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New World Beginnings / New World Beginnings 33,ooo B.c.E.-t7 69 c.E. I have come to believe that this is a mighty continent which was hitherto unknown....Your Highnesses have an Other World here. CHnrsropxrn CoLuiasus, 1498 1r* bilhon .aaAs a4.o, thatwhirling speck perhaps 350 million years ago. The maiestic ranges I / of cosmic dust (nown a( the earth, fifth in size of western North America-the Rockies, the Sierra among the planets, came into being. Nevada, the Cascades, and the Coast Ranges-arose About six thousand years ago-only a minute much more recently, geologically speaking, some in geological time-recorded history of the West- 135 million to 25 million years ago. They are truly ern world began. Certain peoples of the Middle East, 'American" mountains, born after the continent took developing a written culture, gradually emerged from on its own separate geological identity. the haze of the past. By about 1O million years ago, nature had sculpted Five hundred years ago-only a few seconds figu- the basic geological shape of North America. The con- ratively speaking-European explorers stumbled on tinent was anchored in its northeastern cornet by the the Americas. This dramatic accident forever altered massive Canadian Shield-a zone undergirded by the future of both the Old World and the New, and of ancient rock, probably the first part of what became Africa and Asia as well (see Figure 1.1). the North American landmass to have emerged above sea level. A narrow eastern coastal plain, or "tidewater" region, creased by many river valleys, sloped gently fne Shaping of North America upward to the timeworn ridges of the Appalachians. $ Those ancient mountains slanted away on their Planet earth took on its present form slowly. Some western side into the huge midcontinental basin that 225 million years ago, a single supercontinent, called rolled downward to the Mississippi Valley bottom and Pangaea by geologists, contained all the world's dry then rose relentlessly to the towering peaks of the land. Then enormous chunks of terrain began to drift Rockies. From the Rocky Mountain crest-the "roof away from this colossal landmass, opening the Atlan- of America"-the land fell off iaggedly into the inter- tic and Indian Oceans, narrowing the Pacific Ocean, mountain Great Basin, bounded by the Rockies on the and forming the great continents of Eurasia, Africa, east and the Sierra and Cascade ranges on the west. Australia, Antarctica, and the Americas. The existence The valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers of a single original continent has been proved in part and the Willamette-Puget Sound trough seamed the by the discovery of nearly identical species of fish interiors of present-day California, Oregon, and Wash- that swim today in long-separated freshwater lakes ington. The land at last met the foaming Pacific, where throughout the world. the Coast Ranges rose steeply from the sea. Continued shifting and folding of the earth's crust Nature laid a chill hand over much of this ter- thrust up mountain ranges. The Appalachians were rain in the Great Ice Age, beginning about 2 million probably formed even before continental separation, years ago. TWo-mile-thick ice sheets crept from the 4 The Great lce Age . J 4-8 B.C + .]ESUS BORN l6C7 t176 1945 t99l 2000 i]5iealj-l_-;6?yeas$;q9te,,;.!,,,.,,,-|*i-;,.,,, ar #'""' VIRGINIA LNEW COLUMBUS'S + INDEPENDENCE WORLD+ WAR II COLD FOUNDED OISCOVERY DECTAREO ENDS WAR MILLENNIUM ENDS EEGINS FIGURE 1.1 The Arc of Time o20t6censaseLearn,ns polar regions to blanket parts of Europe, Asia, and the mountainsides up to 1,000 feet above the dry floor of Americas. In North America the great glaciers carpeted the Great Basin. most of present-day Canada and the United States as far southward as a line stretching from Pennsylvania through the Ohio Country and the Dakotas to the feopling the Americas Pacific Northwest. $ When the glaciers finally retreated about ten The Great Ice Age shaped more than the geological thousand years ago, they left the North American history of North America. It also contributed to the landscape transformed and much as we know it origins of the continent's human history. Though today. The weight of the gargantuan ice mantle had recent (and still highly controversial) evidence suggests depressed the level of the Canadian Shield. The grind- that some early peoples may have reached the Americas ing and flushing action of the moving and melting ice in crude boats, most probably came by land. Some had scoured away the shield's topsoil, pitting its rocky thirty-five thousand years ago, the Ice Age congealed surface with thousands of shallow depressions into much of the world's oceans into massive ice-pack gla- which the melting glaciers flowed to form lakes. The ciers, lowering the level of the sea. As the sea level same glacial action scooped out and filled the Great dropped, it exposed a land bridge connecting Eurasia Lakes. They originally drained southward through the with North America in the area of the present-day Bering Mississippi River system to the Gulf of Mexico. When Sea between Siberia and Alaska. Across that bridge, prob- the melting ice unblocked the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the ably following migratory herds of game, ventured small lake water sought the St. Lawrence River outlet to the bands of nomadic Asian hunters-the ',immigrant,, Atlantic Ocean, lowering the Great Lakes, level and ancestors of the Native Americans. They continued to leaving the Missouri-Mississippi-Ohio system to drain trek across the Bering isthmus for some 250 centuries, the enormous midcontinental basin between the slowly peopling the American continents (see Map 1.1). Appalachians and the Rockies. Similarly, in the West, As the Ice Age ended and the glaciers melted, the water from the melting glaciers filled sprawling Lake sea level rose again, inundating the land bridge about Bonneville, covering much of present-day Utah, ten thousand years ago. Nature thus barred the door Nevada, pacific and ldaho. It drained to the Ocean to further immigration for many thousands of years, through the Snake and Columbia River systems until leaving this part of the human family marooned diminishing for rainfall from the ebbing ice cap lowered millennia on the now-isolated American continents. the water level, cutting off access to the Snake River Time did not stand still for these original Americans. outlet. Deprived of both inflow and drainage, the The same climatic warming that melted the ice and giant lake became a gradually shrinking inland sea. It drowned the bridge to Eurasia gradually opened ice-free grew increasingly saline, slowly evaporated, and left valleys through which vanguard bands groped their an arid, mineral-rich desert. Only the Great Salt Lake way southward and eastward across the Americas. remains as a relic of Bonneville,s former vastness. Roaming slowly through this awesome wilderness, they Today Lake Bonneville's ancient beaches are visible on eventually reached the far tip of South America, some E-- ARCTIC OCEAN AT L A N T I C OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN EqL.tor 0" MAP 1.1 The First Discoverers of America The origins of the first Americans remain something of a mystery. 0 500 1000 Km According to the most plausible theory l-_-j--rl--- of how the Americas were populated, for 0 500 1000 Mr Extent of land. some twenty-five thousand years people I lca.33,0OO-lO,5OOBcE crossed the Bering land bridge from - l--l Glaciers, ca I 5,OoO B c E Eurasia to North America. Gradually they - Probable ancient shoreline dispersed southward down ice-free * Probable miSratory route valleys, populating both the American € Selected Paleolndian site continents. @ 2016 cengage Leanr rrg $ fifteen thousand miles from Siberia. By the time Euro- more than two thousand separate languages, and I peans arrived in America in 1492, perhaps 54 million developed many diverse religions, cultures, and ways people inhabited the two American continents.* Over of life. I the centuries they split into countless tribes, evolved Incas in Peru, Mayans in Central America, and I Aztecs in Mexico shaped stunningly sophisticated 'Much controversy surrounds estimates of the pre-Columbian Native civilizations. Their advanced agricultural practices, American population. The are William M. Denevan, ed., figures here from maize, which is Tlrc Native Population of the Americas in 1492, rev. ed. (Madison: University based primarily on the cultivation of of Wisconsin Press, 1992). Indian corn, fed large populations, perhaps as many It it 6 it it Making Sense of the New World Iffi, '1546 -.ofrom by Sebastian Gradually the immense implica- what sixteenth-century Europeans - MLinster represents one of the earli- tions of the New World's existence found remarkable (note the Land of est efforts to make geographic sense began to impress themselves on Giants-Beglo Gigo ntu m-and the out of the New World (Nouus Orbis Europe, with consequences for lit- indication of cannibals- Conibali-in and Die NAw Welt on the maP). The erature, art, politics, the economy, present-day Argentina and Brazil, very phrase New Woild suggests just and, ofcourse, cartography. Maps respectively). What further clues to how staggering a blow to the Euro- can only be representations of reality the European mentality of the time pean imagination was the discovery and are therefore necessarily distor- does the map offer? ln what ways of the Americas. Europeans reached tions. This map bears a recognizable might misconceptions about the instinctively for the most expansive of resemblance to modern mapmakers' geography of the Americas have all possible lerms-world, not simply renderings of the American con- influenced further exploration and places, or even continents-to com- tinents, but it also contains gross settlement patterns? prehend Columbus's startling report geographic inaccuracies (note the that lands and peoples previously location of Japan-Zi pa ng ri - relativ e unimagined lay beyond the horizon to the North American west coast) of Europe's western sea.
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