Complementary Vascular-Protective Actions of Magnesium and Taurine: a Rationale for Magnesium Tau Rate
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Medical Hypotheses (1996) 46, 89-100 © Pearson ProfessionalLtd 1996 Complementary Vascular-Protective Actions of Magnesium and Taurine: A Rationale for Magnesium Tau rate M. F. McCARTY Nutrition 21, 1010 Turquoise Street, Suite 335, San Diego, CA 92109, USA Abstract -- By a variety of mechanisms, magnesium functions both intracellularly and extracellularly to minimize the cytoplasmic free calcium level, [Ca2*]i. This may be the chief reason why correction of magnesium deficiency, or induction of hypermagnesemia by parenteral infusion, exerts antihypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-arrhythmic and antithrombotic effects. Although the amino acid taurine can increase systolic calcium transients in cardiac cells (and thus has positive inotropic activity), it has other actions which tend to reduce [Ca2+]i. Indeed, in animal or clinical studies, taurine lowers elevated blood pressure, retards cholesterol-induced atherogenesis, prevents arrhythmias and stabilizes platelets - effects parallel to those of magnesium. The complex magnesium taurate may thus have considerable potential as a vascular-protective nutritional supplement, and might also be administered parenterally, as an alternative to magnesium sulfate, in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction as well as of pre-eclampsia. The effects of magnesium taurate in diabetes deserve particular attention, since both magnesium and taurine may improve insulin sensitivity, and also may lessen risk for the micro- and macrovascular complications of diabetes. Role of magnesium in vascular health modulating ion movements across cell membranes - in particular, calcium transport. Poor magnesium sta- There is considerable suggestive evidence, primarily tus tends to promote increased cellular calcium uptake from epidemiological as well as animal studies, that and increased intracellular free calcium levels ([Ca2+]i) magnesium nutrition has an important impact on by several mechanisms. vascular health, and that poor magnesium status may Intracellular magnesium is an essential cofactor be associated with increased risk for hypertension, (usually in a complex with ATP) for numerous atherogenesis, coronary spasm, sudden-death (non- enzymes, including energy-dependent membrane occlusive) cardiac arrhythmias, insulin resistance and transport proteins such as the Na/K-ATPase and the diabetic complications (1-7). Magnesium's impact in Ca-ATPase (8). Significant intraceUular magnesium this regard may be primarily reflective of its role in deficiency impairs the activity of these transporters, Date received 4 May 1995 Date accepted 22 June 1995 89 90 MEDICAL HYPOTHESES resulting in decreased intracellular levels of potas- shown to reduce the subsequent incidence of arrhyth- sium, and increased intracellular levels of sodium and mias and left ventricular failure, and to improve calcium (1,5,8-11). Reduced activity of the sodium survival (10,20,21). pump (NaJK-ATPase) indirectly increases [Ca2÷]i by Good magnesium status thus restrains the influx of decreasing the transmembrane sodium gradient; this calcium while supporting the activity of transporters impedes calcium extrusion via sodium-calcium coun- that remove calcium from the cytoplasm. The increased tertransport. Additionally, in excitable tissues that [Ca2+] i consequent to poor magnesium status can be express voltage-gated calcium channels (such as expected to increase the susceptibility of protein cardiac myocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells), kinase C (PKC) to activation by agonists or metabolic reduced sodium pump activity can increase calcium conditions (such as hyperglycemia or high-fat diets) influx through these calcium channels by decreasing that promote diacylglycerol synthesis (27,28). In- membrane polarization. Animal studies indicate that creased [Ca2÷]i also activates calmodulin-dependent a relatively moderate degree of dietary magnesium signalling pathways which, in conjunction with PKC deficiency can have a significant adverse impact on activation, promote vasoconstriction, smooth muscle sodium pump function in heart cells (11). The role of hyperplasia or hypertrophy (as in atherogenesis or hy- magnesium in support of sodium pump function may pertensive medial hypertrophy), platelet aggregation, explain the clinical observation that potassium supple- insulin resistance and possibly diabetic microangio- mentation often fails to remedy potassium deficiency pathy (29-35). Increased calcium influx in cardiac until concurrent magnesium deficiency is addressed pacemaker cells will promote automaticity and thus with supplemental magnesium (12,13). Intracellular increase risk for arrhythmias. These considerations magnesium may be viewed as a permissive factor for clarify the overriding importance of good magnesium ion transport enzymes; thus, once a modest 'adequate' nutrition for vascular health. magnesium concentration is achieved, increasing magnesium concentration further will not further acti- vate these enzymes. Clinical implications of magnesium deficiency Extracellularly, magnesium functions much like a calcium channel blocker, reducing calcium influx Although fatty, over-refined modem diets tend to be (8,14); the nature of the calcium channels which mag- relatively poor sources of magnesium (in comparison nesium blocks is still not well defined. When resist- to more 'primitive' diets or recommended dietary in- ance arteries are perfused in vitro with a physiological takes), the development of physiologically significant calcium solution, a high magnesium concentration in magnesium deficiency may usually be dependent the perfusate blocks calcium uptake and induces on additional factors which compromise magnesium vasodilation; conversely, a low magnesium concen- absorption or retention. These factors include long- tration promotes vasoconstriction. A similar phenom- term diuretic use, very-high-sodium diets, and diabe- enon can be demonstrated in perfused coronary arteries tes (7,36-40). Diuretics, high sodium intakes and the (suggesting a role for hypomagnesemia in some cases glucosuria consequent to poor diabetic control all tend of coronary vasospasm) (15). These effects occur to impair renal magnesium retention (36,37,40). In virtually immediately, and thus are not mediated by addition, suboptimal insulin activity may impede both a change in intracellular magnesium content. Since magnesium absorption and intracellular magnesium calcium influx plays an important role in cardiac auto- transport (7,39). High calcium intakes, in the context maticity, it is not surprising that hypermagnesemia - of a low-magnesium diet, may also inhibit magnesium like calcium channel blockers - as clinically useful absorption (1) - an important consideration in light of anti-arrhythmic activity (9,10,16). Hypermagnesemia recent recommendations for supplemental calcium. also stabilizes platelets and increases clotting times The stress response can increase magnesium require- (17-19). Clinically, induction of hypermagnesemia by ments by a variety of mechanisms (25,26). Feasible slow i.v. infusion of magnesium salts has been shown doses of oral magnesium are unlikely to produce to be useful in managing acute myocardial infarction sustained increases of plasma magnesium in subjects (10,20,21), intractable arrhythmias (16,22) and hyper- with adequate baseline magnesium status (induction tensive crises (notably in eclampsia) (23). Magnesium of osmotic diarrhea places a practical limit on the dos- infusion is of particular importance in acute MI, ages that can be administered orally). Thus, whereas since hypomagnesemia develops as a consequence induction of hypermagnesemia with parenteral mag- of the stress response (24); increased lipolysis can nesium can be expected to lower blood pressure and lead to the precipitation of magnesium in soaps peripheral resistance, independent of pre-existing mag- (25,26). Magnesium therapy of acute MI has been nesium status, the antihypertensive efficacy of oral COMPLEMENTARY VASCULAR-PROTECTIVEACTIONS OF MAGNESIUM AND TAURINE 91 magnesium may be confined to those individuals who drugs. Indeed, one researcher has dubbed magnesium are meaningfully magnesium deficient. This may ex- 'nature' s physiological calcium blocker' (46). plain why magnesium supplements have been found to reduce elevated blood pressure in studies enrolling subjects who are long-term diuretic users or who Magnesium in diabetes consume very-high-sodium Japanese diets (41-44), but have not reduced blood pressure in several other As implied by the foregoing, the broadest benefits of studies (45-47). The impact of magnesium supple- supplemental magnesium are likely to be achieved in mentation on hypertension associated with diabetes individuals predisposed to magnesium deficiency. merits study. Diabetics are of particular interest in this regard, as On the other hand, epidemiological studies suggest they typically display reduced intracellular, plasma that modest ambient variation in magnesium intake and bone levels of magnesium (7,38,39,56). Most of may have a significant impact on risk for sudden- the pertinent studies in this regard pertain to type death cardiac arrhythmias. Increased magnesium intake I diabetics, but more limited evidence establishes has been offered as an explanation for the reduced magnesium deficiency in type II diabetics as well. incidence of such arrhythmias noted in areas supplied Regardless of the etiology of the diabetes, the degree by hard water (2,48-50). Since most victims of sudden- of magnesium deficiency