Soldiers to warriors

Chapter 4 Soldiers to warriors: renegotiating the Roman frontier in the fifth century

rob collins

Introduction abandonment deposits that can be associated with a large-scale withdrawal, nor are there By the time the hoard at Traprain Law was deposited widespread destruction deposits that would indicate around the mid-fifth century, the Romans no longer assault on the garrison by Picts,3 Scots, or Anglo- ruled Britain. The material in the hoard is Roman in origin; but the manner in which the material arrived at Traprain and its use are only now beginning to come to light. This volume attempts to set the Traprain hoard in context, and an important aspect that must be considered is the proximity of Hadrian’s Wall, and Traprain’s situation in the broad frontier zone of northern Britain that stretched from the Humber to the Forth (illus 4.1). The northern frontier of Britannia was consolidated in the early second century under Hadrian, and geographically it remained the same until the end of the Roman period in the early fifth century, with a brief occupation of southern Scotland in the mid- second century. Military occupation of the frontier shifted over the centuries, with new forts constructed and others abandoned. Hadrian’s Wall served as a linear and monumental focus for the frontier, and in the fourth century there were twenty forts occupied in the Wall corridor and an unknown number of smaller installations (, fortlets and ). The forts north of Hadrian’s Wall were abandoned in the early fourth century; but the forts south of Hadrian’s Wall continued to be occupied, with approximately thirty of these sites known as far as the Humber estuary (illus 4.2).1 There has been a presumption that only the poorest soldiers remained in very small numbers by the end of the Roman period, c ad 410, if not withdrawn completely at the command of an emperor or usurper;2 but there are no documentary sources that validate this, and there is a considerable amount of archaeological evidence that disproves it. The frontier does not collapse in any discernible pattern Illustration 4.1 in the early fifth century. There are no widespread The fourth-century frontier zone of Roman northern Britannia

29 late roman silver

0 12.5 25 50 kilometres

Illustration 4.2 Forts occupied in the fourth-century north and along the Wall

Saxons. In fact, where modern excavations in the period that do not also occur in late Roman contexts.5 frontier have taken place, general continuity of Coins cease to be found in any quantity and ceramics occupation beyond the early fifth century is observed disappear from the archaeological record, and so the if not entirely understood, providing the late Roman best means of dating these centuries is through scientific and post-Roman strata have not been previously techniques. In regions with early Anglo-Saxon burials, disturbed or destroyed.4 furnished graves and Anglian material culture provide While such continuity can be observed, it is reliant some dating for the late fifth ­to seventh centuries, on well-dated late fourth- or early fifth-century strata. but such areas are limited in the frontier. Recent Dating the fifth and sixth centuries archaeologically studies are employing more sophisticated methods of is difficult in the frontier. As yet, there are very few stratigraphic and artefactual analyses in an attempt to artefacts that are diagnostic of the early post-Roman enhance dating resolution; but archaeological activity

30 Soldiers to warriors is still often attributed to the fifth century because it other dioceses, suggesting that this section for Britain is later than one fixed point and earlier than another.6 has been lost. Another possibility is that unnamed Despite these difficulties, there is a reasonable sites were occupied by sub-formations of units with amount of evidence for the post-Roman frontier, official headquarters based at other installations. The and interpretation of this evidence is enhanced when possibility that occupation at unnamed sites is not considered in conjunction with the evidence for military can be rejected for many reasons, primarily fourth-century occupation. Arguably, most, if not because the artefact assemblages are similar to those all, the soldiers of the late Roman frontier remained from ‘confirmed’ sites of military occupation. in place after Roman rule ceased in Britain, and over Artefact assemblages further confirm the command the course of the fifth century these soldiers and their of the on the ground, as coin and ceramic profiles commanders became the core of a number of local are generally consistent throughout the late frontier, warbands, which significantly affected the socio- particularly in the second half of the fourth century. political developments of the Early Historic period. These two classes of evidence are the best indirect means of demonstrating state-sponsored supply, particularly as the composition and distribution of The fourth-century frontier ceramic assemblages can be described as economically At some point in the first half of the fourth century, ‘irrational’.9 Differences in ceramic assemblages after Constantine formalised the separation of between military sites can be explained in terms of mobile field armies, , and static frontier supply routes and ‘piggy-backed’ goods. armies, , the post of the Throughout the fourth century there is little was established to command the limitanei of northern recorded evidence of central imperial military Britannia. The post itself is known from the Notitia intervention in the frontier. Of the twelve known Dignitatum, and reference to a dux is made by fourth-century imperial interventions from the Ammianus in relation to the Barbarian Conspiracy Continent in the diocese, only five are confidently of ad 367.7 Significantly, the dux was the ultimate known to relate to the frontier or trans-frontier imperial authority in the region, who answered only peoples.10 Compared to the Rhine and Danube to the highest generals of the imperial court, the frontiers, there was far less imperial campaigning and magistri militum. This meant in practice that the dux intervention. The number of forts and units posted was the most powerful individual in the frontier for in the northern frontier and the five confirmed the vast majority of the time. cases of central imperial campaigning demonstrate a Identification of sites listed in the Notitia reveals perception of a chronic threat from the Picts and Scots. that the dux effectively commanded all the military A frontier garrison was required to protect Britannia; units in northern , and examination of the but the limitanei can be deemed to have been capable units listed under his command provides further of defending the frontier. Occasionally, however, the insight into the late frontier.8 More than half can be Picts and Scots were a significant enough threat for classified as ‘old-fashioned’, retaining a name typical reinforcements to have been needed from field armies of military units during the Principate. Furthermore, based on the Continent. inscription evidence demonstrates that many of these The principal form of military occupation in old units had been on the British frontier from the late the frontier was the fort; most were independent second and early third centuries, in most cases at the settlements but some were associated with towns, same fort as identified in the Notitia. There are ‘newer’ such as at Carlisle, Catterick and . There were units dating from the late third and fourth centuries, also smaller installations or settlements, such as the and perhaps a handful, but no more, introduced as late fortlets on the coast and the military as the second half of the fourth century. compound at Corbridge. Milecastles occupied the There is some discrepancy between the Notitia length of Hadrian’s Wall; but it is uncertain how many and archaeological evidence. More sites are occupied milecastles were in use in the late fourth and early fifth c ad 400 than are indicated in the Notitia. There centuries. In the late second and third centuries, there are a number of possible explanations for this. One were sizeable vici outside forts, but these seem to have is that unnamed forts were occupied by barbarian been abandoned by the early fourth century at latest. units (possible laeti or foederati), which are unattested Roman forts in generally in British sections of the Notitia but are known from retained a Hadrianic layout, with significant buildings

31 late roman silver such as the principia, horrea, and praetorium situated in Does this mean that commanding officers held a central range with barracks and other structures different views on appropriate luxury, or was there in front and rear ranges, all contained in defences a decrease in the material wealth at a commander’s characterised by a playing-card shape. In the second disposal? If this latter, then the commanding officer and third centuries, fort plans conformed to a grid may have found himself less distanced, materially, system that was generally consistent throughout the from his soldiers than his predecessors. This raises frontier, though details between forts varied and interesting questions about how commanders would significant deviations existed, such as the third-century maintain their superior status if they could no longer supply base at South Shields and the Severan-era fort acquire and provide long-distance and elite goods. at . By the late fourth century, things were There was also a change in the common soldier’s different. A number of changes have been observed living conditions, though it should be noted that, in in the structural and artefact assemblages. contrast to the other alterations, this occurred from A more complete discussion of these changes can be perhaps as early as the mid-third century.13 The found elsewhere,11 but it is important to consider a few former barrack blocks, in which a series of rooms, in detail, namely those relating to principia, praetoria, adjacent to each other and all under one roof, housed barracks and horrea. a century of roughly eighty men, were replaced by The principia was the official headquarters building freestanding or semi-detached structures now known of a unit, where records were kept, judicial matters as ‘chalets’. These were formerly thought to indicate were resolved, and official rituals and holidays were that a soldier’s family moved into the fort to share in observed. In the second half of the fourth century, the his accommodation. More recent work, however, has use of this official building changed. At many principia, demonstrated that this is not the case, and the general we find evidence of domestic occupation in the rear linear arrangement suggests that group accommodation office range. There is also evidence for metalworking for a century continued. That said, the construction of or butchery, even at the legionary fortress in York – chalets is variable in size and their arrangement is less the most important of all the forts in the frontier in rigid; this lack of spatial structuring may correlate to a terms of military status. Porticos have walls inserted relaxation of social rules. between their pillars, and in some cases these enclosed A very important change can be seen with , corridors are further divided by the insertion of the large buttressed stone structures built for the storage separation walls that create small chambers. While of bulk foodstuffs and other supplies, indicating a the ritual and official focus may have been retained in fundamental shift in the scale and acquisition of supplies. a headquarters building, it is important to note how There is evidence from a number of forts that these mundane, messy, day-to-day activities had invaded the large stone barns were no longer used for food storage official and sacrosanct building that was literally and purposes, generally indicated by the infilling of the figuratively the centre of the fort. subfloor, the space beneath the raised floor that helped The praetorium, the highest-status residence in to the grain dry. It is not always clear what the the fort, belonged to the commanding officer and his new functions of the buildings were. At Housesteads, household, and was generally built on a Mediterranean the build-up of domestic rubbish suggests that part of model, with a courtyard house containing domestic the was used for new accommodation, and quarters, dining rooms, kitchens, and a private bath the same development has also been revealed recently suite. In the late fourth century, there are indications in excavations at Vindolanda. At Newcastle, the west of declining opulence in these houses. Rooms are granary was converted for industrial activity, probably subdivided into smaller units, floors are no longer metalworking. At , the granaries were made up of tessellated surfaces, flagging, or opus replaced by a large timber hall – a structure more signinum, and bath suites are further altered. In the frequently seen in Early Historic contexts (illus 4.3).14 most extreme case, the praetorium at Vindolanda had Granaries are seen as a building form essential to a two of its four wings demolished, and replaced by military garrison; but the function of these structures a freestanding structure thought to be a church, should be further considered. They were designed to though it is possible that this activity dates to the store supplies in bulk, and presumably to receive such fifth century.12 While the praetoria still occupy a supplies in bulk. The conversion or outright demolition considerable amount of space within the fort, the of granaries raises the question of where food supplies decline in opulence is potentially quite important. were being stored, in what quantity, and from where?

32 Soldiers to warriors

A number of factors would have contributed to the barracks), though it should be stressed that they are decision to re-use granaries; but it seems reasonable to not contemporaneous throughout the frontier. The conclude that food supplies were no longer imported conversion of the principia at York, for example, did and hoarded in bulk. It can be reasoned further that not occur until the early fifth century at the earliest. food was acquired relatively locally, and that the scale of such production was high enough to support the The fifth century population of a military community throughout the year. We find a number of additional changes occurring Other changes included the blocking of gates at forts that post-date the changes just mentioned; and a general decrease in the organisation and these must date from the fifth century, and perhaps later in some cases. These include the refurbishment of the defences, structural activity, post-Roman ‘British’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon’ artefacts, burials, and occasionally post- Roman inscribed stones and evidence for Christianity (Tables 1–2). Additionally, place-names and ancient texts occasionally indicate continued importance of Roman sites in the post-Roman centuries. Refurbished defences, consisting of earthen banks with stone or timber revetments, could be of late fourth- or early fifth-century date; but the extended internal sequences at many forts suggest a fifth- and/ or sixth-century date as more likely. Comparable building activity at high-status Early Historic sites in other parts of Britain, notably south- west England, Wales and Scotland, dates from the fourth to ninth centuries.15 At Roman forts, the Illustration 4.3 earthen banks are generally the final Plan of the horreum at Birdoswald (top) compared to that of the succeeding timber hall. phase of a series of refurbishments to Scale is 20m the stone curtains, which slumped or collapsed over the centuries. This need for regular refurbishment specialised use of space. The tidy grid-system of is clearest at Housesteads, where the topography earlier centuries eroded as buildings began projecting required a succession of stone revetments that attest on to road space, and all sorts of structures were to the expansion of ramparts over the centuries. This used for craftworking or accommodation. Road ended with an earthen embankment built over the paving became rougher. The building process became collapsed curtain wall with timber revetments.16 An more mixed, with the increasing use of timber earthen bank revetted with a narrow stone wall over from foundation level. At a few forts, Newcastle, the collapsed fort curtain was also seen at Birdoswald Vindolanda and Carlisle, there is evidence for in the south-east corner of the fort.17 A succession of marketplace activity, based on extensive distributions rebuilds of the west curtain can be seen at Vindolanda,18 of coins in large numbers. including a fifth-century curtain, while there is These changes in forts begin in the last third of evidence for encasement with earthen banks from the the fourth century (with the exception of chalet-style east .19 The refurbishment of external ditches

33 late roman silver

Table 1 Type of evidence for occupation and activity at sites in the Wall corridor in the fifth to eighth centuries. A solid square indicates defi- nite evidence, while an open square indicates probable or possible evidence.

Along the Wall with defences Earthen stone/timber Structural or occupational evidence Class I inscribed stone ‘British’-type artefacts ‘Anglo-Saxon’-type artefacts Christianity for Evidence Burial

South Shields ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Wallsend ■ □ Newcastle □ ■ ■ ■ Benwell ■ □ Corbridge □ ■ ■ Chesters ■ ■ □ Housesteads ■ ■ ■ □ □ □ Vindolanda ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ □ Great Chesters □ Birdoswald ■ ■ ■ ■ □ □ Castlesteads □ Stanwix □ Carlisle ■ ■ ■ ■

often accompanied refurbishment of curtain defences, of the rampart and gate. There is also evidence typically in the form of a single wider than its for the insertion of timber posts outside the north Roman predecessors, as at Piercebridge.20 portal of the west gate at Birdoswald, indicating the Structural changes can be ephemeral and are maintenance or refurbishment of the gate. Presumably typically found only with the more methodical there are other post-Roman structures at Birdoswald, techniques and recording regimes of the past forty as yet unexcavated. At South Shields and Vindolanda, years. As yet, there is no complete plan from any probable post-Roman structures were built wholly fort for its post-Roman/Early Historic phase, but or partly in stone. At Vindolanda, stone structures these post-Roman indicators are seen at a number of were built near the west gate, and the granaries sites, identified and dated by their stratigraphically were also converted into smaller structures on stone later occurrence than the latest Roman coins and footings (if not entirely built in stone), as were those ceramics.21 Even if we limit discussion to the Wall structures over the barracks. Part-timber, part-stone corridor, there are a number of examples.22 The structures were built over late chalet-style barracks best known among the internal structures is the at Housesteads, and timber post-built structures have series of timber halls at Birdoswald, the first of been encountered at Stanwix. Post-Roman structural which employed large timber posts set on post-pads, evidence at Carlisle is less clear than at other sites, while the successor structure was timber-framed. though the principia probably remained standing into Contemporary with the halls are smaller structures, the fifth century, with lean-to structures built on the immediately to the west and built against the back street against it.

34 Soldiers to warriors

Fifth- to sixth-century British and Anglian Riacus stones at Vindolanda25 are the easternmost artefacts have been found at a number of forts.23 examples of this class of monument, though others Zoomorphic penannular brooches and pins affiliated have been identified at Castlesteads, Brougham, Old with British ethnic fashions, as well as small-long, Carlisle and Maryport.26 square-headed, and cruciform brooches of Anglian Church structures have been suggested at four fashion, are the most typical examples. However, other sites, probably of fifth-century date.27 The evidence dress accessories have been attested, such as handpins, ranges from apsidal-ended buildings at Housesteads, bone pins and beads. Vindolanda, and Birdoswald, to the remains of altars -inscribed stones are a well-attested at Vindolanda and South Shields.28 Artefacts marked phenomenon of the British west in the Early Historic with Chi-Rho symbols and Christian motifs and period, but these are generally confined to Cornwall, mottos provide further evidence of Christianity, for Wales and southern Scotland.24 The Brigomaglos and example, from the Corbridge hoard.29 At Housesteads

Table 2 Type of evidence for occupation and activity at former Roman sites in the kingdom of Northumbria in the fifth to eighth centuries. A solid square indicates definite evidence, while an open square indicates probable or possible evidence

South of the Wall with defences Earthen revetment stone/timber Structural or occupational evidence Class I inscribed stone ‘British’-type artefacts ‘Anglo-Saxon’-type artefacts Christianity for Evidence Burial

York ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Malton ■ ■ ■ Filey ■ Goldsborough ■ Huntcliff □ Aldborough ■ ■ Catterick ■ ■ ■ ■ Piercebridge ■ ■ ■ Binchester ■ ■ ■ Bowes ■ Brough under Stainmore ■ Brougham □ Old Carlisle □ Old Penrith ■ ■ ■ Maryport □ Manchester ■ ■ North of the Wall ■ ■

35 late roman silver and Birdoswald, the proposed churches are found in in the fifth century, but unfortunately the early date the north-west quadrant of the fort, while at South of the excavations means that little detail was reported Shields, the church occupied the principia forecourt for late structural sequences, though road repavements and at Vindolanda it was built over the courtyard of and timber structures are known. At Carlisle, the the praetorium. These are relatively small structures discovery of a gold solidus of Valentinian II (ad 388– and spaces that in the medieval period would be better 92), sealed by an opus signinum floor deposit of a large identified as chapels. townhouse on Scotch Street, provided a terminus post Burial activity, whether in the British tradition of quem for the subsequent phases of refurbishment and simple, unfurnished inhumations, sometimes in cists, occupation, which must certainly date from the fifth or in the Anglo-Saxon fashion of furnished inhumation century. Fifth-century occupation in Carlisle is known or cremation, forms another class of sub-Roman from the Northern Lanes and Blackfriars, though these evidence.30 A number of Anglo-Saxon artefacts found are not necessarily high-status sites. Probable fifth- at Roman forts are possibly from burials, such as the century high-status settlement can also be attributed cruciform brooches from Benwell. However, the to villas, for example at Quarry Hill Farm (Ingleby number of finds and consistency with which Anglo- Barwick), Langton and Beadlam. However, nearly all Saxon artefacts are found at former Roman forts are the villas in the frontier zone are found to the south of suggestive of something more than preferred locations the Tees valley and east of the Pennines, beyond our for burial grounds.31 concerns here. Textual accounts, place-name and landscape High-status settlements in the frontier zone dating studies further indicate the continuing importance to the fifth century but lacking ‘Roman’ associations or of Hadrian’s Wall in the early post-Roman centuries. origins are very few. The majority of these are located The Ahse in the anonymous Life of St Cuthbert, where in barbaricum, that is to say, north of the Wall. There the local population gathered to meet the saint, has is a respectable number of that were certainly been identified as , the Roman fort of Great occupied in the Early Historic period between the Chesters.32 More recently, landscape analysis has Tyne–Solway and Forth–Clyde lines, principally identified possible land units that may have their origins Dumbarton Rock, Castlehill (Dalry), Dundonald, in the Roman territoria of forts and which continued as Mote of Mark, , Traprain Law, discrete units of land into the Early Historic period.33 Bamburgh and .37 Unfortunately, Wallbottle has also been identified as an estate of the evidence specifically for fifth-century occupation at Bernician elite on the basis of place-name analysis and these sites is sparse, if not absent altogether. Traprain an account in Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of a royal vill Law figures very highly in this short list, with its status near Hadrian’s Wall.34 confirmed by its refortification in this period and, of In addition to forts from the Wall corridor, course, the discovery of the famous hoard. The other Roman sites continued to be occupied in the under was probably occupied in fifth century, and some of these must certainly be the fifth century, and it is (in)famously known as the considered high-status settlements.35 The full extent gathering point for the warriors featured in Y Gododdin of fifth-century occupation of the provincial capital at prior to their defeat at Catraeth (generally agreed to York is uncertain, and it was almost certainly reduced be Catterick). Textual evidence also suggests that the in scale and intensity from fourth-century occupation. coastal hillfort at Bamburgh was a British political There are hints that the legionary fortress continued to centre prior to its conquest by Ida in 542, though be a focus for high-status activity, such as the evidence there is no archaeological evidence for fifth-century for fifth-century feasting on suckling pig.36 The de novo occupation so far. Yeavering is well known as a royal construction of the stone-built Anglian tower in the vill of the kings of Northumbria; but reassessment of fifth or sixth century shows continuing refurbishment the building sequence casts doubt on the age of the of the defences, as at other Roman military sites. The earliest hall structures, which may be British (rather town of Catterick also has evidence for fifth-century than ‘Anglian’ in origin), but not fifth century in date.38 occupation, which includes building sequences post- The neighbouring hillfort of Yeavering Bell, however, dating the latest securely stratified Roman coins, may have been occupied in the fifth century, though and considerable sixth-century Anglian material, once again firm evidence is lacking. Monastic sites are primarily from funerary assemblages. The town of also known, with the earliest in the region probably Corbridge almost certainly continued to be occupied that at Whithorn, where the primary occupation was

36 Soldiers to warriors fifth or sixth century.39 South of the Wall, hillforts The role of the soldier in the of the may have been an alternative high-status site of choice late fourth century does not differ as much as might in the frontier; but there is no evidence that these were be imagined from that of the Early Historic warrior.41 occupied, let alone achieved the equivalent political The limitanei, the frontier soldiers, were formally status of their northern counterparts, probably due to separated from the comitatenses, the field armies, by the continued status and defensibility of Roman forts Constantine I in the early fourth century. While the throughout the region. frontier units had a technically lower status than those On its own, the evidence for Early Historic of the field armies, as is demonstrated by their pay, occupation of forts on the northern frontier is they were still essential to the defence of the empire. fragmentary and sometimes tenuous. The clearest Perhaps the most important differences between the picture emerges at Birdoswald, where the presence two were in training and deployment. The limitanei of timber halls provides a recognisable Early Historic were intended to defend and police the frontiers. They building form. Unfortunately, there is no evidence most frequently encountered smaller-scale raiders and from other important military buildings on the site, warbands, in contrast to the field army, which was like the principia or praetorium, to measure the emergence employed for proactive and large-scale campaigning. of a hall against. The widespread evidence of post- A single unit of limitanei would often be expected Roman activity around the fort of Vindolanda suggests to act on its own, with maximum manpower in the extensive Early Historic settlement around the site. hundreds, compared to the many thousands of a Other sites have less coherent evidence, but it can be campaigning army. concluded that Roman forts continued to play a role in Attached to each fort was a territorium, perhaps best the settlement of the post-Roman north. When Early understood as an estate that the fort commander could Historic traits are considered in conjunction with the draw resources from. These lands provided arable and fourth-century trends, there is a clear demonstration pasture that supported the garrison’s need for food for that settlement was still centred on the former military themselves and their livestock, as well as access to any communities in the fifth century. Forts must be seen other resources of the land, like woodland or minerals as preferred settlement sites that hosted a range of and ores. The territorium facilitated local supply. The higher-status activity, including burials. The challenge limitanei were also paid primarily in kind rather than is not in recognition of the continued significance of cash, despite the expectation of regular donatives.42 forts, but in the interpretation of the changes observed Thus a frontier soldier would see his food, shelter archaeologically. and equipment as payment for service rather than a regular payment of coin. It is very easy to imagine a situation in which formal payment in kind becomes Roman soldiers to British warbands blurred with the patronage of the unit commander, The partial or complete military withdrawal of the at whose pleasure the soldiers were paid. Another limitanei units posted in the northern British frontier factor was the common practice of local recruitment in the early fifth century remains a possibility, but an (either voluntary or conscription) and the hereditary unlikely one. It is doubtful that Constantine III or any obligation of soldiers’ sons to enlist. Even if local of the immediately preceding emperors would have recruitment is defined as coming from within the stripped Britain of its entire garrison. More likely is region rather than the immediately surrounding lands, that the military units were resident in the forts after most soldiers in the later fourth-century frontier of the official divorce from imperial authorities c ad 410, north Britain will have been raised in north Britain as continuing evidence for activity implies. A number and will have only served in north Britain, making of scenarios have been postulated for the post-Roman it likely that the average soldier, culturally speaking, garrisons, including the transformation of the fort had more in common with a local native than a praepositus and his unit of limitanei into a local chieftain frontier soldier from the Rhine. This lack of mobility and his warband.40 This interpretation is favoured here, of frontier units and prevalence of local recruitment, but it is important to state this transition explicitly: coupled with the infrequent presence of an imperial a soldier, a trained professional in the employ of a field army, all imply that frontier soldiers were locally state authority, became a warrior, a fighter engaged embedded: economically, socially and culturally. in personal service to a warlord who may or may not A basic requirement for any retention of soldiers or have been a legally recognised authority. martial capacity by a Roman commander or warlord

37 late roman silver was the economic base to support a non-productive dress accessories were made from copper alloys rather population. This included not only food for soldiers than precious metals. For example, only two silver type and any mounts but sufficient supplies for soldiers’ E penannulars and one silver handpin are known from dependants. Continued procurement of iron and other the frontier.52 The dearth of precious metal objects resources necessary for the maintenance and forging from the latest Roman deposits and succeeding post- of armour and weaponry must also be included, plus Roman strata may signal a loss of access to some forms the smith required for such work.43 The importance of wealth; but precious metal goods are more likely of the smith and his skill is seen in the Early Historic to be redistributed and recycled than those of base period, when texts and archaeological evidence both metals. A silver ingot has been found in post-Roman attest the high status accorded to such artisans.44 The deposits at Vindolanda, while a crucible redeposited continued occupation at forts suggests that enough in modern strata at Birdoswald was probably used to food was produced and procured locally to support a extract silver from lead.53 The fragmentary nature of population of some size (to judge from Vindolanda), the vessels from the Traprain hoard may also suggest a and metalworking is found in a number of locations functioning ‘treasury’. in forts in the latest decades of fourth-century The hierarchy of status is not as apparent in occupation and after. Evidence of iron-working brooches and other dress accessories of the fifth and implies the production of weapons, armour and iron sixth centuries as in those from later centuries, though tools, while evidence of copper-working demonstrates the display of social rank may have relied on other the manufacture of objects such as copper-alloy dress characteristics not seen in the remaining material accessories. Room 12 of the principia at Housesteads, record. This apparent rarity of silver and gold, even where 800 iron arrowheads were found, contained accounting for a high level of recovery and recycling, other iron objects and an anvil, suggesting a location is not only a regional phenomenon. Precious metal for a blacksmith, while a room in the rear range of the objects of fifth- and sixth-century date are relatively praetorium at Binchester was converted into a smithy.45 rare across Britain, confined mostly to coin and vessel An archaeomagnetic date of post-ad 403 from the hoards that are concentrated in southern Britain.54 bath furnace in Room 16 of the praetorium at South This makes the Traprain hoard, and even the more Shields provided a terminus post quem for subsequent modest Corbridge lanx and possibly associated vessels industrial activity (unspecified), which was then filled all the more important, perhaps also further raising in and covered with a rough paving.46 The fifth- the status of the relatively limited repertoire of dress century conversion of part of the legionary principia accessories in copper alloy. at York into a metal-working area was indicated by There is possible evidence for a culture of feasting a ‘sequence of industrial hearths, generating large at fort sites. Prior to the construction of the timber halls quantities of smithing slag (nearly 40kg was recovered) at Birdoswald, one granary was converted for hall-like together with residues of bronze and lead-working’.47 use, with a hearth at one end, round which high- Bar moulds associated with non-ferrous metalworking status objects were found, suggesting some socialising were found cut into sandstone slabs at Vindolanda, activity in which the elite were seated closest to the fire. probably dating from the sub-Roman period.48 At the legionary principia at York, a bone assemblage Weaponry and armour were potent symbols from the legionary basilica, composed of the remains of authority and status in the late Roman and Early of butchered suckling-pigs and dated to the fifth Historic periods; but they are found infrequently in century, attests high-status feasting.55 A fifth-century the archaeological record because of both the recycling slaughterhouse was also excavated in one of the rooms of broken pieces of equipment and the susceptibility of the rear range of the praetorium at Binchester.56 Glass of iron alloys to corrosion in most depositional vessels are present in the region, but in lower numbers environments.49 Other objects associated with than seen elsewhere, suggesting perhaps that they were significant social status in the Early Historic period, less numerous and therefore higher-status items.57 however, have been found at Roman forts. Zoomorphic The range of higher-status artefacts is similar penannular brooches, namely Fowler type E, are a to that from Early Historic sites, and forts are common find, as are sixth-century Anglo-Saxon comparable, when considered in conjunction with the brooches.50 Other dress accessories associated with the changes to the structural remains (eg defences, halls post-Roman Britons, such as zoomorphic pins and and churches), with hillforts and other elite sites of the handpins have been found.51 The majority of these Early Historic period.58 The paired evidence of feasting

38 Soldiers to warriors and metalworking within a defensive enclosure, seen an advantage that many other elites in Britain did not most clearly in the legionary principia at York, further possess. Initially, the primary threat to a commander underscores this comparison. The fort became the seat may have been the traditional enemies, the Picts and of a commander-cum-chief, where he could defend his Scots outside the . However, with the people, feast and arm his warriors, and provide a place changed circumstances of the fifth century, traditional of worship. enemies may have become valued allies, and the renegotiation of existing arrangements would have further altered the political map. Fragmentation but not collapse The end of continental-based imperial authority It is argued here that the late Roman frontier shaped did not change the players in the frontier so much as significantly the socio-political development of Early the scale at which these figures could operate. Garrison Historic northern Britain. The lack of evidence for a commanders could no longer rely on reinforcements military withdrawal and general signs of continuity from the dux, the British field army or a continental of occupation at Roman forts support the continuing field army. Long-distance information and exchange presence of the limitanei beyond the political end of networks may also have become more limited. In such . The structural organisation of the circumstances, the network at the disposal of Christian late Roman army also favours continued occupation clergymen and missionaries became more important. of the frontier, and the general high status of fort sites It may have been the importance of York as the see of a in the fifth century and perhaps later is attested by fourth-century bishop that underscored its continued the refurbishment of defences, provision of halls and significance throughout the Early Historic era rather churches, and the presence of higher-status objects. than its presumed role as the seat of the dux Britanniarum. While forts seem to remain centres of local Newcomers emerged at the fringes of the frontier – importance, however, the overarching organisation the Scots to the north and west of the main frontier of the frontier probably fragmented at some point zone and the Anglo- at the south-east corner of in the fifth century. The degree of fragmentation is the frontier. It is significant that Anglian groups do not difficult to ascertain. It is possible that there was a seem to make rapid progress through the frontier, in level of authority between that of the dux Britanniarum contrast to other areas of England, suggesting a strong and the fort commanders, like a sector command, political and martial capacity within the region. It is and civitates, such as that of the Carvetii centred on this general stability that we see in the burial record. Carlisle, had their own political organisation that may The mixture of burial rites in single cemeteries, and or may not have had links to a military unit. Sector the general lack of princely burials and warrior graves, commanders and civitas potentates would favour the argue against the social instability and renegotiation of survival of a political or territorial entity larger than power- and social-identities seen in the furnished and a fort-based estate. While more powerful figures elaborate burials in southern Britain and other parts of and larger territories may have survived the divorce northern .59 This is not to say that new political from imperial authorities, this may not always have formations did not emerge in the frontier zone in the been the case throughout the frontier zone; the local post-Roman centuries, as they clearly did; rather, the commander may have found himself with no superior building blocks of the Early Historic kingdoms in the officer to report to. region can be found in the late Roman frontier. Under such conditions, each garrison commander Roman forts lost their significance as centres essentially became an independent warlord, based at of power between the sixth and eighth centuries. a fort and supported by its territorium. Such a situation The latest evidence for Early Historic activity from created a blank canvas on which new political most forts is provided by Anglian artefacts of the formations could be created. This is important, as the sixth century, though there are exceptions. York frontier was no longer a fringe territory for a distant and Carlisle are known as elite centres later in the imperial capital, but a concentration of armed men that Early Historic period and beyond, attested both now formed the core of new polities. Neighbouring archaeologically and in historical documents, with a forts may have competed for similar resources or have strong probability of continued status from the late formed alliances against other groups. The established Roman period. The forts at Newcastle and Chester supply arrangements and presence of an armed body of le Street were re-used as monasteries in the seventh soldiers certainly provided garrison commanders with or eighth century, and one could attempt to extend

39 late roman silver the sequence at Birdoswald to the eighth century in frontier, attested by Ammianus Marcellinus and the place order to explain the hairpin of that date found on the and year of issue of laws in the Codex Theodosianus. A site. More typical, however, may be the shifts away similar high level of attention with frequent campaigning by the emperor in person was seen along the Danube from forts. Hexham eclipsed Corbridge, Binchester frontier under Constantius II, Valens and Theodosius. was superseded by Gainford, and Chester le Street 11 Collins 2012a; Collins & Allason-Jones 2010. was abandoned in favour of Durham. The shift in 12 Birley et al 2002. political was not necessarily rapid; but 13 Hodgson & Bidwell 2004; Rushworth 2009. it was brought about through the rise and eventual 14 Housteads: Crow 2004; Rushworth 2009; Vindolanda: hegemony of Anglian Northumbria in northern Birley forthcoming; Newcastle: Snape & Bidwell 2002; England and southern Scotland. This new, larger Birdoswald: Wilmott 1997. kingdom straddled Hadrian’s Wall, but its own 15 For example, South Cadbury, : Alcock 1995; frontiers were based elsewhere. Dunadd, Argyll: Lane & Campbell 2000; Alcock 2003, 179–83. 16 rushworth 2009, 314. Notes 17 wilmott 1997, 194. 18 Birley & Blake 2007, 51, fig 63. 1 Breeze & Dobson 2000; Bidwell & Hodgson 2009. 19 Bidwell 1985, 46, 49. 2 For example, Jones & Mattingly 1993, 140, 308. 20 Cool & Mason 2008, 308–9. 3 in this paper I use the name Pict(s) as a term for all barbarians 21 Note that dating post-Roman activity from a sequence north of the Wall and not a name designating a specific of stratigraphy is complicated by issues of ‘residuality’ of tribe/confederation. Roman artefacts in post-Roman strata. 4 Namely – South Shields: Bidwell & Speak 1994; 22 See references in footnote 4. Housesteads: Rushworth 2009; Vindolanda: Bidwell 1985; 23 Collins 2010; O’Brien 2010. Birley et al 2002; Birley & Blake 2007; Birdoswald: Wilmott 24 alcock 2003, 363–7; Thomas 1997. 1997; 2009; Stanwix: McCarthy 2002; Carlisle: Zant 2009; 25 Jackson 1982. Binchester: Ferris & Jones 2000; Ferris 2010; Piercebridge: 26 Cool & Mason 2008; Catterick: Wilson 2002; York: Phillips dark & Dark 1996, 60, 62. 27 & Heywood 1995. Petts 2003, 167, 168; Housesteads: Crow 2004, 112; 5 Collins & Allason-Jones 2010. Birdoswald: Wilmott 2009, 395; South Shields: Bidwell & 6 For example, Cool & Mason 2008. Speak 1994, 103–4; Vindolanda: Birley et al 2002. 28 7 Not. Dig. Occ. XL; Ammianus Marcellinus XXVII.8.1 vindolanda: Birley et al 2002; Birley & Blake 2007, 112, fig 8 Hodgson 1991. 132; South Shields: Bidwell & Speak 1994, 103–4. 29 9 A ‘rational’ distribution would be one governed by a free Corbridge hoard: Thomas 1981, 113; Mawer 1995, 17–18; market environment, in which distance from the site of other artefacts: Thomas 1981, 130–2; Mawer 1995, 8, 14–15, production and the facility of transport are particularly 30–1, 67–9, 72–3, 75–7. 30 important. lucy 1999; Wilmott 2000. 31 10 ad 306: campaigning by Constantius Chlorus against the o’Brien 2010. 32 Picts; ad 360: Julian sends Lupicinus and four units of the rushworth 2009, 325. 33 Western field army to Britain after the Scots and Picts laid roberts 2010. waste to territory near the frontier; ad 364: Picts and Scots 34 p Wood in Rushworth 2009, 326. break ‘the peace’; ad 367: the Barbarian Conspiracy; c ad 35 York: Phillips & Heywood 1995; Ottaway 2004. Catterick: 400: Stilicho credited with victory over the Picts and Scots Wilson 2002; Wilson et al 1996. Corbridge: Birley 1959 (Breeze & Dobson 2000, 234–44; Mattingly 2006, 231–2). provides a useful bibliography for the early excavations To this list of frontier campaigns can be added two further where fourth-century buildings were excavated. Carlisle: notable entries. Constans visits Britain during the winter in Keevill et al 1989; Zant 1999; McCarthy 1990. Quarry Hill ad 342–3 to deal with an unspecified enemy, but the Picts Farm: Carne forthcoming. Langton: Corder & Kirk 1932. and/or Scots seem likely, based on the link in Ammianus Beadlam: Neal 1996. [XXVIII.3.8] of the areani to Constans and Britain, in the 36 Gerrard 2007. section about the Barbarian Conspiracy (unfortunately 37 Generally: Laing 2006, 292–307; Alcock 2003, 179–200. referring to a lost book of Ammianus). Magnus Maximus Oswald et al 2006 indicate a number of hillforts with records a victory c ad 382/3 over the Picts and Scots, Roman and/or post-Roman phases in Northumberland but he may have already been posted to Britannia under National Park. For Traprain itself see Hunter, this volume. a regular command rather than having been appointed 38 Scull 1991. from the Continent to a temporary command. Compare 39 Hill 1997. the series of years that Julian and Valentinian, for example, 40 Casey 1993; Wilmott 1997; cf Collins 2006 and 2012b for a spent in eastern campaigning the length of the Rhine theoretical explanation of this transition.

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41 Elton 1997 and Nicasie 1998 provide the best overall Alcock, L 2003 Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests examination. in Northern Britain ad 550–850. Edinburgh: Society of 42 While fourth-century coinage is still present in greater Antiquaries of Scotland. quantities than that of other periods, relative to the national Allason-Jones, L 2010 ‘Personal appearance’, in Collins & average, frontier levels of fourth-century coinage are low; Allason-Jones (eds), 78–85. Brickstock 2000; 2010. Bidwell, P 1985 The Roman Fort of Vindolanda at Chesterholm, 43 Note the late Roman (or possibly fifth century) tool Northumberland. London: Historic Buildings and Monuments hoard from the Roman villa at Ingleby Barwick: Hunter Commission for England. forthcoming. Bidwell, P & Hodgson, N 2009 The Roman Army in Northern 44 alcock 2003, 310–35. England. Kendal: Titus Wilson & Son. 45 Crow 2004, 96; Ferris & Jones 2000, 2. Bidwell, P & Speak, S 1994 Excavations at South Shields Roman 46 Hodgson in Bidwell & Speak 1994, 44; N Hodgson, pers Fort, vol 1. Newcastle: Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle comm. upon Tyne. 47 Carver 1995, 188. Birley, A forthcoming Vindolanda excavations 2008: the granaries. 48 Bidwell 1985, 152–4, fig 59. Hexham: Vindolanda Trust. 49 Coulston 2010 provides a catalogue of late weaponry from the British frontier. Birley, A & Blake, J 2007 Vindolanda excavations 2005–2006. 50 Collins 2010; O’Brien 2010; note that Fowler types F and Hexham: Vindolanda Trust. G, as well as the other more ornamented types of the seventh Birley, R, Blake, J & Birley, A 2002 All Vindolanda Excavation to ninth centuries, are not found at fort sites, suggesting a Reports 1997–2000. Vindolanda: Vindolanda Trust (CD- political shift in the sixth or seventh century. ROM produced December 2002). 51 allason-Jones 2010. Birley, E 1959 ‘Excavations at Corstopitum, 1906–58’, 52 Penannulars from Littlethorpe, and Archaeologia Aeliana (fourth series) 37, 1–31. Piercebridge, Co Durham (Collins 2010); handpin from Breeze, D & Dobson, B 2000 Hadrian’s Wall (fourth edition). Halton Chesters (Allason-Jones 2010). London: Penguin. 53 Birley & Blake 2007, 51; Wilmott 2009, 368. Note that the Brickstock, R J 2000 ‘Coin supply in the north in the Roman context of the crucible from Birdoswald does not provide a period’, in Wilmott & Wilson (eds), 33–8. date for the object, but it was found overlying the Roman Brickstock, R J 2010 ‘Coins and the frontier troops in the barracks, where silver extraction is unlikely to have taken fourth century’, in Collins & Allason-Jones (eds), 86–91. place. This raises the possibility of the crucible being Carne, P forthcoming Excavations at the Roman villa at Quarry associated with late or post-Roman deposits, which were Farm, Ingleby Barwick, Stockton on Tees. York: CBA. heavily truncated by post-medieval activity in this part of Carver, M O H 1995 ‘Roman to Norman at York Minster’, in the fort. Phillips & Heywood 1995, 177–221. 54 Hobbs 2006, 92–6. 55 Gerrard 2007. Casey, P J 1993 ‘The end of fort garrisons on Hadrian’s Wall: 56 Ferris & Jones 2000, 2. a hypothetical model’, in Vallet, F & Kazanski, M (eds), e e 57 price 2010. L’armée romaine et les barbares du III au VII siécle, 259–67. 58 alcock 2003. Rouen: Musée des Antiquités Nationales. 59 Halsall 2007. Collins, R 2006 ‘Late Roman frontier communities in northern Britain: A theoretical context for the “end” of Hadrian’s Wall’, in Croxford, B, Goodchild, H, Lucas, J & Ancient sources Ray, N (eds), TRAC 2005: Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Birmingham 2005, Ammianus Marcellinus: Rolfe, J C (trans) 1963 The Surviving 1–11. Oxford: Oxbow. Books of the History. Cambridge (Mass): Loeb. Collins, R 2010 ‘Brooch use in the frontier from the 4th–5th Codex Theodosianus: Pharr, C (trans) 1969 The Theodosian Centuries’, in Collins & Allason-Jones (eds), 64–77. Code and Novels and the Sirmondian Constitutions. New York: Collins, R 2012a Hadrian’s Wall and the end of empire: The Roman Greenwood Press. frontier in the 4th and 5th centuries. New York: Routledge. Notitia Dignitatum: Notitia Dignitatum accedunt Notitia urbis Collins, R 2012b ‘Social spaces at the end of Empire: the Constantinopolitanae et Latercula prouinciarum, ed O Seeck limitanei of Hadrian’s Wall’, in Totten, D M & Lafrenze (Berlin, Weidmann, 1876. Reimpression Frankfurt a.M: Samuels, K (eds), Making Roman Places, Past and Present: Minerva, 1962). Papers presented at the first Critical Roman Archaeology Conference held at Stanford University in March, 2008, 65–79. Portsmouth, Rhode Island: Journal of Roman Archaeology References (Supplementary Series 89). Alcock, L 1995 Cadbury Castle, Somerset: the Early Medieval Collins, R & Allason-Jones, L (eds) 2010 Finds from the Frontier: Archaeology. : University of Wales. material culture in the 4th–5th centuries. York: CBA.

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