Soldiers to Warriors: Renegotiating the Roman Frontier in the Fifth Century
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SOLDIERS TO WARRIORS CHAPTER 4 Soldiers to warriors: renegotiating the Roman frontier in the fifth century ROB COLLINS Introduction abandonment deposits that can be associated with a large-scale military withdrawal, nor are there By the time the hoard at Traprain Law was deposited widespread destruction deposits that would indicate around the mid-fifth century, the Romans no longer assault on the garrison by Picts,3 Scots, or Anglo- ruled Britain. The material in the hoard is Roman in origin; but the manner in which the material arrived at Traprain and its use are only now beginning to come to light. This volume attempts to set the Traprain hoard in context, and an important aspect that must be considered is the proximity of Hadrian’s Wall, and Traprain’s situation in the broad frontier zone of northern Britain that stretched from the Humber to the Forth (illus 4.1). The northern frontier of Britannia was consolidated in the early second century under Hadrian, and geographically it remained the same until the end of the Roman period in the early fifth century, with a brief occupation of southern Scotland in the mid- second century. Military occupation of the frontier shifted over the centuries, with new forts constructed and others abandoned. Hadrian’s Wall served as a linear and monumental focus for the frontier, and in the fourth century there were twenty forts occupied in the Wall corridor and an unknown number of smaller installations (milecastles, fortlets and turrets). The outpost forts north of Hadrian’s Wall were abandoned in the early fourth century; but the forts south of Hadrian’s Wall continued to be occupied, with approximately thirty of these sites known as far as the Humber estuary (illus 4.2).1 There has been a presumption that only the poorest soldiers remained in very small numbers by the end of the Roman period, c ad 410, if not withdrawn completely at the command of an emperor or usurper;2 but there are no documentary sources that validate this, and there is a considerable amount of archaeological evidence that disproves it. The frontier does not collapse in any discernible pattern Illustration 4.1 in the early fifth century. There are no widespread The fourth-century frontier zone of Roman northern Britannia 29 LATE ROMAN SILVER 0 12.5 25 50 kilometres Illustration 4.2 Forts occupied in the fourth-century north and along the Wall Saxons. In fact, where modern excavations in the period that do not also occur in late Roman contexts.5 frontier have taken place, general continuity of Coins cease to be found in any quantity and ceramics occupation beyond the early fifth century is observed disappear from the archaeological record, and so the if not entirely understood, providing the late Roman best means of dating these centuries is through scientific and post-Roman strata have not been previously techniques. In regions with early Anglo-Saxon burials, disturbed or destroyed.4 furnished graves and Anglian material culture provide While such continuity can be observed, it is reliant some dating for the late fifth to seventh centuries, on well-dated late fourth- or early fifth-century strata. but such areas are limited in the frontier. Recent Dating the fifth and sixth centuries archaeologically studies are employing more sophisticated methods of is difficult in the frontier. As yet, there are very few stratigraphic and artefactual analyses in an attempt to artefacts that are diagnostic of the early post-Roman enhance dating resolution; but archaeological activity 30 SOLDIERS TO WARRIORS is still often attributed to the fifth century because it other dioceses, suggesting that this section for Britain is later than one fixed point and earlier than another.6 has been lost. Another possibility is that unnamed Despite these difficulties, there is a reasonable sites were occupied by sub-formations of units with amount of evidence for the post-Roman frontier, official headquarters based at other installations. The and interpretation of this evidence is enhanced when possibility that occupation at unnamed sites is not considered in conjunction with the evidence for military can be rejected for many reasons, primarily fourth-century occupation. Arguably, most, if not because the artefact assemblages are similar to those all, the soldiers of the late Roman frontier remained from ‘confirmed’ sites of military occupation. in place after Roman rule ceased in Britain, and over Artefact assemblages further confirm the command the course of the fifth century these soldiers and their of the dux on the ground, as coin and ceramic profiles commanders became the core of a number of local are generally consistent throughout the late frontier, warbands, which significantly affected the socio- particularly in the second half of the fourth century. political developments of the Early Historic period. These two classes of evidence are the best indirect means of demonstrating state-sponsored supply, particularly as the composition and distribution of The fourth-century frontier ceramic assemblages can be described as economically At some point in the first half of the fourth century, ‘irrational’.9 Differences in ceramic assemblages after Constantine formalised the separation of between military sites can be explained in terms of mobile field armies, comitatenses, and static frontier supply routes and ‘piggy-backed’ goods. armies, limitanei, the post of the dux Britanniarum Throughout the fourth century there is little was established to command the limitanei of northern recorded evidence of central imperial military Britannia. The post itself is known from the Notitia intervention in the frontier. Of the twelve known Dignitatum, and reference to a dux is made by fourth-century imperial interventions from the Ammianus in relation to the Barbarian Conspiracy Continent in the diocese, only five are confidently of ad 367.7 Significantly, the dux was the ultimate known to relate to the frontier or trans-frontier imperial authority in the region, who answered only peoples.10 Compared to the Rhine and Danube to the highest generals of the imperial court, the frontiers, there was far less imperial campaigning and magistri militum. This meant in practice that the dux intervention. The number of forts and units posted was the most powerful individual in the frontier for in the northern frontier and the five confirmed the vast majority of the time. cases of central imperial campaigning demonstrate a Identification of sites listed in the Notitia reveals perception of a chronic threat from the Picts and Scots. that the dux effectively commanded all the military A frontier garrison was required to protect Britannia; units in northern England, and examination of the but the limitanei can be deemed to have been capable units listed under his command provides further of defending the frontier. Occasionally, however, the insight into the late frontier.8 More than half can be Picts and Scots were a significant enough threat for classified as ‘old-fashioned’, retaining a name typical reinforcements to have been needed from field armies of military units during the Principate. Furthermore, based on the Continent. inscription evidence demonstrates that many of these The principal form of military occupation in old units had been on the British frontier from the late the frontier was the fort; most were independent second and early third centuries, in most cases at the settlements but some were associated with towns, same fort as identified in the Notitia. There are ‘newer’ such as at Carlisle, Catterick and York. There were units dating from the late third and fourth centuries, also smaller installations or settlements, such as the and perhaps a handful, but no more, introduced as late fortlets on the Yorkshire coast and the military as the second half of the fourth century. compound at Corbridge. Milecastles occupied the There is some discrepancy between the Notitia length of Hadrian’s Wall; but it is uncertain how many and archaeological evidence. More sites are occupied milecastles were in use in the late fourth and early fifth c ad 400 than are indicated in the Notitia. There centuries. In the late second and third centuries, there are a number of possible explanations for this. One were sizeable vici outside forts, but these seem to have is that unnamed forts were occupied by barbarian been abandoned by the early fourth century at latest. units (possible laeti or foederati), which are unattested Roman forts in northern England generally in British sections of the Notitia but are known from retained a Hadrianic layout, with significant buildings 31 LATE ROMAN SILVER such as the principia, horrea, and praetorium situated in Does this mean that commanding officers held a central range with barracks and other structures different views on appropriate luxury, or was there in front and rear ranges, all contained in defences a decrease in the material wealth at a commander’s characterised by a playing-card shape. In the second disposal? If this latter, then the commanding officer and third centuries, fort plans conformed to a grid may have found himself less distanced, materially, system that was generally consistent throughout the from his soldiers than his predecessors. This raises frontier, though details between forts varied and interesting questions about how commanders would significant deviations existed, such as the third-century maintain their superior status if they could no longer supply base at South Shields and the Severan-era fort acquire and provide long-distance and elite goods. at Vindolanda. By the late fourth century, things were There was also a change in the common soldier’s different. A number of changes have been observed living conditions, though it should be noted that, in in the structural archaeology and artefact assemblages. contrast to the other alterations, this occurred from A more complete discussion of these changes can be perhaps as early as the mid-third century.13 The found elsewhere,11 but it is important to consider a few former barrack blocks, in which a series of rooms, in detail, namely those relating to principia, praetoria, adjacent to each other and all under one roof, housed barracks and horrea.