day], 5050 [m3/day] less than the designed capacity of the wastewater treatment plant. The expansion of the tertiary treatment works proposed in section 5.5 take into account an influent flow of 5000 [m3/day]. Furthermore, an expansion of ETAR Beira to twice its current capacity is being discussed. Using the data from Table 5.6 and Figure 5.9, it is proposed to renovate the existing sewer network in two phases. The first phase encompasses the neighborhoods already covered by the sewer network, in the southern operational area. The goals for the first phase are part of the short term plan. The second phase pays attention to the neighborhoods in the operational area not connected to the sewer system and the Manga neighborhood, not in the operational area of ETAR Beira. The goals of the second phase are long term.

5.5.1.1 Phase I

The first improvement phase will focus on the existing sewer system. In this phase, the sewer lines north of PB9 should be reassessed and relined. Then, the sewer pipe connections currently in place should be revised. Lastly, the amount of connections in neighborhoods already covered by the existing sewer network is to be increased. By relining the sewer lines north of PB9 would imply reassessing the sewer connections in the Esturro, Matacuane and Pioneiros neighborhoods. Consequently, over the infrastructure connecting over 15 000 inhabitants to the sewer network would be revised, resulting in a renewed wastewater flow of over 1800 [m3/day] to ETAR Beira, using a wastewater production of 120 [L/person/day]. Pioneiros, the neighborhood closest to ETAR Beira, could supply over 530 [m3/day] extra to ETAR Beira. Connecting the 15 590 non-covered inhabitants in Esturro and the 17 198 inhabitants in the Chaimite neighborhood would increase the flow to ETAR Beira by another 3935 [m3/day]. These projects will increase the flow to ETAR Beira by 6265 [m3/day], resulting in a total influent of 8715 [m3/day]. The surplus 1215 [m3/day] can be bypassed straight to the Pungue river. However this reassessment will ensure that the designed capacity of the plant is met daily. 5 Wastewater in Beira 63

Thus, the short term planning will have 57 200 inhabitants connected to the Beira sewer network. Then, by increasing the amount of connections to the existing sewer network, starting with the neighborhoods closest to ETAR Beira, the sewer coverage for Beira can be increased without investing in new pipeline infrastructure. After the short term goals have been reached, the Beira sanitation authority can focus on connecting the Chipangara, Macurungo and Ponta Gea areas. This results in 117 000 inhabitants connected to the sewer network. The World Bank Organization estimates the costs of a conventional sewer connection at 154 [US$/inhabitant] [44].

5.5.1.2 Phase II

This phase should focus on the neighborhoods not yet served by the sewer system. These neighborhoods are for the most part in the northern operational area of the sanitation services. For these neighborhoods, examples will be given for sanitary planning in irregular urban envi- ronments. However, the Manga neighborhood of Beira is not deﬁned by the sanitation authority. This neighborhood must also be included in the sanitation section of the Beira master plan. The sanitary planning of the system will take into account the increase in drinking water connections in the neighborhoods not yet served by the sewer system.

Experience in the area Alexandra township in Johannesburg, South Africa was established in 1912. Its drinking water and sewer infrastructure was designed for a population of 70 000. The current population is estimated between 180 000 and 750 000 inhabitants. The overloading of the sewer system due to the increased population has led to blockages and sewer overﬂows in the township. Furthermore, structures have been built over sewer lines and manholes that has made access for maintenance impossible in most cases without requiring some demolition of structures. As a ﬁrst step to overcome the general overloading of the sewerage system a concept currently being considered is to divide the township into three sewerage zones and to construct new interceptor sewers for each zone which will connect to a new outfall sewer carrying sewage off of the site to the bulk sewerage system. The interceptor sewers would be designed such that they could in total take up to approximately 750 000 inhabitants. Also. efforts are being made to determine the existing population more accurately using aerial photography [45].

Condominial sewer systems The condominial sewerage system considers the sewerage network divided into a private part (the condominial lines) and a public part (the main sewer line). Consequently, the private part of the system is to be maintained by the users, while the main system is maintained by the city sanitation authority. Technically, this type of sewer system is characterized by small-diameter plastic pipes of usually 100 [mm] in diameter, laid under the sidewalk pavement at shallow depth. With conventional systems, larger pipes are placed in the middle of the street. The condominial systems do not retain solids, as is the case with conventional sewer systems. The ﬂexible technical and organizational arrangement of the condominial sewer system allows for possible network connection in irregularly distributed urban settlements. Lower excavation 64 depths of between 60 [cm] and 150 [cm], as well as the reduction of the amount of manholes and the ease of connection contribute to a reduced cost of a condominial system. An indication of the costs of condominial systems is given in Table 5.12[46].

Table 5.12: Estimated costs for conventional and condominial sewer connections [46]

Conventional Condominial Savings Country City Community costs [US$] costs [US$] [%] Bolivia La Paz Villa Ingenio 276 119 57 German Bush 276 176 36 South Africa Durban Emmaus 1107 444 56 Briardale 390 253 35 Paraguay Villeta 1250 279 78 San Pedro 1250 759 39 Peru Lima Kawachi 430 242 44 Virgen del Pilar 574 325 44 Ramiro Priale 594 408 31 Las Lomas Panorama 668 408 39 Los Girasoles 418 290 31 Virgen del Rosario 467 319 32 Average 642 336

5.5.1.3 Expanding the sewer network – long term

Assuming that each drinking water connection should be complemented by a connection to sanitation infrastructure, the trend graphs for the connections in Figure 3.6 have been analyzed. Table 5.13 shows the R2 factor for the trend for select neighborhoods, using a linear growth trend. The average occupancy from Table 3.4 is also included.

Table 5.13: Increase in drinking water connections for select Beira neighborhoods

Average Connections Connections Neighborhood occupancy 2013 [×103] 2035 [×103]R2 Macurrungo 6 3.7 13.9 0.93 Macuti 5 2.9 11.1 0.88 Matacuane 6 4.2 14.2 0.97 Munhava Mananga 6 2.7 9.1 0.91 Manga & Inhamizua 8 17.7 91.3 0.97 Total 31.2 139.5

This data from the drinking water utility shows one of the main problems facing urban planners for Beira 2035: the inclusion of originally unplanned areas intro ofﬁcial planning. The Vaz and Chota areas are identiﬁed by the sanitation authority. The drinking water utility has added the Vaz and Maraza neighborhoods as “Munhava Mananga”. Chota has been appended to the Matacuane and Macuti zones by the drinking water utility. 5 Wastewater in Beira 65

This should be done using lessons from Alexandra Township in South Africa and condominial sewer systems. The idea proposed is to build an oversized main sewer line to each neighborhood and connecting condominial units to this main line.

Zoning Create zones for sanitation and sewerage and coordinate these zones with the drinking water utility, coordinating the entire urban water cycle. Planning for a new drinking water connection should include the addition of an improved sanitary solution, as shown in Alexandra Township. A connected zone must ﬁrst be monitored, ensuring the absence of blockages and the increase of (dry weather ﬂow) to the wastewater treatment plant [45][47].

Rules and regulations The laws encompassing sanitation and sewerage do not include stan- dards and construction codes for condominial sewers. Another challenge to the use of condominial systems comes from the intensive social work with the communities served. The costs of this work, along with a steep learning curve, could be a burden to implementation of the system. [47]

Coverage So, by 2035, the expansion of the sewerage system should focus on the Macur- rungo, Macuti, Matacuane and Mananga neighborhoods. This implies that over 74 500 sewer connections should be planned. This equates to 278 500 inhabitants.

5.5.1.4 Manga Neighborhood

The Manga area is separated from the city and currently holds around 17 500 drinking water connections. The area is not connected to the Beira sewer network and is not included in the operational area of the sanitation authority. It is projected that this area will have over 91 275 drinking water connections in 2035, serving 730 200 inhabitants. For this area, pit latrines or toilets with septic tank or pit disposal should be considered. Table 5.14 gives per capita costs of the various sanitation options in Africa, as given by the World Bank Organization [44].

Table 5.14: Cost estimates for improved sanitation in Africa [44]

Type Simple pit VIP Pour-ﬂush Septic latrine latrine latrine tank Price (US$/inh) 39 57 91 115

Pit- and tank emptying Emptying services for pits or septic tanks may be manual, by small hand-drawn machines, or by suction trucks. Particular problems of high density unplanned low- income urban settlements can sometimes only be met by manual emptying, as other machinery cannot gain access. Privatization of this sector has been proven to be a beneﬁt in Dar-Es-Salaam (Tanzania). In these cities, the sector has been provided with rules intended for fair pricing and proper waste handling. In Tanzania, where 20% of the city’s sanitation is covered by sewerage, rates have been reduced to half of the ofﬁcial recommended price. Waiting times have reduced from weeks 66 to hours. In this case, 10 trucks can serve 12 000 households. Pits are emptied once per year, with disposal fees of 3.75 [US$/trip] [48].

5.5.2 Impact

A summary of the implementation phases is given in Table 5.15. The table shows which neighborhoods are to be addressed per phase. The amount of connections and the population served are also shown in the table. This data equates to an estimated cost per phase. Figure 5.16 shows the connection types per neighborhood. Purple denotes sewer connections, while green and blue denote condominial sewerage and pour-ﬂusg latrines, respectively. Red indicates neig- borhoods with no available data.

Table 5.15: Increase in drinking water connections for select Beira neighborhoods

Inhabitants Extra WW Connection Estimated costs Phase Neighborhood Served [×103] connections [×103] type [×106 US$] I Chaimtite 21 3 Sewer 3.2 Chipangara 32 5 Sewer 4.9 Esturro 27 3 Sewer 4.1 Pioneiros 5 1 Sewer 0.8 Ponta Gea 33 4 Sewer 5.0 II Macurrungo 83 14 Condominial 4.7 Macuti 55 9 Condominial 3.0 Matacuane 85 14 Condominial 4.6 Mananga 55 9 Condominial 3.0 Manga 730 91 Pour-ﬂush 66.5 Munhava 80 13 Condominial 4.6 Total 1 206 166 104 5 Wastewater in Beira 67

Fig. 5.16: Connection types per neighborhood

Chapter 6 Weighing the options: evaluating the alternatives for Beira 2035

Chapter4 and Chapter5 elaborated on some possible alternatives for the future drinking water- and wastewater treatment as well as the required distribution infrastructure for the Beira master plan. This chapter aims to evaluate these options and prioritize them. In order to accomplish this, criteria for assessing the scenarios will be put forward. The different scenarios will then be judged according to these criteria.

6.1 Multi Criterea Analysis

The themes for judging the alternatives in are: costs, lifetime, sustainability, and space. While cost-beneﬁt analysis (CBA) has been used in the planning phase of major investments in the transport, environment and business sectors since the late 1990’s, this report will take an approach more akin to Multi-Criteria Analysis. Multi Criteria Analysis can be described is a tool for dealing with a set of different objectives that cannot be aggregated through assigned prices and costs, as is the case with CBA [47]. This approach to the MCA attempts to express the criteria in measurable variables. While these variables should not be redundant, the achievement of one or more criteria could partly preclude the achievement of another objective. The analysis will aim to evaluate the scenarios presented in Chapter4 and Chapter5 according to ﬁve criterea: costs, lifetime, impact and space and sustainability.

Costs When evaluating the costs of the alternatives, it is important to note that integrated alternatives will be compared. For example, the costs of the presented conventional treatment option can only be weighed against the reversed osmosis treatment when considering the costs for the change in distribution mains. Furthermore, investment costs and exploitation costs will be considered.

Lifetime The lifetime of the different options presented will be assessed.

69 70

Impact The impact of the various scenarios will be measured in the percentage of the future demand met by implementing a scenario.

Spatial conﬂicts Spatial conﬂicts should be avoided when considering the different scenarios. Land use and land types in Beira could form an obstacle for implementing the phases of the Beira Master Plan 2035.

Robustness While this criterion cannot be quantifed, it aims at identifying the failure mechanisms and inherent risks off the treatment schemes that will be evaluated. This assessment is indicative of the reliability of the treatment scheme as a source for water in Beira.

6.2 Drinking water treatment and -infrastructure

Chapter 4.6.1 presents six alternatives for the future drinking water treatment facilities in Beira. Three alternatives for a conventional treatment option are presented. All options are to be con- structed at teh location of the current treatment plant at Mutua. One alternative doubles the capacity of the current treatment plant, while another triples the current capacity. The third alternative entails first expanding the current treatment capacity by 100% and then expanding the treatment capacity to triple the current capacity after a period of time. Furthermore, chapter 4.6.1.1 shows that changes must be made to the main transmission lines between Mutua and Beira if the conventional treatment options are to be implemented. Doubling the treatment capacity requires renewing one entire pipeline and changing the diameter of the final section of another pipeline. If the treatment capacity is to be tripled, a pumping station must be added to these modifications. Chapter 7.2.2 also presents three different RO-treatment options. These options include in- stalling a capacity similar to the current capacity at Mutua; investing in a RO-treatment of double the treatment capacity at Mutua or putting in place a RO-treatment of half the current treatment capacity at Mutua.

6.3 Wastewater treatment

Two concepts for tertiary treatment of wastewater are presented in Chapter 5.5: PAC-UF and RSF-GAC. These two concepts result in three alternative options, the difference being an open- or pressurized system in the RSF-GAC concept. The aim of the tertiary treatment is to provide Beira with a source of industrial water, for use as boiler feed water in the harbor area. The treatment of wastewater for industrial use can lower reduces the industrial demand on drinking water from ETA Mutua. 6 Weighing the options: Evaluating the alternatives for Beira 2035 71 6.4 Costs

Costs for the conventional, RO and wastewater treatment options are given in chapter 4.6. The costs for the three conventional treatment options are given in Table 4.3. These costs should be summed with the required changes to the distribution network given in Table 4.8. The costs for the RO treatment options are given in Table 4.9. The wastewater treatment costs are shown in Table 5.8. These investment- and exploitation costs have been plotted in Figure 6.1. The top chart shows the investment costs in million AC, while the bottom chart gives an overview of the exploitation costs in ACct/m3.

Drinking water The top chart shows that the investment costs doubling the current treatment capacity slightly favor the construction of an RO-treatment plant. The investment costs for the RO-treatment have been calculated to amount to AC71 million. The conventional treatment plant, requiring additional changes to the transmission mains, will require an investment of AC79 million. This difference is 10 %. Taking a look at the exploitation costs in the bottom chart, it is shown that the RO-treatment scenarios are less advantageous than the conventional treatment options. The maximum exploitation costs for conventional treatment occur after a stepwise tripling of the current treat- 3 ment capacity at ETA Mutua: 2 QMutua+ QMutua. These exploitation costs amount to AC0.68/m . 3 In reference, exploitation costs for the the RO treatment 3 QMutua are AC0.91/m , an increase of 34%.

Wastewater The most favorable treatment type in terms of investment costs is the expansion of the tertiary treatment capacity at ETAR Beira. The wastewater treatment scenario with the highest investment costs is the PAC-UF option, totaling AC49 million. This amount is 15.2% of the RO with capacity of 0.5 QMutua, the drinking water treatment option requiring the least investment costs. The maximum difference in investment costs between the three wastewater treatment scenarios is AC0.91 million. In terms of exploitation, the RSF-GAC treatment schemes are relatively lower, compared to the PAC-UF option. The pressurized ﬁltration method implicates AC 0.48/m3 exploitation costs. The RSFopen-GAC treatment system is the wastewater treatment alternative with the lowest exploitation costs, AC0.47/m3. The relative difference between these two systems in 2%. 72

Conventional RO Wastewater

Treatment Type Conventional RO Wastewater 0 25 50 75 100125150 Investments x 1 000 [euro] Investments PAC−UF 2Q.Mutua 3Q.Mutua 2Q.Mutua 3Q.Mutua 0.5Q.Mutua RSF.open−GAC 2Q.Mutua+Q.Mutua RSF.pressure−GAC ] 3 Conventional RO Wastewater

Treatment Type Conventional RO Wastewater 0 25 50 75 100 Exploitation costs [euro ct/m PAC−UF 2Q.Mutua 3Q.Mutua 2Q.Mutua 3Q.Mutua 0.5Q.Mutua RSF.open−GAC 2Q.Mutua+Q.Mutua RSF.pressure−GAC

Fig. 6.1: Investment and exploitation costs for each treatment and distribution scenario by treatment type

6.5 Lifetime

The lifetime of each treatment option will be assessed by judging its fundamental component. The lifetime of the mechanical parts, such as pumps and valves will be of the same order for all treatment options .

Valves Valves in the treatment plant should have an estimated life span of 40 years. This includes air valves, distribution valves, control valves and non-return valves [49]. 6 Weighing the options: Evaluating the alternatives for Beira 2035 73

Pumps and pumping stations Smaller pumps, with an output smaller than 50 [kW], have an average lifetime of 20 years, while those pumps with an output larger than 50 [kW] have a life span of 40 years. Pumping stations have an estimated lifecycle of 80 years [49].

Pipes The effective life span of a pipeline can be categorized by pipe material. Asbestos cement pipes last 40 – 60 years, while cast iron pipes have an average lifetime of 80 – 100 years. PVC pipes last for 50 – 70 years [50]. Polyethylene pipelines can last up to 90 years [49].

6.5.1 Drinking water treatment - Lifetime

The fundamental component in the drinking water treatment options is the ﬁltration medium. While rapid sand ﬁlters are used in the conventional treatment alternatives, spiral-wound membranes are the vital component for the RO treatment.

Filter Bed On average, filter sand must be changed every 5-10 years. The filter material for ETA Mutua is readily available, as sand from the Pungue river bed is used. The filter bottom, subject to backwashing pressures, must be changed every 30 years.

RO membranes Membranes used for RO-desalination generally have a lifespan of 3-5 years [51].

6.5.2 Wastewater treatment - Lifetime

For this case, the lifetime of the filtration materials will be assessed. First for the rapid sand filters for the RSF-GAC option and then the ultrafiltration membranes in the PAC-UF variant.

Rapid Sand Filtration The lifetime of the rapid sand filters used in for the RSF-GAC wastewater treatment options is similar to those used for drinking water applications, requiring a filter material change every 10 years and a new filter bottom every 30 years.

Ultraﬁltration membranes An assessment of the UF-membranes used at the Goreangab water reclamation plant in Windhoek (Namibia), shows that the UF-membranes used experience a loss of integrity after 3 years. This plant also experimented with the dosage of PAC between May 2004 and July 2004 [52].

6.6 Impact

Table 6.1 presents the impact of each treatment alternative per 2035 demand scenario (see Fig- ure 3.12).The capacities for the conventional treatment options are presented in Table 4.3. The RO-treatment capacities are presented in Table 4.9. The capacities for the tertiary wastewater treatment alternatives are given in Table 5.8. 74

Table 6.2 shows the percentage of the future demand met when these capacities are be added to the current installed capacity at ETA Mutua.

Drinking water treatment None of the treatment alternatives presented will meet the high demand-scenario for 2035. The highest impact on this demand scenario is made by the 3QMutua RO treatment option: 61%. This option differs by 3% when compared to the conventional treatment schmes of 3QMutua and 2QMutua+QMutua. While - at best - over 35% of the high demand scenario remains unmet by these scenarios, the trend- and low demand scenario are met 256% and 177%, respectively.

Wastewater treatment The data shows that the expansion of the tertiary treatment capacity of the wastewater treatment plant meets between 2% and 9% of the future demand. Expanding the tertiary treatment capacity of ETAR Beira will meet the trend scenario by 95%.

Table 6.1: Percentage of each demand scenario met per treatment alternative

Conventional (QMutua) RO (QMutua) Wastewater

Scenario 2 3 2+1 2 3 0.5 PAC-UF RSFO-GAC RSFp-GAC Trend 84% 169% 169% 89% 178% 38% 8% 9% 9% Low 58% 116% 116% 61% 123% 26% 5% 6% 6% High 19% 38% 38% 20% 41% 9% 2% 2% 2%

Table 6.2: Percentage of each demand scenario met per treatment alternative including current installed capacity

Conventional (QMutua) RO (QMutua) Wastewater

Scenario 2 3 2+1 2 3 0.5 PAC-UF RSFO-GAC RSFp-GAC Trend 172% 256% 256% 177% 266% 126% 95% 96% 96% Low 119% 177% 177% 122% 184% 87% 67% 67% 67% High 39% 58% 58% 40% 61% 29% 21% 22% 22%

6.7 Spatial conﬂict

The expansions to the conventional drinking water treatment and wastewater treatment can be built at the currently used locations at ETA Mutua and ETAR Beira, respectively.

RO-treatment The location for the RO desalination works is inﬂuenced by its required proximity near the sea. Studies have shown that the city of Beira is experiencing coastal erosion due to lack of maintenance in the area of coastal protection [27]. The placement of intake works in areas where coastal protection is not adequate will put the intake of the desalination works at an increased risk of failure. Also, the intake- and concentrate disposal works could contribute to the increased erosion along Beira’s seafront. 6 Weighing the options: Evaluating the alternatives for Beira 2035 75

The management of seawater reversed osmosis concentrate is also an issue with a spatial component. Recent studies in San Fransisco (U.S.A) have indicated towards the death of marine fauna (shrimp and minnows) in San Fransisco bay as a result of RO-concentrate disposal. A concentrate disposal works have been put in place in Gold Coast and Perth (Australia), requiring a 500 meter concentrate pipeline into the sea [53].

6.8 Robustness

The failure mechanisms and risks per treatment option will be considered in this section.

RSF FIPAG Beira is experienced in the operation and maintenance of rapid sand ﬁlters. Cur- rently, measures are being taken to decrease the percentage in of NRW in the distribution network. Operators live on-site at Mutua, to check the ﬁlters for turbidity and call for a backwash when necessary. The system with operators living on-site can be employed at ETAR Beira, for use with an open RSF system. This makes an open RSF less susceptible to failure than a pressurized system. Filter sand is taken from the Pungue river bed.

UF Experience with UF-membranes in Namibia has shown that the capillary tubes in the UF- membrane are prone to rupture as a result of varying water quality and flux. This has led to a reduction in membrane lifetime [52]. ETAR Beira currently experiences fluctuations in influent water quality and flux, indicating that similar problems will occur if UF-membranes are used when expanding the treatment capacity.

Activated carbon There currently no producers of activated carbon in Mozambique. However suppliers can be found in South Africa. With the wastewater treatment plant located at the port near the coal terminal, the supply of activated carbon can be ensured.

RO Experience with industrial-scale RO systems in Sub-Saharan Africa is limited. Table 6.3 gives an overview of the installations currently commissioned. Only one treatment plant, currently under construction in Nungua (Ghana) is of a comparable scale to the proposed RO- treatment plants for Beira. RO-systems for seawater desalination run at high pressures of around 50 [bar]. The inﬂuent ﬂow should be constant. Chemicals should be available on-site for use as antiscalant and for cleaning-in-place (CIP). These chemicals are aggressive and should be kept safely. Seawater RO systems are also susceptible to concentration polarization and biofouling [54].

Table 6.3: Industrial RO installations in Sub-Saharan Africa

Location Country Purpose Q [m3/d] Price Source Nungua Ghana drinking water 60 000 $125 million, $1.36/m3 [55], [56], [57], [58] Mossel Bay South Africa drinking water 15 000 $30.1 million [59] Saldanha Bay South Africa drinking water 2 400 unknown [60] Beaufort West South Africa wastewater reclamation 1 000 R24 million [61], [62] 76 6.9 MCA

Interpreting the results and elaboration leads to the MCA presented in Table 6.4. The marks are classiﬁed as very good (++), good (+), average (0), bad (-) and very bad (–). These marks are open to interpretation and should be used as a short overview of the results presented in this chapter. These deductions should be interpreted pragmatically.

Table 6.4: MCA per treatment alternative

Conventional (QMutua) RO (QMutua) Wastewater

Criterion 2 3 2+1 2 3 0.5 PAC-UF RSFO-GAC RSFp-GAC

CostsInv 0 0 - + - + ++ ++ ++ CostsExp + + 0 - - - 0 + + Lifetime ++ ++ ------+ + Impact + ++ ++ + ++ 0 ------Spatial conﬂict 0 0 0 - - - + + + Robustness + + ++ - - - 0 ++ + Total +5 +6 +4 / -2 +2 / -5 +2 / -6 +1/ -5 +3 / -3 +7 / -2 +6 / -2 Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations

The main objective of this research was to set-up a framework for urban water master plan for 2035 for the city of Beira, resulting in the main research question: What will the desired status of potable water and sanitation infrastructure be in Beira in 2035?

7.1 Conclusions

Where is Beira and what does it look like? Beira is Mozambique’s second largest city, located at the mouth of the Pungue River and bor- dered by the town of Dondo and the Mozambique Channel.

What has been done for urban water utility planning in other places? Recently, competition among water users (e.g. municipal water, industry, energy and agriculture) shows a change in focus from supply management to demand management. For example, water-use efficiency has been promoted in municipalities as Windhoek (Namibia) and Alexan- dria (Egypt), by moving away from a flat rate pricing system to a volumetric and block tariff structure. Wastewater effluent reuse is also implemented in Windhoek and Alexandria. Furthermore, it is believed that it is not unrealistic to reduce that physical losses in the water distribution network to 35% of the system input, on average.

What will the population of Beira be in 2035? How much water is consumed in Beira? What will the drinking water demand be in Beira in 2035? The population of the municipality, according to the district statistics for the city of Beira, published in November 2012, encompasses 456 000 citizens.A number of growth scenarios for the future population of Beira can be distinguished. The “low-growth” as well as the “high-growth” scenario are believed to be the determinative scenarios for Beira 2035, corresponding with the likely minimum regional growth rate and the maximum anticipated population growth rate. These result in a future population of 827 000 or 1 422 000 inhabitants, respectively.

77 78

These future populations, along with an average demand per capita and data on non-revenue water, have been translated into two drinking water demand estimates for Beira 2035: low and high demand. A third demand scenario has been generated using billing data from the municipal water utility: the trend scenario.

What is the legislation on potable water in Mozambique? What is the legislation on the subject of sanitation and sewerage in Mozambique? The main law covering Mozambican drinking water and sanitation is the Lei das aguas.´ This law covers potable water, the protection of water quality and protection zones. Sanitation and sewerage are covered by the Regulamento de Inspecçao˜ e Garantia de Qualidade dos Produtos da Pesca; Regulamento dos Sistemas Publicos´ de Distribuiçao˜ de Agua´ e de Drenagem de Aguas´ Residuais; Regulamento sobre Padroes˜ de Qualidade Ambiental e de Emissao˜ de Efluentes; Regulamento sobre a Qualidade da Agua´ para o Consumo Humano.

What institutions are responsible for potable water in Beira? The institutions in charge of providing and regulating drinking water utilities in Beira can be divided into a few national and regional institutions. The regulatory body for the sector is the CRA. The DNA at national level delegates management of the urban water supply to FIPAG. VEI provides technical assistance to FIPAG in Beira. Sanitation is tasked to the municipal council of Beira, the CMB.

What is the current state of potable water infrastructure in Beira? The Pungue river is the raw water source for Beira, with the primary intake located over 100 [km] upstream. The treatment works at Mutua have a designed capacity of 49 200 [m3/day], providing water to Beira and Dondo. The treatment scheme is made up by pre-chlorination, coagulation/ﬂocculation, RSF and chlorination.

What is the state of the distribution mains in the drinking water network? The Beira drinking water distribution network encompasses over 580 [km] of pipes. The main materials used in the Beira drinking water distribution network are asbestos cement and PVC, accounting for over 90% of the total length of the entire network. The two water transmission mains between Mutua and Beira follow the EN-6 road for over 40 [km] and must be considered when increasing the capacity of the DWTP.

How can the 2035 demand be met? The 2035 demand can be met by increasing the treatment capacity by double or triple the current capacity of the drinking water and by expanding the tertiary treatment of the wastewater treatment plant. For drinking water, conventional treatment options at Mutua and RO desalination in Beira have been considered as alternatives. This will satisfy the low-demand scenario and the trend scenario. It is believed that the high-growth scenario will only be satisﬁed by 60% in 2035.

How must the drinking water transport mains be organized? If the conventional treatment capacity at ETA Mutua is to be increased two- or threefold, the asbestos cement transmission main between Mutua and Beira should be rehabilitated to acco- modate the required increase in production volume. An increase in diameter to 850 [mm] and 900 [mm] for the two transmission mains as well as a change in material to HDPE can acco- modate a doubling of the current capacity. A pumping station should be built halfway between Mutua and Beira city, if the capacity has been tripled. 7 Conclusions and recommendations 79

What is the current state of sanitation and sewerage assets in Beira? The first process line for the wastewater treatment plant for the city of Beira was completed in July of 2012. This completed section the WWTP, ETAR Beira, boasts a capacity of 7500 [m3/day]. The treatment scheme at ETAR Beira encompasses preliminary-, primary-, secondary as well as partial tertiary treatment, with an additional disinfection step for a part of the process flows. The mean daily influent of ETAR Beira is 2450 [m3].

How must the sanitation in Beira be organized in 2035 and what will that cost? Short- and long term goals have been set for the sanitation part of the Beira Master Plan 2035. The aim of the short term goals is to increase the ﬂow to the wastewater treatment plant by relining existing sewers, rehabilitating pumping stations and increasing the amount of sewer connections to the existing sewer. Long term goals for the master plan will be set by identifying neighborhoods where improvements to the sanitation network is most necessary. The aim of the long term goals is to increase the access to improved sanitation services by investing in condominial sewer connections for unplanned urban neighborhoods and latrines in peri-urban neighborhoods. By 2035, over 150 000 extra wastewater connections should be in place, requiring an approximate investment of US$ 104 million. This will provide over 1.2 million citizens of Beira with adequate sanitary facilities.

What are the options for wastewater reuse for Beira? Once the short term goals have been met, three treatment options for wastewater reuse have been proposed, aiming to supply Beira industry and shipping with boiler feed water to reduce the demand on the municipal treatment works. These treatment schemes are based on an average inﬂuent of 5000 [m3/day]. The ﬁrst alternative makes use of UF-PAC treatment, while the remaining two alternatives for the expansion of the tertiary treatment make use of RSF-GAC. The difference between these options is the use of a pressurized or open RSF system.

According to which criteria can the scenarios be judged? The proposed drinking water and wastewater treatment schemes have been evaluated using a MCA. In the evaluation, the scenarios for the Beira water supply and wastewater tertiary treatment have been evaluated according to costs (both investment and exploitation), as well as lifetime, impact, spatial conﬂict and robustness. It has been attempted to assign measurable parameters to each criterea.

Using these criteria, which scenario is most suited for Beira 2035? The evaluation has shown that the increased drinking water demand should be met by investing in the expansion of the conventional treatment works at Mutua and the rehabilitation of one of the transmission mains between Mutua and Beira. A pumping station could be built halfway, if the capacity has been tripled. This expansion will involve total investments estimated over AC80 million euro and AC0.68/m3 exploitation costs. For wastewater reuse, the evaluation indicates that RSF in combination with GAC should be considered. Investment and exploitation costs for this option are estimated at over AC4 million and AC0.47/m3, respectively. 80 7.2 Recommendations

The drinking water demand of the city is closely related to a spatial component: the neighborhoods in which water is consumed. This also holds for the sanitation component for Beira 2035. The water utility institutions and the municipality of Beira should work together and keep to the neighborhood template set in the ofﬁcial city map. The current trend is to work according to planned neighborhoods, while including unplanned (but existing) areas to the planned neighborhoods. This will provide the institutions in Beira with false data. Furthermore, the areas of Manga and Inhamizua should be subdivided. As is, these areas of Beira account for half the area of the municipality and over 48% of the drinking water demand. When taking a look at sanitation, this are accounts for over 65% of the total required investments. Subdivision of the area will allow city planners and utilities to gain insight in where investments are most necessary.

7.2.1 Wastewater

Currently, VEI experts assist FIPAG drinking water asset holders with technical matters, ranging from treatment to leakage reduction. It is recommended that ETAR Beira arrange a permanent on-site technical expert on the area of sewerage and pumping on the short term. The presence of such expertise, will allow the ETAR Beira personnel to gain on-site knowledge and know-how for a system unique to Mozambique. It is also recommended to only commence the building of the second phase of ETAR Beira after the designed capacity of the current wastewater treatment plant has been built. Although numerous, the laws encompassing wastewater, sanitation and sewerage in Mozam- bique do not deﬁne the regulations for the implementation of condominial sewer systems. Mozambican lawmakers in general, and particularly those concerned with wastewater and sanitation, should take an example from similar systems implemented in Latin America.

7.2.2 Drinking water

The FIPAG billing data shows a reduction in NRW, as billings have been increasing linearly, while the capacity of the drinking water treatment plant has not been increased. It is recommended that FIPAG Beira implement a task-force dedicated to the reduction of NRW. Both administrators and engineers should be a part of this task-force, aiming to reduce the apparent and physical losses in Beira. The task force should pay close attention to the NRW reducing projects in Namibia and Botswana. Appendix A: Costs per process step

This appendix presents a breakdown of the costs per process step as given in section 4.6 and section 5.5. Please refer to Table 4.3, Table 4.9 and Table 5.8 for the cost overview per treatment type. The scenarios indexed in this section correspond to those described in Table 4.3 for conventional treatment, Table 4.9 for RO and Table 5.8 for wastewater treatment.

81 82 Conventional treatment

Intake works - conventional treatment

Table A1: Engineering share - Intake - Conventional

Engineering Share [%] Civil 40 Mechanical 45 Electrical 15 Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 0 1000 2000 3000

I II III Scenario [−] ] 3 Exploitation [ct/m 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

50 75 100 125 150 Pump pressure [kPa]

Fig. A1: Required investment and exploitation costs for intake Conventional treatment Appendix A 83 Micro sieves - conventional treatment

Table A2: Engineering share - Microsieves - Conventional

Engineering Share [%] Civil 25 Mechanical 65 Electrical 15 0 2500 5000 7500 10000

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 20 40 60 80 Design load [m/h] ] 3 Exploitation [ct/m 0 2 4 6 20 40 60 80 Design load [m/h] ] 2 Chosen load: 45 [m/h] Scenario II = Scenario III Sieve area [m Sieve 0 100 200 300 400 20 40 60 80 Design load [m/h]

Fig. A2: Required investment and exploitation costs, as well as sieve area for microsieves - conventional treatment 84 Flocculation - conventional treatment

Table A3: Engineering share - Flocculation - Conventional

Engineering Share [%] Civil 40 Mechanical 40 Electrical 20

Residence time 20 [min] 2500 5000 75001000012500

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 10 15 20 25 30 Residence time [min] ] 3

Residence time 20 [min] Exploitation [ct/m 2.5 5.0 7.5

10 15 20 25 30 Residence time [min] ] 3

Residence time 20 [min] 1000 2000 3000

Flocculation volume [m Flocculation volume 10 15 20 25 30 Residence time [min]

Fig. A3: Required investment and exploitation costs, as well as ﬂocculation volume for ﬂocculation - conventional treatment Appendix A 85 Lamella sedimentation - conventional treatment

Table A4: Engineering share - Lamella - Conventional

Engineering Share [%] Civil 50 Mechanical 40 Electrical 10

Chosen load: 0.9 [m/h] 6000 10500 15000 19500

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 Load [m3/m2h] ] 3

Chosen load: 0.9 [m/h] Exploitation [ct/m 0 3 6 9 12 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 Load [m3/m2h] ] 2

Chosen load: 0.9 [m/h] Lamella area [m 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 Load [m3/m2h]

Fig. A4: Required investment and exploitation costs and lamella area for lamella sedimentation - conventional treatment 86 Rapid sand ﬁltration - conventional treatment

Table A5: Engineering share - RSF - Conventional

Engineering Share [%] Civil 52 Mechanical 33 Electrical 15

Filtration velocity 8 [m/h] 5000 7500 1000012500

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Filtration velocity [m/h] ] 3

Filtration velocity: 8 [m/h] 4 6 8 10 Exploitation [ct/m

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Filtration velocity [m/h] ] 2

Filtration Scenario II velocity = 8 [m/h] Scenario III Filter area [m 200 400 600 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Filtration velocity [m/h]

Fig. A5: Required investment and exploitation costs, as well as ﬁlter area for RSF - conventional treatment Appendix A 87 Clear water reservoir - conventional treatment

Table A6: Engineering share - Clear water reservoir - Conventional

Engineering Share [%] Civil 88 Mechanical 10 Electrical 2

Storage 45% of daily consumption 4000 6000 80001000012000

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 25 30 35 40 45 50 Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%] ] 3

Storage 45% of daily consumption Exploitation [ct/m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 30 35 40 45 50 Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%] ] 3

Scenario II = Storage 45% Scenario III of daily consumption 0 10 20 30 40 50 25 30 35 40 45 50

Clear water volume x 1000 [m volume Clear water Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%]

Fig. A6: Required investment, exploitation costs and volume for clear water storage - conventional treatment 88 Reversed Osmosis

Intake works - RO

Table A7: Engineering share - Intake - RO

Engineering Share [%] Civil 40 Mechanical 45 Electrical 15

Energy use: 90 [Wh/m3] Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 0 2500 5000 7500

ABC Investments for intake works modelled on energy use ] 3

Energy use: 90 [Wh/m3] Exploitation [ct/m 2.5 3.0 3.5

80 90 100 110 120 Energy use [Wh/m3]

Fig. A7: Required investment and exploitation costs for intake RO Appendix A 89 Micro sieves - RO

Table A8: Engineering share - microsieves - RO

Engineering Share [%] Civil 25 Mechanical 65 Electrical 15

Chosen load: 45 [m/h] 4000 8000 1200016000

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 20 40 60 80 Design load [m/h] ] 3

Chosen load: 45 [m/h] Exploitation [ct/m 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

20 40 60 80 Design load [m/h] ] 2

Chosen load: 45 [m/h] Sieve area [m Sieve 200 400 600 800

20 40 60 80 Design load [m/h]

Fig. A8: Required investment and exploitation costs as well as sieve area for microsieves - RO 90 RO membranes

Table A9: Engineering share - membranes - RO

Engineering Share [%] Civil 20 Mechanical 60 Electrical 20

Chosen Flux 15 [L/m2h] 4000 8000 12000 16000 Investments x 10 000 [euro] Investments 10 15 20 25 Flux [L/m2h] ] 3

Chosen Flux 15 [L/m2h] Exploitation [ct/m 60 70 80 90 100 110 10 15 20 25 Flux [L/m2h] ] 2

Chosen Flux 15 [L/m2h] 100 200 300 400 Membrane area x 1000 [m Membrane 10 15 20 25 Flux [L/m2h]

Fig. A9: Required investment and exploitation costs as well as membrane area for RO-membranes Appendix A 91 Clear water reservoir - RO

Table A10: Engineering share - Clear water reservoir - RO

Engineering Share [%] Civil 88 Mechanical 10 Electrical 2

Storage: 45% of daily consumption 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 25 30 35 40 45 50 Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%] ] 3

Storage: 45% of daily consumption Exploitation [ct/m 2 3 4 5 6 25 30 35 40 45 50 Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%] ] 3

Storage: 45% of daily consumption 10 20 30 40 50

25 30 35 40 45 50

Clear water volume x 1000 [m volume Clear water Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%]

Fig. A10: Required investment and exploitation costs as well as volume for clear water storage - RO 92 Wastewater reuse

PAC - UF

PAC

Table A11: Engineering share - PAC - WW reuse

Engineering Share [%] Civil 28 Mechanical 30 Electrical 42

Chosen dose 3.5 [gr/m3] 100 200 300

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 2 4 6 8 10 PAC dose [gr/m3] ] 3

Chosen dose 3.5 [gr/m3] 2 3 4 Exploitation [ct/m

2 4 6 8 10 PAC dose [gr/m3] ] 3

Chosen dose 3.5 [gr/m3] Storage volume [m volume Storage 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 2 4 6 8 10 PAC dose [gr/m3]

Fig. A11: Required investment and exploitation costs, as well as storage volume for PAC - wastewater reuse A Appendix A 93

UF

Table A12: Engineering share - UF - WW reuse

Engineering Share [%] Civil 27 Mechanical 46 Electrical 27

Chosen Flux 60 [L/m2h] 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 50 55 60 65 70 75 Flux [L/m2h] ] 3

Chosen Flux 60 [L/m2h] Exploitation [ct/m

45.0 47.5 50.050 52.5 55.0 55 60 65 70 75 Flux [L/m2h] ] 2

Chosen Flux 60 [L/m2h] 3200 3600 4000 4400 membrane area [m membrane 50 55 60 65 70 75 Flux [L/m2h]

Fig. A12: Required investment and exploitation costs, as well as membrane area for UF - wastewater reuse A 94

Rapid sand ﬁltration - WW reuse

Table A13: Engineering share - RSF - WW reuse

Pressurized Open Engineering Share [%] Share [%] Civil 40 52 Mechanical 45 33 Electrical 15 15

Chosen velocity Type Chosen velocity pressurized system Open open system 15 [m/h] 8 [m/h] Pressure Investments x 10 000 [euro] Investments 110 120 130 140 150 160 10 15 20 Flow velocity [m/h] ] 3 Chosen velocity pressurized system Type 15 [m/h] Open Chosen velocity open system Pressure 8 [m/h] Exploitation [ct/m 14 15 16 17 18

10 15 20 Flow velocity [m/h]

Chosen velocity ]

2 open system 8 [m/h] Type Open Chosen velocity Pressure pressurized system

Filter area [m 15 [m/h] 20 30 40

10 15 20 Flow velocity [m/h]

Fig. A13: Required investment and exploitation costs, as well as ﬁlter area for RSF - wastewater reuse B Appendix A 95

GAC

Table A14: Engineering share - GAC - WW reuse

Engineering Share [%] Civil 46 Mechanical 37 Electrical 17

Chosen contact time 20 [min] 1500 2000

Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments 10 15 20 25 30 Contact Time [min] ] 3 Chosen contact time 20 [min] Exploitation [ct/m

12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 10 15 20 25 30 Contact Time [min] ] 2

Chosen contact time 20 [min] 40 60 80 GAC filter area [m GAC 10 15 20 25 30 Contact Time [min]

Fig. A14: Required investment and exploitation costs, as well as ﬁlter area for GAC - wastewater reuse B 96 Clear water storage - WW reuse

Table A15: Engineering share - Clear water storage - WW reuse

Engineering Share [%] Civil 88 Mechanical 10 Electrical 2

Storage: 25% of daily consumption Option PAC+UF RSF+GAC 800 1000 1200 1400 Investments x 1000 [euro] Investments

20 30 40 50 Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%] ] 3 Storage: 25% of daily consumption Option PAC+UF RSF+GAC Exploitation [ct/m 7 8 9 10 11 12

20 30 40 50 Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%] ] 3

Storage: 25% of daily consumption Option PAC+UF RSF+GAC 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Clear water volume x 1000 [m volume Clear water 20 30 40 50 Percentage of maximum daily consumption [%]

Fig. A15: Required investment and exploitation costs as well as volume for clear water storage - wastewater reuse Appendix B: Pipeline calculations

This appendix presents a breakdown of the pipeline calculations, relevant for the scenarios given in section 4.6.1.1. Pipeline lengths, ﬂows, pressures and pressure drops per scenario are given.

Table B1: Total ﬂow per transport main by scenario

Scenario QA QB Qtot Increase [m3/day] [m3/day] [m3/day] [%] Current 17 712 31 488 49 200 n/a I 17 712 38 000 55 712 17 II 17 712 45 000 62 712 27 III 46 750 38 250 85 000 73 IV 52 650 37 350 90 000 83 V 52 965 54 035 107 000 117 VI 74 250 75 000 149 250 205

Table B2: Head loss over transport mains - current situation

Diameter Material Line L ∑ L ∆H ∑∆HH mm [-] [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] 600 AC A 0 0 0 0 0 600 AC A 0 0 0 0 41.79 600 AC A 42548 42548 41.79 41.79 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 42.07 900 HDPE B 30000 30000 11.04 11.04 31.03 850 HDPE B 70 30070 0.03 11.07 31 750 HDPE B 11798 41868 10.8 21.87 20.2 600 HDPE B 7124 48992 19.9 41.77 0.3 600 Steel B 96 49088 0.3 42.07 0

97 98

Table B3: Head loss over transport mains - Scenario I

Diameter Material Line L ∑ L ∆H ∑∆HH mm [-] [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] 600 AC A 0 0 0 0 0 600 AC A 0 0 0 0 41.79 600 AC A 42548 42548 41.79 41.79 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 61.23 900 HDPE B 30000 30000 16.07 16.07 45.15 850 HDPE B 70 30070 0.05 16.12 45.1 750 HDPE B 11798 41868 15.73 31.85 29.37 600 HDPE B 7124 48992 28.98 60.83 0.39 600 Steel B 96 49088 0.39 61.23 0

Table B4: Head loss over transport mains - Scenario II

Diameter Material Line L ∑ L ∆H ∑∆HH mm [-] [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] 600 AC A 0 0 0 0 0 600 AC A 0 0 0 0 41.79 600 AC A 42548 42548 41.79 41.79 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 22.54 900 HDPE B 30000 30000 22.54 22.54 0 900 HDPE B 30000 30001 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 30000 30001 0 0 63.32 850 HDPE B 70 30070 0.07 0.07 63.25 750 HDPE B 11798 41868 22.06 22.13 41.19 600 HDPE B 7124 48992 40.65 62.77 0.55 600 Steel B 96 49088 0.55 63.32 0

Table B5: Head loss over transport mains - Scenario III

Diameter Material Line L ∑ L ∆H ∑∆HH mm [-] [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] 800 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 0 800 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 62.17 800 HDPE A 42548 42548 62.17 62.17 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 62.08 900 HDPE B 30000 30000 16.29 16.29 45.79 850 HDPE B 70 30070 0.05 16.34 45.74 750 HDPE B 11798 41868 15.94 32.27 29.81 600 HDPE B 7124 48992 29.37 61.64 0.44 600 Steel B 96 49088 0.44 62.08 0 Appendix B 99

Table B6: Head loss over transport mains - Scenario IV

Diameter Material Line L ∑ L ∆H ∑∆HH mm [-] [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] 850 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 0 850 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 58.24 850 HDPE A 42548 42548 58.24 58.24 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 59.19 900 HDPE B 30000 30000 15.53 15.53 43.66 850 HDPE B 70 30070 0.05 15.58 43.61 750 HDPE B 11798 41868 15.2 30.77 28.42 600 HDPE B 7124 48992 28 58.77 0.42 600 Steel B 96 49088 0.42 59.19 0

Table B7: Head loss over transport mains - Scenario V

Diameter Material Line L ∑ L ∆H ∑∆HH mm [-] [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] 850 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 0 850 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 58.94 850 HDPE A 42548 42548 58.94 58.94 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 60.02 900 HDPE B 30000 30000 32.5 32.5 27.52 850 HDPE B 19088 49088 27.52 60.02 0

Table B8: Head loss over transport mains - Scenario VI

Diameter Material Line L ∑ L ∆H ∑∆HH mm [-] [-] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] 850 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 0 850 HDPE A 0 0 0 0 62.61 850 HDPE A 23000 23000 62.61 62.61 0 850 HDPE A 23000 23001 0 0 0 850 HDPE A 23000 23001 0 0 63.33 850 HDPE A 19548 42548 63.33 63.33 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 0 0 0 0 48 900 HDPE B 23000 23000 48 48 0 900 HDPE B 23000 23001 0 0 0 900 HDPE B 23000 23001 0 0 61.33 850 HDPE B 26088 49088 61.33 61.33 0 100

Pipeline.A Pipeline.B

90 Current 70 50 30 10

90 Scenario.I 70 50 30 Pipe 10 diameter [mm] Scenario.II 90 600 70 50 650 30 700 /day]

3 10

Scenario.III 750 90 70 800 50 850 30 x 1000 [m 10 900 Scenario.IV 90 pipeline 70 Material Q 50 AC 30 10 HDPE 90 Scenario.V Steel 70 50 30 10 Scenario.VI 90 70 50 30 10 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 50 Length [km]

Fig. B1: Flow per pipeline and pipe diameters over pipeline length REFERENCES 101 References

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