2018 C O RE

A Publication of iPhone 360 Feature the Reimagining Live Programming History Museum Creating a Culture of Learning Cover: Detail of , initial iPhone re- lease, January 9, 2007.

This page: Detail of IBM Simon, 1994. The world’s fi rst smart- phone had only screen- based keys, like the later iPhone. Discover more technologies and products that led to the iPhone on page 26.

B CORE 2018 MUSEUM UPDATES iPHONE 360 FEATURES 2 7 12 56 24 38 Contributors Behind the Graphic Art Documenting the Recent Artifact How the iPhone From to 3 of CHM Live Stories of Our Fellows Donations Took Off China and Beyond: iPhone in the Global Chairman’s Letter 8 19 58 32 Economy 4 CHM Collections Creating a Culture of Franklin “Pitch” & Stacking the Deck: Exhibit Culture, Art Learning at CHM Catherine H. Johnson Choices the Enabled 46 Reimagining Live & Design the iPhone App Store A Downward Gaze Programming 59 Lifetime Giving Society, Donors & Partners

C O RE 2018

26

4 15 22 52

From Big Names to Big Ideas: Beyond Inclusion: iPhone 360 Feature Somersaults and Moon Reimaging Live Programming Gaps, Glitches & Imaginative On January 9, 2007, Steve Landings: A Conversation with Learn how CHM Live is expand- Failure in Computing Jobs announced three new Margaret Hamilton ing its live programming and Computing is the result of choic- products—a widescreen iPod, Excerpted from her oral history, offering audiences new ways es made by people, whose own a revolutionary phone, and a Margaret Hamilton refl ects on to connect computer history to time, experiences, and biases “breakthrough internet commu- the Apollo 11 mission and the today’s technology-driven world. are embedded into the technol- nications device.” Of course, the moment her persistence and Speakers, like Square’s Jack ogy they create. Discover how the iPhone was all three. As part technical creativity took center Dorsey and Google Cloud’s Diane Center for Software History is of the Museum’s iPhone 360 stage. A second selection from Greene, discuss their latest ven- studying the cultural and techni- Project, this suite of articles the interview illustrates Hamil- tures and personal stories cal factors that condition our reveals insights and an array of ton’s approach to problem-solv- to inspire audiences to see the choices to imagine computing perspectives on the device. ing that she found so important

COVER: COURTESY OF PHOTOGRAPHER PETER BELANGER OF PHOTOGRAPHER COURTESY COVER: creative power of technology. not as it is, but how it could be. in software-making—and life.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 1 CONTRIBUTORS

Managing Editor Jennifer De La Cruz

Executive Editors Carina Sweet Kirsten Tashev

Contributors David C. Brock Stephanie Corrigan Marguerite Gong MARGUERITE Marguerite Gong Hancock is the founding executive Hancock director of the Exponential Center at the Computer Hansen Hsu GONG History Museum. She is an expert on innovation and Karen Kroslowitz entrepreneurship in high-tech regions around the Chanel Lloren HANCOCK world, with two decades of experience at Stanford Sara Lott EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, University leading international and interdisciplinary John Markoff Lauren Miyamoto EXPONENTIAL CENTER research and education programs on entrepreneur- Pamela Gesme Miller ship and innovation. Emily Routman Len Shustek Lauren Silver Dag Spicer Hansen Hsu is curator of the Center for Software HANSEN Marc Weber History at the Computer History Museum. Hsu 1999–2005 os x HSU worked at Apple from on Mac as Design qa p d CURATOR, CENTER FOR a engineer. He received a h in science and Studio1500 SOFTWARE HISTORY technology studies from Cornell in 2015, studying the culture and values of the Mac and iPhone Photography developer community. Douglas Fairbairn Photography Studio Dizon JOHN Pulitzer Prize−winning journalist John Markoff joined the Computer History Museum as a MARKOFF historian in 2017, after nearly three decades as a technology writer for . His AUTHOR & HISTORIAN books include What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Industry (2005) and Machines of Loving Grace: The Quest for Common Ground between Humans and Robots (2015). © 2018 Computer History Museum. The Museum Marc Weber is founder and curatorial director of is a nonprofi t 501(c)(3) MARC organization. All artwork is the Computer History Museum’s Internet History copyright of the Computer WEBER Program. He launched web history as a topic starting History Museum unless in 1995 with crucial help from Tim Berners-Lee and otherwise credited. For CURATORIAL DIRECTOR, reprints and permissions, INTERNET HISTORY PROGRAM other pioneers and cofounded two of the fi rst organi- contact core@computer zations in the fi eld. Weber writes, speaks, and consults history.org. Subscriptions widely on the history of the online world. are a member benefi t. This issue of Core is available at computerhistory.org/core. Address changes and other written correspondence may be sent to: Computer History Museum, Public Relations, or emailed to [email protected].

2 CORE 2018 CHAIRMAN’S LETTER THE 360° VIEW

In an early promotional video for the Computer A museum is the perfect institution for this History Museum (chm), our founding father broad array of activities. Most progressive Gordon Bell—never one to avoid a provocative museums have moved, as we have, far beyond superlative—looks directly at the camera and the traditional defi nition as “a place where says, “I happen to believe that the computer is objects of historical, artistic, or scientifi c interest the greatest invention ...” He pauses, looking for are exhibited, preserved, or studied.” As Kirsten an inspired way to the end the sentence. “Ever.” Tashev, our amazing vice president of Collec- It’s hard to disagree. The computer is changing tions and Exhibitions says, “Museums have so everything about our world in a way no other in- many awesome tools to reach their audience and vention ever has. That has propelled us to change achieve their mission: events, exhibits, programs, too—to “reimagine” the Museum, to address collections, media, fi lms, blogs, websites, etc. So- new topics and reach new audiences—so that we ciety needs museums, which are simultaneously a understand and celebrate the full impact of com- constant in a changing world and a mirror of our puting in addition to its remarkable history. We ever-changing interests.” take in a 360-degree view that includes makers, The Museum is undergoing exciting growth, users, consequences, opportunities, and risks. and we are delighted to have Dan’l Lewin as This issue of Core refl ects how we are increasing our new president and chief executive offi cer to diversity of our activities in the following ways: lead the expansion. Dan’l is a well-connected industry veteran who understands how comput- • Expanding our live public programs to include timely stories of people and computing today ing is changing and impacting our world. The change to come will dwarf the change • Increasing the use of our collection and interpre- that has been, both for computing and for the tation at institutions around the world Museum. Stay with us as we ride the wave! • Integrating education more fully into all our ac- tivities and exploring innovative uses of our new dedicated education space • Using the iPhone as the subject of a prototype 360 project that takes a -degree view of compa- LEN SHUSTEK nies and products, covering their many aspects: CHAIRMAN OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES engineering, social, business, political, manufac- turing, environmental, and government policy • Studying hidden design assumptions that might unintentionally introduce prejudice • Continuing our aggressive acquisition of oral his- tories and materials from our chm Fellows and others so that we can paint a complete picture of these technological heroes

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 3 PROGRAMS FROM BIG NAMES TO BIG IDEAS: REIMAGINING LIVE PROGRAMMING

BY LAUREN MIYAMOTO MANAGING PRODUCER, CHM LIVE

Technological change is born hand, you can visit places ing interest in medical imaging. through extraordinary ideas, you’ve never been before, share She is now working on a wear- fl ashes of creativity, and - your thoughts with millions, able, affordable system called ing differently. What is it that send money to another conti- Openwater that could replace inspires computing’s greatest nent, and create music, poetry, the expensive mri machines entrepreneurs, engineers, and and more. You can change the common in today’s hospi- leaders? Often, it is as simple world, whether you’re a techni- tals. By presenting the stories as a quote, a question, an cal genius or not. By using behind these big ideas, we hope anecdote, a statistic—a singular computing, anyone is capable to inspire audiences around the instance in time. of bringing to life incredible world to see the creative power For Bob Noyce, an introduc- ideas that can benefi t all of us. of technology as part of their tion to the fi rst transistor in a With this in mind, we are own journey. MUSEUM chm Grinnell College physics class shifting the focus of our live is uniquely positioned launched a lifelong obsession programs from big names to to tell stories. With a large and UPDATES with the device’s capabilities. big ideas. These ideas could rich collection and an outstand- For Steve Jobs, a visit to an be about anything—art, space ing curatorial team, we are Oregon Apple farm inspired exploration, genomics, the experts on preserving and ana- him to name one of the environment. The common lyzing the history of technolo- world’s most iconic technology thread is that computing plays gy’s transformative impact. We companies. For Jack Dorsey, a a role in the imagination and hope to share this knowledge childhood interest in emergency execution of these ideas. For with you through our events by dispatching helped him see example, in 2017, we hosted bringing Museum voices to our technology as a tool to under- Jean Claude Zenklusen, direc- stage as moderators, incor- stand what was happening in tor of the National Cancer porating clips from our oral his city in real time. Institute’s Cancer Genome history collection, and display- Through our chm Live Atlas. He shared how com- ing artifacts in our auditorium programming series, we aim puting allows scientists to to establish our event content to provide similar mind- understand the genetic codes as part of a broader history. opening moments to encour- of different forms of cancer. For example, at our event age audiences to think about Jason Matheny, director of featuring Twitter and Square technology in new ways. To see the intelligence community’s ceo Jack Dorsey, we set up a their curiosity and creativity science and research arm iarpa, display that included a point- refl ected in the stories of our talked about why agencies like of-sale system developed for speakers. To envision their own the fbi and cia are working on McDonalds in the early 1970s role in the revolutionary story quantum computing projects to supplement our conversa- of computing. to identify national security tion on payments systems. At The innovations produced by threats. And Mary Lou Jepsen, a panel discussion on artifi cial Noyce, Jobs, Dorsey, and many a former Google [x] and Face- intelligence in September 2017, others have made computing book Oculus executive, shared we featured a sound bite from powerful and ubiquitous. With how her personal battle with a ai pioneer Ed Feigenbaum to a single device that fi ts in your brain tumor inspired an endur- spark a discussion about how

4 CORE 2018 Live programming is inspiring audiences with new ways to connect computer history to today’s technology-driven world. Through conversa- tions about engineering emotional intelligence or changing the way we buy and sell products, the Museum’s live program- ming is a testament to the power of technology when combined with human creativity.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 5 PRESENTING NEW FRIDAY NIGHTS @CHM PROGRAMMING

BY LAUREN MIYAMOTO MANAGING PRODUCER, CHM LIVE

Experimentation may be as important to new ideas as studying human behavior can media outlets and institutions inspiration. For CHM Live, Friday Nights @CHM is a testing help scientists develop AI sys- to expand our reach globally. ground to try out new event formats, experiment with production tems. In 2017 alone, we have Look for continued growth details, attract new audiences, and establish new partnerships. showcased medical , of our programming efforts in Like CHM Live, Friday night programming explores a wide vintage video game consoles, 2018. We plan to bring you a range of subjects and mixes history with the present. We have code-breaking machines, and total of 24 events in collabora- examined topics from the history of graphic design to Africa’s much more. tion with the Museum’s Expo- growing tech community via documentary screenings, some- The search for these big ideas nential Center, Center for Soft- times followed by discussions with the fi lmmakers. We hosted is a Museum-wide effort. The ware History, Internet History the Science Fiction Short Film Festival, developed speakers on our stage and Program, and our soon-to-be- by curator Chris Garcia. In addition to a display of science fi c- even the moderator’s questions opened Education Center. We tion−related artifacts from our collection, visitors enjoyed two refl ect feedback from across will be exploring a wide range hours of science fi ction short fi lms from around the world. the Museum community, from of topics including the rise and In October 2017, we also hosted our fi rst-ever “science curators to trustees to audience fall of Minitel, how code can slam” with IBM Research, which drew an audience of more members. We fi nd inspiration reinforce racism, and what the than 300 people. This event model, already popular in Europe, from a wide variety of media, future of quantum computing provides scientists an opportunity to talk about their work including traditional sources could look like. And fi nally, we in a casual, easily accessible way. Over the course of 5–10 min- like book publishers and indus- aim to start working on new utes, each of the fi ve participating researchers shared stories try magazines as well as Twitter, content offerings—such as pod- about their backgrounds and explained what motivates them to tech bloggers, and events like casts and video series—based do their work. the ted conference series. on our events. As CHM Live programming grows and changes, so does the As our live programs are Fascinating stories worthy need for experimentation. In 2018, look for unexpected, exciting, intended to inspire anyone of preservation have emerged and unusual events on Friday Nights @CHM. and everyone, we are launch- from technology. However, it ing new efforts to expand is the human creativity and

Friday Nights @CHM allows the the reach of our content. We imagination from which these Museum to experiment with started streaming our events stories stem—the big ideas— new types of programming in real time via Facebook Live that can inspire. This is what and formats, including science in January 2017, pushing our makes programming a crucial slams and fi lm festivals. shows to a global audience. We part of the Museum’s strategy also post a video of the entire and future. Bob Noyce, Steve show to our YouTube channel Jobs, and Jack Dorsey found days after the live program and their inspiration. We hope our publish regular recaps featur- live programming helps audi- ing short clips of these events ences fi nd theirs. on the Museum’s blog and Medium channel. We continue CHM Live events are made possible to work with kqed Radio and by contributions from Museum cspan to impact the Bay Area, donors and members. For more in- but aspire to partner with new formation on CHM Live, please visit computerhistory.org/chmlive. 6 CORE 2018 BEHIND THE GRAPHIC ART OF CHM LIVE: CATCHING UP WITH JENNIFER ALEXANDER

BY CHANEL LLOREN WITH JENNIFER DE LA CRUZ ASSOCIATE PRODUCER, CHM LIVE DIRECTOR OF & MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS

A blank sheet of paper might intimidate some, but not Jen- nifer Alexander, the Museum’s director of operations and resident graphic designer. Alexander is responsible for conveying the Museum’s brand through visuals, from building signage to eye-catching chm Live graphics. For each chm Live event, Alexander creates original designs, combin- ing disparate elements like text, imagery, and icons into a harmonious composition that graphically expresses the program’s theme. Alexander’s process always begins the same, with a blank sheet of unlined, white paper. Here, she lets her imagina- tion play, as she develops the discuss their latest ventures, concept for each show. This Alexander’s elegant, modern original concept remains the creations are on display, repre- same, though the elements may senting the Museum and chm change slightly once she recre- Live . ates them in Adobe Photoshop Alexander fi nds her inspira- and Illustrator. Alexander’s tion in everyday moments, see- event graphics fi nd their way ing the extraordinary in seem- everywhere, from program cov- ingly ordinary objects, from ers to show posters to the chm buildings to shop windows to Live stage. While speakers like billboards. “The most power- Jennifer Alexander is the woman behind the CHM Live look. She cre- ceo Square Jack Dorsey and ful images,” she says, “convey ates fresh designs that graphically Google Cloud’s Diane Greene a message. They tell a story.” convey the concept for each event.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 7 COLLECTIONS MASS APPEAL: CHM COLLECTIONS EXHIBIT CULTURE, ART & DESIGN

BY KAREN KROSLOWITZ DIRECTOR OF COLLECTIONS

Drawing attention at the Design Museum in Helsinki, Finland, (above) and London (below) are artifacts loaned by the Com- puter History Museum: a 1939 HP oscillator, ’s “blue box,” and an Apple-1. TOP: COURTESY OF THE DESIGN MUSEUM IN HELSINKI / BOTTOM: COURTESY OF PAUL CONNOLLY OF PAUL COURTESY OF THE DESIGN MUSEUM IN HELSINKI / BOTTOM: COURTESY TOP:

8 CORE 2018 An iconic MITS Altair 8800 was loaned to the Center for the Arts at .

In 2014, when I received the intriguing. In 2015 the Victoria architect-based. As for showing a paint brush as a useful tool.” request from the Gerald R. & Albert Museum in London computers in our galleries, Does the inclusion of com- Ford Presidential Museum for a contacted chm. The &a is we do so on a regular basis puters as artifacts in exhibi- loan of the Sperry Mk 14 mod the world’s leading museum since we have [them] in our tions come as a surprise to 8 gunsight, I didn’t consider it of art and design, known for collection.” visitors of art and design muse- out of the ordinary. Museums its magnifi cent architecture, I’d known that new art and ums? Across the loan artifacts to each other all its opulent collections, and media museums were collect- Bay, the Berkeley Art Museum the time and chm has loaned its outstanding exhibitions of ing computers too, although & Pacifi c Film Archive (bam/ artifacts to other computer, sci- some of the world’s most rare I’d previously understood the pfa) spotlighted one of chm’s ence, and technology museums and unique art and artifacts. primary interest was to main- three Community Memory since its inception. Outgoing The v&a is a gold standard by tain the computers as tools terminals and printouts for loans are just one of the many which other museums mea- to exhibit computer graphics, their 2017 Hippie Modernism fundamental ways that muse- sure their own successes. To animation, and media-based show. University of California, ums make artifacts accessible celebrate the counterculture of artworks. And yet, it now Berkeley professor and guest to broader audiences. But how the 1960s, the v&a was plan- seemed those museums were curator Greg Castillo described, exciting that one of chm’s arti- ning a major exhibition, You inquiring about chm artifacts “For the Hippie Modernism facts would soon be displayed Say You Want a Revolution: to draw attention to the sym- exhibition, I wanted to address in a presidential museum! Records & Rebels 1966−1970. biosis between computing, on the misconception that the The overlap between the The groundbreaking hp 9100a art, design, and popular culture. counterculture was intrinsically Ford Presidential Museum’s from CHM’s collec- For example, one of Har- anti-technology by exploring curatorial interests and chm’s tion would demonstrate the up- old Cohen’s “turtle” drawing connections to the counter- own collecting scope was start attitudes and innovations instruments and fi lm clips culture. Since Berkeley’s Com- logical: the gunsight was to be surrounding personal comput- became the central storytell- munity Memory was the hippie featured in an exhibition com- ing. This traveling exhibition ers in Art is Science 11 at the cyberculture project par excel- memorating the 100-year his- can be seen at Milan’s Fab- Karuizawa New Art Museum lence, we featured it. For most tory of military brica del Vapore (The Steam in Nagano, Japan. Supporting [visitors] the notion that digital aircraft carriers and the recent Factory) over the winter and the idea that artifi cial - social networking was invented christening of the USS Gerald was featured previously at the ligence can have a creative side, by a group of Bay Area hippies R. Ford (cvn-78). Learning that Montreal Museum of Fine Arts curator Kanoko Kikuchi said, in 1973 came as a shock.” a web search for “gunsights” in the fall of 2017. “Harold Cohen’s invention A stone’s throw from chm, led their registrar to our online “We have an encyclopedic aaron is so important to the the Cantor Center for the catalog was deeply satisfying. collection with an important histories of AI and art, and we Arts at Stanford University chm’s efforts to publish its cat- decorative arts and design col- want art lovers in Japan and exhibited Creativity on the alog records online were prov- lection from the Renaissance to from Asian countries visiting Line: Design for the Corpo- ing useful to other museums, as present day,” noted Montreal Karuizawa to know aaron. It rate World, 1950–1975, which well as to computer enthusiasts, Museum of Fine Arts curator might be possible to include told the story of mid-century students, academic researchers, Diane Charbonneau. “The ob- computers [in future exhibi- modern design and innovators. and to many others. jects come from different fi elds tions] because in the expres- Featured was a mits Altair As the web searches contin- of making ... design-based, sions of contemporary art, 8800, the fi rst commercially

© MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM, 102621982 OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY © MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION ued, the requests became more craft-based, artist-based, and many artists use computers like successful personal computer

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 9 future exhibits, as they have spring 2018. Has the inclusion contributed to our communica- of computers been surprising to tion and popular culture in a Design Museum visitors? Mc- massive way.” Guirk replied, “I think it was Halfway ’round the world, perhaps a surprise for people to curator Justin McGuirk of see some of the newer pieces of London’s prestigious De- technology in the show [which] sign Museum shared similar makes them aware of the cul- thoughts when he requested nu- tural signifi cance of objects that merous artifacts for California: they currently own.” Designing Freedom. McGuirk Looking back on our recent noted, “We were very keen to past it’s easy to see the incred- do an exhibition about con- ible infl uence computing has temporary Californian design had on the ways in which we ... and technology is absolutely create and live today. Wherever central to that story. From computing has had an infl uence personal computers to or impact—which is globally Evidence that the hippie- designed around the Intel 8080 to and social and often in unseen ways— infl uenced counterculture was microprocessor by Ed Roberts, media platforms, California has chm’s historical artifacts are not anti-technology, a mother mits and child visit a Community founder and president of . developed whole new genres of storytellers. That is no surprise Memory terminal at a San And just north, the iconic red design and had an enormous at all. But don’t be surprised if Francisco Bay Area community Olivetti Valentine typewriter impact on contemporary life.” you spot one in an exhibition center in ca. 1989. has been seen by hundreds of chm provided the majority far, far away. thousands of travelers at sfo of iconic computing artifacts Museum’s Typewriter: An and prototypes for the Make All quotes were obtained by the Innovation in Writing exhibit. What You Want section of the author via email for this article. Its curator Daniel Calderon Design Museum’s exhibition, explained, “Recent interest by including an Osborne 1a, an Collections operations are made collectors, writers, and other Apple Mac, a Xerox Star, Steve possible by contributions from museums sparked our inter- Wozniak’s “blue box,” a Slate Museum donors and members. For est in pursuing a typewriter mockup by Alan Kay, a Palm v more information on Collections, exhibition. While searching for pda, and Pagemaker software, please visit computerhistory.org/ the iconic Olivetti Valentine, along with an Apple-1 on loan collections. we found a wonderful, red ex- to chm by brothers Ian and ample using the Computer His- Colin Lynch Smith. California: tory Museum’s online database. Designing Freedom traveled to Typewriters are a foundational the Design Museum in Hel- component of computer history. sinki and will be hosted by the I’m certain we will include Stedelijk Museum ’s-Hertogen-

typewriters and computers in bosch, outside Rotterdam in MUSEUM, 102774063 OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY COLLECTION

10 CORE 2018 GRANT WRAP-UP: PROCESSING PROJECT MAKES AVAILABLE 26 CHM COLLECTIONS

BY SARA LOTT SENIOR ARCHIVES MANAGER

In June 2017, after two and a rial and ranging in date from 2002. The dec records took half years of work, the 1945 to 1988, document the two full-time archivists Museum completed its larg- Information Age in the United and nine volunteers 5,000 est grant-funded processing States and its ongoing impact hours over the course of 14 project to date. In 2014 chm on society and include records months to process. was one of only 19 institutions and personal papers from Each of the 26 processed selected to receive a Catalog- corporations, ceos, computer collections has a fi nding ing Hidden Special Collections science luminaries, female en- aid available through the and Archives grant from the trepreneurs and inventors, and Museum’s catalog and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, enthusiastic collectors. Online Archive of California. administered by the Council on Sixty percent of the material Additionally, a brief record Library and Information Re- in the project was the Digital is available through oclc sources. chm received $274,560 Equipment Corporation (dec) WorldCat. As a result of the 1,238 24,351 to minimally process and make Records. At linear feet project catalog records This ca. 1965 photograph of publicly available 26 of the of text and still and moving were added to the online two Digital Equipment Corpora- Museum’s most valuable but images, the dec Records are catalog and the number of tion technicians drilling holes hidden collections. the largest and most complete researchers visiting the archive into printed circuit boards dec fy2017 was included in the Museum’s The collections, totaling record of in existence, with is up, with marking Cataloging Hidden Special 1,944 linear feet of mate- material from 1947 through the most researchers to date. Collections and Archives grant. COLLECTION OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM, 102755967 OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY COLLECTION

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 11 Cover page from the

-1- famous PhD dissertation by 2005 CHM Fellow Ivan SKETCHPAD, A MAN-MACHINE GRAPHICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Sutherland detailing his by Sketchpad system, an IVAN EDWARD SUTHERLAND B.S., Carnegie Institute of Technology advanced computer-aided (1959) design program written M.S., California Institute of Technology (1960) at MIT in 1963.

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

at the

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

January, 19&3

Signature of Author. Department of Electrical Engineering, January 7, 1963

Certified by. * Thesis Supervisor

DOCUMENTING THE Accepted by. STORIES OF OUR FELLOWS Chairman, Departmental Committee on Graduate Students

BY DAG SPICER l SENIOR CURATOR

For over four decades, CHM’s annual Fellow Awards have publicly recognized leading contributors to computing. These Fellows have shaped the world we live in by applying the power of computing to industry, education, government, science and engineering, and, of course, our personal lives. As we recognize these remarkable people in the public sphere, the Museum also independently collects voluminous materials about each new Fellow to build a mini-archive of their life and contribu- tions. Such materials typically include personal papers, books, lecture notes, ephemera, recordings, software (especially source code), publications, and correspondence. Taking its inspiration from anthropologist Clifford Geertz, CHM seeks to create thick histories of these unique individuals through an ambitious program of collecting seminal docu- ments and personal papers, as well as conducting extensive oral histories. A thick history of a computer pioneer’s life’s work is one that explores and explains not only the facts of their life and accomplishments, but also the context of their discovery and invention, such that the history becomes meaningful to an outsider or nonexpert many years from now. This becomes even more important with each passing year as the original context of discovery recedes ever further into the mists of time. A thick history might include, for example, not only the semi- nal technical papers underlying an invention, but commercial products built using that knowledge, advertising materials, price lists, marketing plans, TV and radio ads, and so on. The idea is to provide a 360-degree view of our Fellows and their contributions. Two recent examples of such mini-archives are the papers and donations of CHM Fellows Gene Amdhal (102658196) and Harry Huskey (102726107). With its team of curators, media professionals, and archivists, the Museum is preserving the accomplishments of its Fellows with the long view in mind: how will people 100 years from now This ungainly device by 2005 understand our accomplishments? It is up to us to preserve CHM Fellow Ivan Sutherland was probably the fi rst head- and make available the materials that can be used in answer- mounted stereoscopic display ing not only the what but also the how and why of an invention (1968), giving the wearer the or discovery. illusion of being in a 3-D scene. A sophisticated external com-

puter controlled the system. AND X8125.2017 (DISSERTATION) MUSEUM, X1044.90 (HEAD-MOUNTED DISPLAY) OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY COLLECTION

12 CORE 2018 COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 13 Jean J. Bartik (left, née Betty Jean Jennings) and Frances V. Spencer (right, née Frances V. Bilas) at work ca. 1946 on the ENIAC’s master programmer unit. COLLECTION OF THE COMPUTER OF THE COMPUTER COLLECTION MUSEUM, 102649733 HISTORY

14 CORE 2018 CENTERS BEYOND INCLUSION: GAPS, GLITCHES & IMAGINATIVE FAILURE IN COMPUTING

BY DAVID C. BROCK DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY

Software history—like all his- colleague Patrick McCray calls pound in the lives of real tory of technology—is the story visioneering—is also a framing people, say lower-income of choices. It is the interweav- of who should be included as African-American women, ing of narratives about how makers, workers, owners, us- while the experiences and some people have shaped the ers, and the otherwise affected. problems confronting real material world in service or And because the history of people from their intersecting in pursuit of some intention computing is the story of the identities are absent from most or another; of how they and choices made by real people, widely shared understandings others have used the resulting their essential imaginings are and conceptions of society. objects, systems, and practices; conditioned by their time, Following Crenshaw, other and about how this making place, and experiences. It is for theorists and activists have and using impinges, or not, on this reason that the imaginings explored these gaps, glitches, the lives of still others. These of the history of computing are and failures around other choices go beyond relatively subject to gaps and glitches, to identities that are implicated tangible matters like which failures of the imagination, to in systems of discrimination, features should be included in defi cits of consideration for such as sexuality, gender a software release, or if facial others. As these gaps, glitches, identity, nationality and recognition systems should be and failures shape our actions, geography, and disability. used in your local supermarket. they have very real ramifi ca- While our contemporary There are also choices of imagi- tions for technologies and civic discourse is dominated by nation: Who gets included in people’s lives. the very real and vital issue of envisioning new technologi- For many other aspects of diversity and inclusion in com- cal developments, and who is society and culture, scholars, puting, the concept of intersec- left out. Who is part of the public intellectuals, and tionality urges us to also look pictured makers and users, and activists have used Kimberlé beyond inclusion. The question who isn’t. Williams Crenshaw’s concept of of diversity and inclusion in Historians, and other schol- “intersectionality” to focus on who can and does become a ars and analysts, study these just these sorts of gaps, glitches, computing maker and user is choices and the cultural and and failures. While they are critical, but it nevertheless is a technical factors that condition areas of nonexistence in question fi rmly about comput- them. The choices that make imaginings and understandings, ing constituted as it is, rather up the history of computing are they are all too real as lived than as it could be. The concept interested, intentional. Inten- experiences of people. Professor of intersectionality asks us to tionality is action for some- Crenshaw’s work on intersec- surface and look directly at to- thing, and that something is an tionality has focused on the day’s gaps, glitches, and failures imagined outcome: profi tabil- ways that social systems of in order to imagine different ity, performance, social good, discrimination and oppression futures for different people. what have you. This essential around particular identities— Recently, the Center for imagining—that sometimes notably racism, sexism, and Software History hosted and constitutes what my friend and classism—overlap and com- helped organize a major gather-

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 15 Top: Dr. Halcyon Lawrence, a technical communica- tions scholar, speaking at the Museum. Her talk on “accent bias” in speech recognition can be viewed on our YouTube channel.

Bottom: Dr. Grace Hopper ca. 1961 in front of UNIVAC tape drives, holding a program- ming manual for COBOL, in which she played a key role in creating.

ing of researchers looking at the notion of “glitches” in the the story of computing from ways that social media posts the angles of history, media can be tagged and discovered studies, anthropology, game by both casual users and in studies, software studies, automated data “scraping” by and more: Command Lines: social scientists and marketers. Software, Power, and Perfor- For example, Tumblr does not mance. The conference was a allow tags that are used below meeting of the Society for the some threshold to be searched History of Technology’s Special or discovered, such as those as- Interest Group for Comput- sociated with sexual minorities, ing, Information, and Society thereby helping to maintain (sigcis), one of the primary their invisibility. Many other of meeting grounds for the diverse the presentations engaged with international community of these kinds of issues and may researchers studying comput- be viewed on the Museum’s ing’s past. Many presentations YouTube channel. at Command Lines exposed As important as are these and examined just these gaps, examinations of gaps, glitches, glitches, and failures around and failures, the problem of intersecting identities and what discrimination in computing puting. Rather, it is culture— of diverse individuals. Through they revealed about the bounds is pressing and profound. On widespread, consistent social fostering explorations of com- within which computing has every facet of difference, every practices and behaviors—that puting’s cultures in the near been imagined. ground of identity, computing— shapes an individual’s access and distant pasts, the Center Halcyon Lawrence of the that is, the academic, commer- to experiences relevant to for Software History hopes Georgia Institute of Technol- cial, military, government, and participation in computing, that rich and powerful under- ogy examined the complex nonprofi t communities associ- their imaginings of their selves standings of the connection ramifi cations of “accent bias” ated with fostering, developing, and futures, the exclusionary between diversity and culture in speech recognition tech- and using computing—does not actions of others, and, critically, in computing will be developed nologies like Siri, Cortada, and refl ect the larger world. There the experience of belonging or and used for addressing the Alexa for those with Carib- are too few women. There are of indifference, even of hostil- problems of the present. bean accents living both inside too few people of color. There ity, in classrooms, clubs, labs, and outside of the Caribbean. are too few lgbtqia+ people. and offi ces. The Center for Software History Safi ya Noble of the University There are too few disabled History is one of our most is made possible by contributions of Southern California intro- people. Age, geography, and important tools for under- from Museum donors and mem- duced her notion of African- sociocultural class are far too standing culture. History can bers. For more information on American “technigrationists,” narrowly represented. also be intensely personal. the Center for Software History, early adopters of technologies Why? Increasingly, the With our oral history ef- please visit computerhistory.org/ softwarehistory. like video game systems, mo- answer is seen to be culture. forts—creating open access bile telephones, and two-way There is nothing about gender, video recordings and published in the 1980s and 1990s race, sexuality, disability, age, transcripts of the life and who were integral to the geography, or class that has career histories of contributors proliferation of new digital any purchase on an individual’s to computing—the Center for technologies. Maddison Whit- given potential to thrive in any Software History is focused on

man of Purdue University used of the diverse roles within com- capturing the direct accounts MUSEUM, 102635875 OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY HOPPER: COLLECTION

16 CORE 2018 IF DISCRIMINATION, THEN BRANCH: ANN HARDY’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO COMPUTING

BY DAVID C. BROCK DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY

In the realm of software, a “branch” is a computer instruction that causes a shift from the default pattern of activity to a dif- ferent sequence of actions, a different way of moving ahead if you will. For Ann Hardy, a pioneer in timesharing software and business, her contributions to computing—detailed in her recent oral history with the Center for Software History—were achieved through repeated, creative branching in the face of sexist discrimination. A serious challenge came in the early 1950s as an undergraduate: Despite her interest, she was not allowed to major in chemistry. That was for men only. Hardy branched. The physical therapy major allowed her to take all of the chemistry and technical classes she wanted. In the mid-1950s, at the suggestion of a childhood friend and fellow mathematics lover, Hardy stopped by IBM’s offi ces at 57th and Madison Avenue in Manhattan and took a computer programming aptitude test. Passing with fl ying colors, she took a six-week course and aced the fi nal exam. The top 10 percent of the class was promised a job in sales, the pinnacle of IBM, but upper management eventually decided this could not apply to women. Hardy branched. She became an IBM programmer instead, making important contributions to the software for the Stretch . Stretch led to a job at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, where Hardy fi rst experienced the then novel timesharing approach to computing. Thrilled by the possibilities of interactive computing, in 1966 she convinced a pioneering startup in the fi eld, Tymshare, to hire her to write their timesharing operating system. They did. To learn about Ann Hardy pictured in the further branchings by Ann Hardy in her rise to an executive at mid-1950s when she began her career in software. Tymshare and then to a cofounder of a secure-computing fi rm, read her oral history on the CHM website or her oral his- tory on our YouTube channel. COURTESY OF ANN HARDY COURTESY

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 17 Design_Code_Build students use the engineering design process to solve tech challenges and meet inspiring tech industry “rock stars” such as mechanical engi- neer Camille Eddy.

18 CORE 2018 EDUCATION CREATING A CULTURE OF LEARNING AT CHM

BY LAUREN SILVER VICE PRESIDENT OF EDUCATION

Museums have always been Computer Museum in Boston. words such as “educational,” recognized as educational (Who can forget the Walk- “informative,” “fascinating,” institutions, though their edu- through Computer?!) However, and “fun” to describe their cational goals and the means it remained somewhat discrete experience. Moreover, a follow- by which they accomplish these from what we traditionally up study three months later have changed over time. Far viewed as our primary mis- indicated that people retained from the staid, intimidating sion: that of preserving and both the information and the edifi ces of the past, today’s presenting historical artifacts sense of enjoyment they had museums are lively, interactive and narratives. Our collective gotten from their visit. Clearly, places, welcoming visitors of understanding of education— it had a signifi cant impact. all ages and offering a wide both what it is and who it is Since that time, we have fo- range of options to explore, for—was also quite limited un- cused on deepening our impact both in person and, increas- til the development and launch and expanding our educational ingly, online. As with other of Revolution: The First 2000 footprint. Starting from a nonschool “informal” settings, Years of Computing in 2011. foundation of public tours and the learning that happens in Revolution was our fi rst a few interactive workshops for museums is sometimes referred large-scale exhibition created k−12 students, we have created to as “free choice” or “inquiry- explicitly to allow for multiple a vast array of programs and based”: it is voluntary and points of entry into the stories resources designed to expand Top: The CHM Education team fl exible, arising from individu- we wanted to tell. Vice Presi- the Museum’s reach and displays the concept model for the Education Center, designed als’ varying interests, questions, dent of Collections and Exhibi- diversify our audiences, paying to support interactive learning, motivations, and learning tions Kirsten Tashev and her special attention to those who creativity, collaboration, and preferences, rather than from team made use of all of our as- are underrepresented in tech accessibility. a prescribed curriculum or the sets, including but not limited and may have limited access chm stem Bottom: Learning how a com- need to pass a standardized to historical artifacts, to design to and to learning. puter works: inside the Walk- test. And, since individuals are an experience that would allow We now have a solid team of through Computer at the Comput- infi nitely diverse, museums face visitors to choose not only full- and part-time professional er Museum in Boston, 1990. the challenge of making their what they wanted to learn, but educators. We have a corps content accessible and mean- how. After opening, we com- of volunteers and interns who ingful in infi nitely diverse ways. missioned an evaluation, for are trained in best practices This challenge is also an op- which we collected informa- for informal education and portunity, allowing museums tion from people diverse in age, who significantly enrich the to experiment with ways of technical expertise, and many visitor experience. And we providing information and pro- other characteristics. Results have strong partnerships with moting learning. Here at chm, told us that visitors did indeed teachers, community leaders, we are undergoing something make use of the exhibition museum colleagues, tech inno- of a revolution as we embrace in different ways, depending vators, and education scholars this opportunity. Education on their interests and prefer- throughout the Bay Area and has been part of our long-term ences. And no matter how they the us. Each year, chm educa- vision since the days of the approached it, a majority used tion programs serve more and

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 19 Docent Bud Warashina leads an interactive discussion about the Apollo Guidance Computer during a tour of Revolution.

the impact and implications of basic schooling and career technology on our world and skill development, is more and our lives, now and in the future. more dependent on technology. So what does all this portend We are committed not only to for chm’s own future? One including these as topics for of the most visible effects will exploration in our programs, be our new Education Center. but also to ensuring widespread Designed to support varied access to the learning oppor- approaches to teaching and tunities they provide. Teams learning, it will provide oppor- throughout the Museum are tunities that complement and collaborating on projects such build on experiences available as exhibitions, oral histories, elsewhere in the Museum. In and workshops about gender contrast to exhibitions, which and computing; live events ex- often impel visitors to keep ploring technology’s effects on moving in order to see the brain development and learn- many artifacts and stories we ing; and expanding resources have on display, the center will for non-English speakers. encourage people to slow down. Our growing culture of learn- Hands-on activities will allow ing, both internally and exter- visitors to take time—to dig nally, represents a profound more individuals, groups, and part by considering audience deeper into ideas or investigate change for chm. By embracing families; over 12,500 people questions as evidence of at- artifacts at their own pace, education in everything we participated during our 2017 tendees’ understanding of and often in collaboration with do, we are redefi ning what a fi scal year alone. interest in presenters’ content. others. Importantly, we also museum can and should be in Underlying this growth, and And our Marketing and Devel- see the Education Center as an the 21st century, how it can perhaps even more important opment teams have articulated opportunity for staff learn- engage minds around the world, than numbers alone, is a signifi - forward-looking plans that ing, with space and support to and how it can use history as cant shift toward what I would position education as core to experiment with new programs, a platform to understand the call an educational mindset: an our institutional values and one modes of presentation, col- past, contextualize the present, internal culture that recognizes of our top strategic priorities. laborative partnerships, and and look ahead to the future. and supports learning at every While a commitment to methods of evaluation and We have taken on a big subject, level and sees it as a shared learning is important for any assessment. at perhaps the most transfor- responsibility, well beyond serious museum, it is especially Increasingly, we will also see mational time in human history, traditional education programs. so for chm, with our content programs and initiatives that and our impact as a collecting, Both the Museum’s Exponen- and its unique place in society consider social and cultural exhibiting, and, yes, educating tial Center and the Center for and history. Computing is an issues in computing—issues institution will be substantial Software History, for example, ever-evolving subject. It also that affect not only who creates for decades to come. cite education as one of their risks being an arcane one, technology, but also who has foundational principles and reserved for engineers or those access to it and how it gets Educational programming is made develop their collections, with a highly technical bent. used. Questions of equity and possible by contributions from exhibitions, and events with Our increasingly technologized inclusion are particularly rel- Museum donors and members. For educational objectives in mind. global community, however, evant in the context of educa- more information on Education, The chm Live team assesses the depends on an informed public, tion, where full participation in please visit computerhistory.org/ success of their programs in able to think broadly about the global economy, including education.

20 CORE 2018 HANDS-ON LEARNING EMPOWERING EDUCATORS IN NEW EDUCATION CENTER THROUGH DESIGN_CODE_BUILD

BY EMILY ROUTMAN BY STEPHANIE CORRIGAN INTERPRETIVE PLANNER MANAGER OF SCHOOL & TEACHER PROGRAMS

The Education Center will offer hands-on activities for all ages to enjoy, from adults to elementary school-age kids. The Computer (De)construction Station is one example. Think you need to be tech-savvy to take a computer apart and put it back together? Here, just about anyone will be able to dismantle and reassemble a real —a large networking computer that’s designed to be easy to service. To make sure everyone can suc- ceed, we’ve added visual clues, and for those who want more guidance, detailed instructions are available. This is a chance for even nontechies to see and handle all the different components of a computer, from fans and heat sinks to CPUs and memory cards, and learn how they fi t together and operate as a system. Developing these kinds of interactive exhibits entails consider- Technology plays an integral role in our daily lives, one that able prototyping and user testing, and there will always be new will only grow over time. At CHM, we want all visitors to see ones in the pipeline. As a result, there’s a good chance you’ll themselves in the story of computing, its past and its future, and fi nd not just fi nished exhibits but also works in progress. We’re to feel confi dent exploring, experimenting, and engaging with exploring new territory and creating new ways to engage visitors. technology. This not only includes students but teachers as well! In the process of creating new learning experiences, we’re also At our annual Educators’ Broadcom Presents Edition of learning ourselves. It’s all part of the Museum’s emerging rec- Design_Code_Build (DCB), we work to connect educators with ognition that education is at the core of everything we do. resources and ideas for incorporating computer science and computer history into their classrooms. Participants explore Raspberry Pi computers, discover stories in CHM’s exhibitions, and connect with other educators who are eager to share re- sources, insights, and experiences. The goal is for educators to leave with ideas they can use immediately as well as the skills and connections they need to keep exploring and building on what they learned. Integrating technology into the classroom can be challeng- ing, especially for those without a background in technology. Discovering, vetting, and learning to use new resources can be intimidating and expensive. But there are also many educators eager to learn, try, share, and collaborate. Through the DCB Educators’ Edition, CHM aims to facilitate this growing network, helping teachers discover new ways to empower themselves and their students. Interactive exhibits in the new Education Center will let visitors At the Design_Code_Build Educa- get hands-on with real computer tors’ Edition, educators discover technology. Testing prototype new resources, share ideas, versions is an essential part of and build their confi dence using the development process. technology in the classroom.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 21 ON JANUARY 9, 2007, STEVE JOBS ANNOUNCED THREE NEW PRODUCTS— a widescreen iPod, a revolutionary P.24 Marc Weber, curatorial phone, and a “breakthrough director of the Internet History internet communications device.” Program, delves into the interna- Of course, iPhone was all three. It tional landscape of iPhone’s was a risky challenge to the prehistory and how its success dominant mobile companies of snapped the center of gravity for the time—most of them outside of mobile back to Silicon Valley. Silicon Valley. P.32 Hansen Hsu, curator for the Ten years after Jobs’ electric Center for Software History, announcement, iPhone and its explores the software develop- imitators have transformed not ment kit that almost wasn’t and just mobile devices but how we the choices that enabled Apple’s use computers. Along the way, it App Store to spawn a worldwide made Apple the world's most app economy. valuable publicly traded company P.38 Marguerite Gong Hancock, and has, through Apple’s App executive director of the Exponen- Store, catalyzed a trillion-dollar tial Center, examines iPhone and app economy with more than its supply chain from California to three billion users. China as both symbol and But iPhone's success was substance of its impact on the far from assured. As part of the global political economy. iPhone 360 Project at the P.46 John Markoff, journalist and Computer History Museum historian, contemplates what (CHM), this selection of articles iPhone reveals about the future of reveals insights and an array of computing and humanity. perspectives on the device: About iPhone 360 The iPhone 360 explores the story of iPhone, from its prehistory, inception, and launch, to its evolution and impact. Coinciding with the 10th anniversary year of the iPhone launch in 2007, iPhone 360 includes integrated initiatives across the Computer History Museum to create new collections of artifacts and oral histories, scholarly research and insights, dynamic events, feature exhibit, and educational content and curriculum. The iPhone 360 Project is part of the Exponential Center 360 series focused on transformational companies and products that have changed the world through technology innovation, economic value creation and social impact.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 23 24 CORE 2018

HOW THE iPHONE

TOOK OFF In early 2007 Steve Jobs unveiled the iPhone as a risky challenge to established makers, most in other regions. Surprising skeptics, iPhone snapped back the center of the next great trend in computing—mo- bile—back to Silicon Valley. It would make Apple the world’s richest public company. The iPhone didn’t really do anything other phones or handhelds hadn’t before. It was clumsy to enter text on and not especially fast, and it initially cost $500. It left out other core smartphone amenities, from ergonomics to decent battery life. But looking at raw ingredients is only part of the story. It’s how you combine them that counts, and presen- tation matters. Jobs’ pet project brought everything BY MARC WEBER together in a package that would change the look, feel, CURATORIAL DIRECTOR, and business model of every smartphone—and tablet— INTERNET HISTORY PROGRAM on earth. It would go on to challenge the web and even the personal computer.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 25 COMPILEDCOMPILED BY DADAGG SSPICERPICER SENIOR CURATOR

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26 CORE 2018 What made the original iPhone take off? Millions was a key partner—seemed most likely to succeed. The of words have been written in answer to that question. profi table business smartphone market belonged to Besides the fanatically honed artistry of iPhone’s design, Canada’s secure, easy-to-type-on Blackberry. from software to packaging, here are fi ve specifi cs: The only local contender was the , based on the sleek, user-friendly Palm operating system that had Screen-forward: A gamble that what people really made the original PalmPilot a wild success. But Palm’s wanted was the biggest, fl attest, crispest screen rocky business history had limited its infl uence. they could cram into their pockets or purse—even if None of this was helped by the fact that us phone that meant giving up real keys and buttons. usage—and networks—lagged years behind other coun- Fingers: Clumsy for selecting text, but made for tries and were split into two competing standards (gsm pinching and zooming. and cdma). Browsing, browsing, browsing: The fi rst thing For a region whose identity was so tied to innova- you do with that big screen. tion, it was a smarting blow. During the dot-com bubble /FLICKR / IPOD, IPHONE, APP STORE: © APPLE / ANGRY BIRDS: ROVIO ENTERTAINMENT CORPORATION CORPORATION ENTERTAINMENT © APPLE / ANGRY BIRDS: ROVIO /FLICKR / IPOD, IPHONE, APP STORE:

16376 (SYMBIAN) the PalmPilot raised hopes that the Valley’s business Multimedia: Not just a camera and cute headphones, magic could work for mobile as it had for the personal but full-screen software to manage your content right computer and the web. But it proved a brief exception on the phone. to the Valley’s 20-year mobile losing streak—Apple’s Maps: Big, touchable, and soon indispensable. own failed Newton, go/Eo, General Magic, the Danger They almost got left out of the original iPhone! Sidekick, and more. The iPhone didn’t start as a phone. In the early 2000s, It didn’t hurt that mobile networks had recently the user interface team stumbled across a multitouch gotten fast enough to support full-featured web brows- pointing device. Could using your fi ngers to pinch, scroll, ing. Nor that Jobs was still at the height of his powers. and zoom be the basis for a completely new kind of user interface? This turned into a project to make a tablet Almost Left Behind computer. But galvanized by the success of the iPod, By 2006 it was clear to most people in computing that some began to wonder if the new interface could even the future was mobile. The cell phone was on its way to let a phone-size screen browse full web pages. ... becoming the most common electronic device on earth, Jobs gave the green light, and they literally taped 1 with over 2.7 billion users. Yet it was almost equally off a corner of the prototype tablet screen to make it clear that the main events wouldn’t happen in Silicon phone-size. But progress was slow, and a parallel project Valley, or even the United States. to combine a simpler “feature” phone with an iPod Since 1999 Japan had been connected to everything threatened to pull ahead. At a certain point Jobs told the from mobile maps to online shopping with its own tablet-phone team to hurry up or else. They got the mes- version of the mobile web, i-mode. When it came to the sage, and the rest would be mobile history. small but explosively growing smartphone market, the European Symbian operating system—for which Nokia TIMELINE: COMPASS: ISTOCK/RICHCANO / TELEGRAPH: © BETTMANN/GETTY IMAGES / PAYPHONE: ISTOCK/LUTHERHILL / DIGITAL CAMERA: © MAOBY CAMERA: / DIGITAL ISTOCK/LUTHERHILL / PAYPHONE: / TELEGRAPH: © BETTMANN/GETTY IMAGES ISTOCK/RICHCANO TIMELINE: COMPASS: © MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM, 102624295 (WALKMAN), X2358.2002A (NEWTON), 102711516 (SIMON), 1027 X2358.2002A (NEWTON), MUSEUM, 102624295 (WALKMAN), OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY © MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 27 Tiny Interfaces The PalmPilot became the mobile incarnation of your The physical user interface for most computers—a key- calendar, to-do list, and address book; the Blackberry, board with text above it—has been set since the type- your hand-held email program. writer in the late 19th century. But without room for iPhone started as an accessory too. But instead of full-size text display or keyboards, handhelds have no emphasizing input with keyboards and styli, the iPhone such baseline. Each family of products must fi gure out was a lean, mean browsing machine. The physical its own solution to a fearsome user interface problem: design said it all—a literal sheet of glass, as unadorned as how do you get meaningful information in and out of a the broken-off corner of the it came from. device small enough to snuggle in a pocket? Besides maximizing screen space, the minimalism of It’s been 40 years since the electronic calculator began that design answered something deep within Jobs’ aes- sprouting ancillary features and birthed the handheld thetic, like the barely there vegan diet he fed his physical computer. In that time, it seems like every possible inter- body. (Had iPhone happened in the curvy, colorful

face trick has been tried, from the stylus to voice recog- exuberance of his earlier iMac phase, the device in your /JOHNNY SCRIV nition to slide-out keyboards. All are compromises. But pocket might look different). the most successful products have turned compromises Jobs also disdained the stylus—he famously said we into selling points, beating out general-purpose hand- have 10 of them. Direct touch returned adults to both helds like the Psion or Apple’s Newton. The winning the joys and frustrations of fi nger painting. The fi nal trick has been to optimize tiny interfaces for particular combinations had a dissonant beauty, at once formal functions. and sensual: using the sensitive pads of your fi ngers For instance, rim’s email-based Blackberry sacrifi ced to caress some of the most manufactured substances screen space for a thumb-size qwerty keyboard plus around—shiny glass, steel, and plastic. navigation buttons. The earlier stylus-based PalmPilot In the zero-sum world of mobile interfaces, these managed a biggish screen, but by forcing users to learn a design choices came at a cost for input. No stylus meant simplifi ed script the software could successfully recog- no sketching or handwriting, or even easy text selection. nize.2 By the mid-2000s, Palm Treos and other smart- Bringing up the iPhone’s virtual keyboard covered nearly phones had adopted a thumb keyboard for entering text half the screen. Typing remained slower and more error- but retained a stylus for sketching or precise selection. prone than on physical keys. As a side effect, it also mas- The combo worked well for entering information but sively increased visual distraction. Unlike either physical restricted screen space. This was one reason mobile keyboards or styli where you can easily do text entry browsing never took off on the fi rst major generation of “blind,” soft keys wrench your gaze downward. That smartphones. adds up, since writing is 5–10 times slower than reading. Another way to sidestep interface limitations is by Some critics felt its minimalism made the iPhone into managing expectations—make your device an accessory the cyber equivalent of high heels. You could still walk, to the personal computer, not a potential replacement. but form topped function. Yet that ignored just how OPPOSITE PAGE: PALMPILOT MODEL: © MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM, 102716262 / RIM: © ISTOCKPHOTO.COM OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY MODEL: © MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION PALMPILOT OPPOSITE PAGE:

28 CORE 2018 Most early handhelds sported tiny keys that reduced even touch typ- ists to hunt-and-peck. In the mid-1990s, effective handwriting recognition from Palm—and then the two-thumb key- boards popularized by RIM, like the one shown here—offered relief.

The PalmPilot was the fi rst handheld computer to break into the mass market. Jeff Hawkins tested his early ideas with this model, using a chopstick for a stylus.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 29 good the interface was for its preferred purpose. The big screen and multitouch made it ideal for navigating infor- mation on full-size web pages, documents, and images. Along with faster networks, this was the magic key that fully unlocked the mobile web. The fi rst iPhone didn’t have native apps. Those came a year later, in an about-face that both spawned an unbelievably rich ecosystem and threatened to frag- ment the web itself. Apple’s experience with the insanely successful iTunes Store would quickly translate into the App Store. Within a few years came selfi es and videos and support for the faster networks of the era (3g). The negotiating tactics Jobs had used to browbeat the music companies into supporting iPod proved effective with the telecom carriers: Apple ended up with unprecedent- ed control over iPhone.

Triumph When I developed the gallery for the Museum’s permanent Revolution exhibition over 2009 and 2010, the smartphone story remained mostly out- side Silicon Valley. I interviewed Japanese and Swedish pioneers and went to London to interview the creators of market leader Symbian and the early Psion os it was based on. The local contingent was represented by the fading Palm Treo and this newish gizmo from Apple. In fact, when the exhibition opened in January 2011, the most recent object in it was the iPhone. (We passed on the newly announced iPad, because its impact was still uncertain.) The iPhone kept growing. And perhaps most impor- tant, Google got involved. By 2012 Android had fully os joined the iPhone and iPad’s i as the new face of From 1999, successful mobile. Relatively open and cheap where Apple was smartphones began ap- closed and expensive, Android played populist Windows pearing from companies os around the world. Left to i ’s exclusive Mac. Native apps soon appeared for to right, top to bottom: Android as well, accelerating the wild rush to dream up Blackberry and Treo in new services that depended on mobility—from rides to North America, Symbian reviews to dating apps. phones in Europe, and i-mode in Japan.

30 CORE 2018 By 2006 it was clear to most people in computing that the future was mobile. ... Yet it was almost equally clear that the main events wouldn’t happen in Silicon Valley, or even the United States.

Other competitors still had cards left to play. They Today ios and Android are steadily recreating the hoped to imitate the ios/Android model while address- functionality of a pc on tablets and—to some extent— ing one or more of its perceived weaknesses: a focus on phones. The fi rst iPhone had no cut-and-paste and could consumption over creation; poorly integrated address, only run one application at a time, like a pc of 1978. calendar, to-do, and notes functions; a lack of secure Today’s versions still lack proper fi les and folders. But email, easy syncing, or connectivity with peripherals. they can already run many of the same programs as They hoped such features might matter even more as full-blown personal computers. Could an expanded ios mobile followed the iPad from phones to tablets. cannibalize Apple’s own line? It’s worth not- But Microsoft’s much anticipated Windows Phone 8 ing the Mac itself was allowed to eat its own predeces- fi zzled, taking Nokia’s smartphone market down with it sor, the Apple ii. along with Microsoft’s own tablet, the Surface. Win- But ios/Android was the fi rst big tech ecosystem that dows 8 had been the most credible attempt at general- didn’t start simple because it had to, given hardware purpose handhelds and tablets since the days of Apple’s limitations. The fi rst iPhone had more oomph than a

(ERICSSON/SYMBIAN), AND 102716385 (I-MODE) (ERICSSON/SYMBIAN), Newton. Palm’s legacy entered the last stages of dissolu- Pentium pc of the late 1990s. Windows phones and tab- tion as hp abandoned “iPhone killer” (Palm had lets comfortably manage to bring along a full-featured sold off its original operating system to Japanese i-mode operating system. pioneer Access a couple of years before).3 The simi- ios/Android started simple because they started as an larly heralded “iPhone killer” Blackberry 10 operating os for a specialized smartphone, not a computer. Its par- system tanked.4 The high end of the mobile world now ticular fl avor of simplicity came because a talented and belonged to Apple and Google—and Silicon Valley. powerful minimalist thought it was prettiest that way. The full impact of Steve Jobs’ choices may lie ahead. When mammal embryos develop in the womb, they pass through stages that look a bit like older forms—fi sh, 1 IC Insights, “Worldwide Cellphone Subscriptions Forecast tadpoles, frogs, salamanders, and so on. Computers to Exceed Worldwide Population in 2015!” 2015 IC Market ecosystems have done much the same. Drivers Report, November 12, 2014, icinsights.com/news/ Cheaper, smaller began to threaten bulletins/Worldwide-Cellphone-Subscriptions-Forecast-To- hulking mainframes in the 1960s. But not until the early Exceed-Worldwide-Population-In-2015. 1970 s could they support the kind of command-line op- 2 The earlier stylus-based Apple Newton tried to recognize free- erating systems mainframes had pioneered six or seven form handwriting, but the error rate was so high it was a major years before. By the late 1970s, the tiny, cheaper pcs that factor in the product’s failure challenged minis were running their own command- 3 Ross Catanzariti, “The Will Be an iPhone Killer,” line operating systems, like cp/m. Only much later did PC World, April 2, 2009, pcworld.com/article/162528/the_ they add graphical user interfaces, multitasking, robust palm_pre_will_be_an_iphone_killer.html. memory management, and a host of other features 4“BlackBerry’s ‘iPhone Killer’ For Verizon Turned Into A Flop already prototyped on minis. Report,” Huffi ngton Post Canada, September 30, 2013, huffi ngtonpost.ca/2013/09/30/blackberry--killer- verizon_n_4017227.html. OPPOSITE PAGE: © MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM, 102716259 (BLACKBERRY), 102674231 (TREO), 102716376 MUSEUM, 102716259 (BLACKBERRY), OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY © MARK RICHARDS / COLLECTION OPPOSITE PAGE:

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 31 STACKING

THE CHOICES THAT ENABLED THE iPHONE APP STORE

DECK32 CORE 2018 After introducing the iPhone in early 2007, Steve Jobs announced that third-party developers could write web applications for it, but not native apps. But by October, Jobs had changed his tune: a full iPhone software de- velopment kit (sdk) that let programmers write native iPhone applications would be available next March. Moreover, developers would sell their iPhone apps through an Apple-curated “App Store,” to launch July 2008.1 This touched off another Silicon Valley gold rush, as entrepreneurs and investors raced to create iPhone apps and cash in.2 The billion-dollar acquisition of In- stagram by Facebook in 2012 epitomized this new tech boom.3 Today, the ios platform, despite competition from Android, remains the premier platform for mobile app development. Apps are often developed fi rst for ios, or at least concurrently with other platforms, and de- velopers are more likely to make money with ios apps. The large library of iPhone apps likewise locks in users; they are unlikely to leave Apple’s integrated ecosystem if they have to repurchase their apps on Android. All BY HANSEN HSU this secures Apple’s user base. Arguably, the App Store CURATOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY has been key to the sustained success of the iPhone and its sister device, the iPad.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 33 Yet all this would have been impossible if Apple had run in the limited hardware of a portable device without not engineered the iPhone as a platform with easy soft- draining the battery. They proposed using a stripped ware development. The App Store opened just a year down version of Linux for the iPhone’s software stack. after the iPhone fi rst shipped, with many apps available. It wouldn’t matter to the end user what operating sys- What made this possible? tem the iPhone ran, Fadell’s group argued, because they The answer is that the iPhone sdk, called “Cocoa saw the iPhone as an “embedded” device, like the iPod, Touch,” was very similar in design to “Cocoa,” the that users would simply take as is, without the ability to development environment for Apple’s desktop operat- change the software. ing system, Mac os x. Developers for both platforms Forstall had other plans. Forstall was the head of plat- used the Objective-c language as well as similar design form experience, the team responsible for Mac os x’s patterns and wrote code that could be easily shared be- user interface, applications, and software environment. tween a Mac and an ios app. Mac developers, familiar Forstall and his team saw the iPhone not as an embed- with Cocoa, needed little learning to pick up iPhone de- ded device but as a computer platform, which could run velopment and were among the fi rst to produce iPhone many kinds of software, not just those built by Apple. apps. Cocoa itself was designed to make it easy for a They were convinced that iPhone’s software stack single developer to quickly write fully featured applica- should run a variant of Mac os x technology, that is, tions, so basing the iPhone on Cocoa would carry over Cocoa. Nitin Ganatra, manager of the iPhone applica- these benefi ts. tions team, explained that using Cocoa technologies for However, as revealed in chm Live events and oral the iPhone would allow him to poach employees from histories, as well as Brian Merchant’s book, using other groups within Apple who could quickly get up to Cocoa was not a foregone conclusion.4 Several technolo- speed and write the iPhone’s core apps: “We had a lot gies competed to become the iPhone’s “software stack,” of engineers who understood [Cocoa] . . . and we wanted with very different implications for app development. to keep as much of that as familiar as possible so that In 2005 this was a competition within Apple between there wasn’t just this huge learning curve for anybody Tony Fadell’s hardware division and Scott Forstall’s coming in where they wouldn’t know how to do any- software division. thing. ... We wanted to make sure that they leveraged Fadell had led the team that created the iPod and that knowledge and only had to learn the new ... parts had created a prototype that was an iPod with phone that were unique to development of a phone app.”5 capability. Dialing was by the iPod’s famous click-wheel, Forstall’s software team eventually won, with iPhone evoking a rotary phone. This prototype was ultimately running a variant of Mac os x. But another decision rejected. Nevertheless, Fadell’s team had experience loomed. Should iPhone’s built-in apps be developed us- with consumer devices and knew how to make software ing native os x technologies, like Cocoa, or should they

34 CORE 2018 Former Apple Vice President Scott Forstall discusses creating the iPhone with John Markoff at CHM’s iPhone 360 event. Forstall directed the original iPhone’s software team.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 35 use web technologies? Mac os x had a feature called Eventually a compromise was reached. Apps ported “Dashboard,” that held widgets showing information from Dashboard by the web team, like Stocks and like stocks and weather that were quickly launched on a Weather, could continue to use WebKit, and would be user’s desktop. Widgets were written with web technolo- owned by the web team under Williamson, while most gies—html, css, and JavaScript—and used “WebKit,” of the other iPhone apps, to be written by Ganatra’s the framework behind Apple’s Safari web browser. Since apps group, would use a native solution. web browsing with Safari was a crucial feature of the Ganatra’s engineers, led by Scott Herz, investigated iPhone, it was trivial for the iPhone web team to port simply bringing os x’s Cocoa to the iPhone but decided the Weather and Stocks widgets to the phone. Indeed, it would be better to write a new framework from the designs of these apps on the original iPhone were scratch, which they called “uiKit.”7 uiKit was designed the same as their Dashboard widget predecessors. The according to the same principles as Cocoa, but with advantage of WebKit was that many more third-party some improvements. uiKit was tailored for multitouch developers knew JavaScript than Apple’s Objective-c input and in the beginning only contained what was language from Cocoa. needed to write iPhone’s initial apps: a phone-calling However, WebKit had a key disadvantage. Its apps app with built-in address book, music player, and email were slower and used more memory. Memory on the client. All these apps contained lists of text that had to iPhone was so scarce that if an app used too much, the be scrolled at a smooth 60 frames per second and, when os would kill it.6 This is still how ios works today. tapped by a fi nger, could drill down to reveal another Richard Williamson, then manager of the iPhone web screen with more detail. This made it a natural compo- team, has his own take on the drawbacks of web apps. nent to be shared in the uiKit library by all apps, rather His team knew how to write web apps that were lean than each having their own implementation. With this and fast, but the complexity of web technologies doesn’t strategy, the apps team was able to implement the human encourage this, leading most web apps to be bloated and interface team’s designs and make them butter smooth.8 slow. Apple’s native Cocoa environment, on the other With uiKit, the iPhone had its own native software hand, steers developers in the right direction, making it stack ready to be opened up to third-party developers. easier for them to apply best practices. When those developers at Apple’s Worldwide Developer

Opening in 2008, the App Store transformed iPhone into a mobile platform that launched millions of third-party apps, including Insta- gram, Snapchat, and Candy Crush.

36 CORE 2018 Forstall and his team saw the iPhone not as an embedded device but as a computer platform, which could run many kinds of software, not just those built by Apple.

Conference (wwdc) got to see the iPhone prerelease, 1 they understood that web apps would be inferior to Charles Arthur, Digital Wars: Apple, Google, Microsoft and the Battle for the Internet, 2nd ed. (London; Philadelphia: Apple’s native apps.Web apps would probably run Kogan Page, 2014), 200–201, 212. slower and would look slightly different, lacking the 2 Jenna Wortham, “The iPhone Gold Rush,” New York Times, polished ui of native apps. Web apps would also not April 5, 2009, sec. Fashion & Style, nytimes.com/2009/04/05/ have access to the iPhone’s sensors, such as its acceler- fashion/05iphone.html. ometer, that made possible some of iPhone’s coolest 3 Evelyn M. Rusli, “Facebook Buys Instagram for $1 Billion,” features. Ganatra notes that if WebKit wasn’t good New York Times, April 9, 2012, sec. Dealbook, dealbook.nytimes. enough for Apple’s own apps, why would third-party com/2012/04/09/facebook-buys-instagram-for-1-billion/. developers be satisfi ed with it? 4 Brian Merchant, The One Device: The Secret History of the When Forstall and other executives fi nally convinced iPhone (New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company, 2017). Steve Jobs to allow third-party apps for the iPhone, the 5 Oral history of Nitin Ganatra (part one), interviewed by Hansen infrastructure of uiKit was already in place. Had the Hsu, April 24, 2017. decision been made to use the hardware team’s Linux 6 stack instead, opening up the iPhone to third-party This scheme, called “Jetsam,” was proposed by Richard Williamson. apps might have taken much longer. Mac developers 7 would not have been able to learn iPhone development Oral history of Nitin Ganatra (part one), April 24, 2017. so quickly or produce as high-quality applications in as 8 After the iPhone announcement, but before the iPhone launched, little time. The App Store might not have taken off as the WebKit-based Clock, Calculator, Weather, and Stocks apps it did with as many apps. Competing platforms—not were rewritten in native code by members of the web team for performance. Oral history of Nitin Ganatra, April 24, 2017; oral only Android, but also Palm’s webos and Microsoft’s history of Kenneth Kocienda and Richard Williamson (part two), Windows Phone—might have had an opportunity to interviewed by Hansen Hsu and Marc Weber, November 13, 2017; catch up with iPhone. Apple’s decision to base iPhone’s and email correspondence with Scott Goodson, October 13, 2017. software on os x stacked the deck such that, except for Android, these competitors have never caught up. © APPLE

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 37 BY MARGUERITE GONG HANCOCK EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, EXPONENTIAL CENTER

FROM CALIFORNIA TO COURTESY OF PHOTOGRAPHER PETER BELANGER OF PHOTOGRAPHER COURTESY

38 CORE 2018 On January 9, 2007, wearing his trademark jeans and black mock turtleneck, Steve Jobs revealed the iPhone— a device that would “change everything”—to 4,000 people gathered for the annual MacWorld conference in San Francisco, California. Seventy-four days later, Apple announced the sale of its one millionth iPhone, and a decade later, cumulative iPhone sales topped 1.2 billion units. When it fi rst launched, however, no one could imagine the scale and scope of iPhone’s global business and political economic impact. It has powered Apple’s meteoric rise to the most valuable public company in the world, upended major industries, and fueled a new software application economy. Perhaps lesser known, iPhone has been a key impetus behind the evolution of Apple’s complex supply chain with direct impact on the economy and society of many countries as well as its transformation into a symbol and substance of pressing global political economic issues.

CHINA AND BEYONDiPHONE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 39 Donning a factory uniform, Tim Cook tweeted a photo with a worker assembling an iPhone during a 2014 visit to the Foxconn factory in Zhengzhou, China.

A Race to the First Trillion-Dollar Company devices. In transportation, Uber, Lyft, and Didi Chuxing With iPhone retailing at premium prices, less pricey have disrupted taxis and personal car ownership—part Android has become the dominant smartphone operat- of the larger gig economy enabled by smartphone func- ing system worldwide, especially in developing econo- tions combined with apps. Apple’s App Store created an mies. But Apple has, thanks to iPhone, consistently entire industry around app design and development. In captured the lion’s share of total smartphone profi ts. In less than a decade, the App Store economy has gener- 2006, iPod and Macs together contributed 78 percent ated more than one and a half million us jobs and us of Apple’s $19 billion of revenue. By 2016, iPhone developers have earned more than $16 billion from App generated 63 percent of revenues which had increased Store sales worldwide. By 2016, the global app economy by more than a factor of 10 in 10 years to $216 billion. was valued at $1.3 trillion, generated by purchases from These days, Apple’s revenue is nearly as much as Ama- 3.4 billion people. At the heart of these developments is zon, Alphabet, and Facebook combined and its market a global network with direct impact on economic and value is more than fi ve times that of General Electric, a social life in many countries. traditional blue chip stock. In November 2017, Apple became the fi rst public company to clear a $900 billion Welcome to iPhone City in China market cap and some analysts predicted it would ride on “Designed by Apple in California. Assembled in China.” the back of iPhone x sales to become the fi rst $1 trillion These eight words printed on the back of every iPhone company. At the heart of these developments is a global represent Apple’s global supply chain and manufactur- network with direct impact on economic and social life ing ecosystem. Apple manages hundreds of suppliers in many countries. employing more than 1.6 million people in 20 countries. Beyond Apple, the ripple effects of the iPhone and None is more important than China. It is the country Android smartphone revolution have devastated—and where all of the pieces for iPhone literally come together. spawned—major companies and industries. pc sales “Great to meet talented people like Zhang Fan, have plummeted and smartphones have eclipsed gaming who helps make iPhone 6 in Zhengzhou,” Apple ceo consoles. Time magazine reported that Pokémon go Tim Cook tweeted during a factory visit in 2014. Zhang was downloaded as a smartphone app 750 million times Fan represents one of 350,000 workers employed by versus Nintendo’s Mario lifetime sales of 500 million. Foxconn, one of Apple’s main subcontractors, who as- Always available digital photos and videos forced Ko- semble, test, and package in nearly 100 produc- dak, a 131-year-old fi lm pioneer, to fi le for bankruptcy tion lines housed in dozens of factory sites across more in 2012, symbolizing the end of photographic fi lm and than two square miles for what locals call “iPhone standalone cameras for most consumers. Traditional City.” Their capacity: up to a mind-boggling half a mil- television and movie companies are struggling to lion iPhones a day. The Zhengzhou factory is emblem- compete with new distribution channels and business atic of the complex magnetic forces that both attract models of companies like YouTube, Netfl ix, and Hulu, and divide Chinese and American players in the global which deliver a majority of content to viewers on mobile political economy. TIM COOK/TWITTER TIM COOK/TWITTER

40 CORE 2018 Apple’sApple’s revenue by source,source, bbeforeefore anandd afafterter tthehe iPhoiPhonene

2006:2006: 22% OOtherther 38% Macs $19B$19B 440%0% iPod

iPhone’s impact has rippled across many arenas: it has transformed Apple’s revenue, spawned a trillion-dollar app economy, catalyzed a 5% OOtherther smartphone revolu- tion, and enabled disruption in indus- tries from personal transportation to food delivery. 110%0% iPiPadad

2016:2016: 111%1% SeServicesrvices $216B$216B 63% iPhiPhoneone

111%1% MMacsacs

1.21.2 bbillionillion iPh iPhonesones sosoldld ssinceince 20020077 debudebutt 42x t thehe pproportionroportion ooff ddataata vs. vovoiceice fforor momobilebile montmonthlyhly int interneternet trtrafficaffic in 20201717 85 percent of one trillion+ didigitalgital photos each year taken on smartphonessmartphones 1.1.33 trillitrillionon dollars in revenue of 2016 aapppp economy from p purchasesurchases by 3.4 billion ppeopleeople 4.4.88 millimillionon wor workerskers fforor UbUber,er, IInstacart,nstacart, anandd tthehe on-on-demanddemand economy enabled by smartsmartphones,phones, comcomparedpared to 4.7 milli millionon workersworkers in IT aandnd IT seservicesrvices COMPILED BY THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM COMPILED BY THE COMPUTER HISTORY

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 41 How did Zhengzhou become iPhone City? After the fi rst iPhone rolled out in 2007, Zhengzhou, a rural city of six million in an area bypassed by China’s industrial- ization boom, saw a huge opportunity for development. Government offi cials doled out $1.5 billion in grants to Foxconn for construction of factories and housing for workers and offered tax exemptions and discounts on power bills. They even created a bonded zone, equipped with customs offi cials at the factory gate to facilitate iPhone exports, and a newly expanded airport, to help Apple save on export fees and expedite product ship- ments to overseas markets. Zhengzhou has an atmosphere of San Francisco in the 19th-century gold rush. Hundreds of thousands of people have migrated to the boomtown city—young migrants seeking job opportunities and better wages and entrepreneurs trying to cash in on the infl ux of work- ers. Newcomers have set up restaurants, discos, stores, gambling halls, and skating rinks. But observers, includ- ing those commenting on Cook’s Twitter feed, have expressed concern about fair employment, economic opportunity, or safe working conditions. Since a string of 14 suicides in 2010 in Foxconn’s Shenzhen factory, labor organizations have criticized the fi rm’s long hours, harsh treatment, and limited breaks, leading to worker exhaustion and higher accident rates. Foxconn has introduced changes and Apple reports that among its suppliers there was 97 percent supplier compliance with their 60-hour work week in 2015. However, most work- ers still seek extra hours to command higher income.

Along with other US tech fi rms, Apple was named one of “Eight Guardian Warriors” (Ԗę̇ǔ) by state-backed China Economic Weekly in 2013.

42 CORE 2018 In May 2017, Apple named Corning, long-time supplier of Gorilla Glass for iPhones, as fi rst recipient of a grant for advanced manufacturing in the US.

Is the (Globalization) Honeymoon Over? Under the leadership of President Xi Jinping, China With iPhone and Apple’s sizable impact on whole cities has emphasized its mission to transform from factory of and industries in China, the fi rm has become a natural the world to innovator for the world. The Chinese gov- target in the recent backlash against globalization. Fol- ernment is tightening access to its huge market and pres- lowing the 2013 published leaks from Edward Snowden suring Western technology companies to help advance about purported us hacking directed at China, a public state plans to achieve “indigenous innovation” and “self campaign against us technology fi rms in China heated suffi ciency” for “Made in China 2025.” up. State-backed China EconomicWeekly published an Apple is fi nding ways to support prc national priori- issue titled “He’s Watching You.” The cover image fea- ties by powering 100 percent of its operations in China tured a World War ii–era us propaganda poster with a with renewable energy and partnering to install massive head wearing a helmet inscribed with the nsa logo. The amounts of clean energy sources. In 2017, Apple com- article warned of a threat to national security by Apple, mitted to invest more than $500 million to open four Cisco, Google, , Intel, Microsoft, Oracle, and Qual- research and development institutes to advance new comm, referring to them as “Eight Guardian Warriors” technologies and “help develop the next generation of (ԗę̇ǔ). This pejorative moniker deliberately echoed entrepreneurs.” Despite Apple’s efforts to be a careful a disastrous foreign group from Chinese history—the corporate citizen in China, the company faces continu- “Eight-Nation Alliance” (ԗŚԓє), which included the ing headwinds. us—that invaded and occupied Beijing in 1900, forcing the Empress, Emperor, and high government offi cials to Facing Political Pressure in the US fl ee the Imperial Palace. iPhone has also attracted criticism and political pres- The Eight Guardian Warriors were decried for “seam- sure at home. While on the campaign trail, now us lessly infi ltrating China” by being deeply entrenched President Donald Trump promised, “I’m going to get in the hardware and software that make up China’s Apple to start making their computers and their iPhones key national information infrastructure, from personal on our land, not in China.” While no plans have been communications to business operations to announced yet for iPhone manufacturing in the us, in

PAPER.PEOPLE.COM.CN/ZGJJZK/HTML/2013-06/24/CONTENT_1259857.HTM the country’s public networks for government, fi nance, May 2017, Tim Cook launched a new Apple $1 billion railways, civil aviation, and healthcare. More than fund to invest in advanced manufacturing in the United just talk, after media began disparaging the “guardian States, part of a campaign to show how the global tech warriors,” calling for a “de-Cisco-ization campaign” giant is creating jobs for us workers. The fi rst award: ņΥؘ͔̬ƛ), sales of many us tech companies fell $200 million for Corning, iPhone supplier for Gorilla) dramatically. Glass, the go-to material for smartphone .

CHINA ECONOMIC WEEKLY / CHINA ECONOMIC WEEKLY COURTESY OF CORNING GORILLA GLASS / OPPOSITE PAGE: / OPPOSITE PAGE: OF CORNING GORILLA GLASS COURTESY

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 43 While design, development, and marketing are centered in California, Apple orchestrates a complex, cost-effective supply chain with hundreds of suppli- ers across tens of countries to build and deliver iPhones to customers world-wide.

7 8 4 9 5 1111 1 6 1212 1010 1414 1313

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WhatWhat WhereWhere MaMadede CCompanyompany HeadquartersHeadquarters Follow the journey of an iPhone 7—from design in California, 1 iPhoneiPhone Design:Design: IntegratedIntegrated hardwarehardware andand UnitedUnited SStatestates AApplepple / CuCupertino,pertino, CCAA to raw materials sourcing and software designdesign and engineeringengineering component manufacturing, to 2 Lithium:Lithium: A metalmetal usedused inin rechargeablerechargeable batteriesbatteries ChileChile fi nal assembly in China. 3 Cobalt:Cobalt: ElementElement used in batteriesbatteries CongoCongo 4 Barometer:Barometer: DeterminesDetermines altitudealtitude aboveabove sea levellevel GermanyGermany Bosch / GermanGermanyy 5 A10: Central microprocessormicroprocessor or “brain”“brain” TaiwanTaiwan TSMC / TaiwaTaiwann 6 RF antenna:antenna: ProvidesProvides connectionconnection withwith cell towerstowers TaiwanTaiwan Qualcomm / San DieDiego,go, CACA 7 Wi-Fi processor: Sends and receives WiFi signalssignals JapanJapan Murata / JapaJapann 8 LCD DisplayDisplay Module: Main phonephone displaydisplay JapanJapan JaJapanpan DisDisplayplay / JaJapanpan 9 NAND Storage:Storage: Long-termLong-term memory for apps, photos, etc.etc. SouthSouth KKoreaorea SK HHynixynix / South KoreKoreaa 1010 Audio processor: Processes sound goinggoing in and out of phonephone TaiwanTaiwan Cirrus LoLogicgic / Austin, TTXX 1111 Camera:Camera: CellCell phone photographyphotography JapanJapan Sony / JaJapanpan 1212 Battery: Keeps your cell phone powered upup ChinaChina DesaDesayy BatterBatteryy / ChinChinaa 1313 GPS:GPS: Tracks location of phonephone TaiwanTaiwan Broadcom / IrvineIrvine,, CCAA 1414 Final Assembly: Where all the pieces come totogethergether ChinaChina Foxconn / TaiwaTaiwann COMPILED BY THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM COMPILED BY THE COMPUTER HISTORY

44 CORE 2018 The new phones rolled off the line in 2017. On the back were the familiar eight words with a new twist: “Designed by Apple in California. Assembled in India.”

Apple Chief Operating Offi cer Jeff Williams said, “This like Huawei, Oppo, Vivo, and Xiaomi have struggled partnership started 10 years ago with the very fi rst to gain traction in the us, they all overshadow Apple iPhone, and today every customer that buys an iPhone and Samsung in terms of units sold in China. Local or iPad anywhere in the world touches glass that was fi rms are competing fi ercely not just on price but also on developed in America.” features, functionality, and fashion. In September 2017, the day before Apple unveiled iPhone x, with prices Designed by Apple in California. starting at $999, China’s scrappy Xiaomi introduced Assembled in India? its “iPhone killer” Mi Mix 2, priced at $500. The battle Changes in digital technologies and the global busi- for smartphone users’ hands, eyes, and pocketbooks is ness environment are pointing to new challenges and stronger than ever. opportunities to come. In 2015, Foxconn announced As sales have lagged in China, Apple has turned its intention to transform Zhengzhou’s iPhone produc- its eye increasingly to India, a rapidly growing huge tion and other factories through software and robots. market. Apple has begun assembling its low-priced Capable of performing more than 20 tasks,“Foxbots” iPhone se in southern India’s technology hub of Benga- are already replacing staff in so-called “3-d” jobs—tasks luru. This time, its manufacturing partner is Wistron, a that are deemed dirty, dangerous, and dull. Foxconn’s Taiwanese fi rm and Foxconn competitor. iPhone is open- Zhengzhou factory is on track to become fully automat- ing the next chapter with a fresh combination of manu- ed in a few years. While automation may provide initial facturers and consumers. The new phones rolled off the relief for workers from extreme employment conditions, line in 2017. On the back were the familiar eight words robots will soon put hundreds of thousands of people with a new twist: “Designed by Apple in California. out of work. These changes will redefi ne what iPhone’s Assembled in India.” “Assembled in China” means. In the near term, iPhone is the key to Apple’s future When Jobs announced the iPhone as a device that and China remains key to iPhone’s future for both man- “changes everything,” no one could have predicted the ufacturing and market. The relationship is fraught with scope and contours of its far-reaching impact and un- high-potential rewards and risks and what lies ahead is folding story. If the journey of iPhone in its fi rst 10 years uncertain. China remains the single largest market for is any indicator, the next decade for Apple will be full smartphone fi rms on the planet. For years China’s grow- of extraordinary opportunities mixed with competing ing middle class has been an engine for Apple’s spectacu- pressures and unexpected consequences on the global lar growth. More recently, Apple revenues saw succes- political economic stage. sive quarters of declines in China. While Chinese brands

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 45 BY JOHN MARKOFF HISTORIAN A DOWNWARD GAZ E

46 CORE 2018 Walking through San Francisco’s fi nancial caverns in recent years, I have marveled at the growing fraction of people who wander the streets of my city with their eyes focused downward at the omnipresent and powerful computer in the of their hand. My fi rst reaction is always, “This cannot be the fi nal stage in computer interface!” In the space of just four short decades we have moved from a computing era in which a relatively small number of mainframe computers were kept, walled off from humans behind glass walls, to an increasingly intimate relationship between humans and machines. By the end of this year, more than half the adult Today many of us wander in public with population of the world will have some kind of our attention focused smartphone and the line between what is human and on the smartphone in what is computer will increasingly begin to blur. the palm of our hand. The impending arrival of the next stage of comput- ing raises two pressing questions—how have these machines already changed what it means to be human and how will they transform humanity in the coming

STAN DAMAN/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM STAN decades? It is not an idle question and it is one that keeps at least some of the inventors of smartphone technology up at night. In a conversation that I had earlier this year at chm with Tony Fadell, the former Apple Inc. executive who led the hardware design of the fi rst iPhone, he acknowledged that it is something that he thinks about a lot.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 47 “I wake up in cold sweats because I think about that,” I think about her critique a lot when I consider the he told me. “I think about the impact of the creations possibility that this new generation of computing tech- that I’ve been involved with and how it has impacted nology has stolen sleep from today’s teenagers, possibly society so dramatically over the last 10 years.” leading to a chain of behaviors whose path is from stress He sees both positive and negative consequences for to depression to suicide. a technology that he was closely involved in and which I hasten to note that this is not a proven consequence is now ubiquitous. “Is it going to be Alexander Graham of the smartphone. At another recent chm event on Bell bringing light to society or did we bring nuclear the societal impact of the iPhone, my panelists were weapons?” more sanguine, arguing that the power of the iPhone as It is something that concerns me as well. I came of age a communications tool and its ability to foster virtual with an earlier generation of computing. Personal com- communities outweighed its tendency to isolate us from puters were described most eloquently by Steve Jobs as each other. “bicycles for the mind.” I have always loved that descrip- For example, Judy Wajcman, a London School of Eco- tion. It is evocative of the original ideal as set forth by nomics sociologist, argued that family and peer pressure , the inventor of the computer mouse to achieve has outweighed any particular technological and hypertext. He believed passionately that comput- factor in producing the dysfunction seen in this genera- ing could be used to augment the human intellect. He tion of American teenagers. saw computing as a ray of hope and a path to solving However, this debate is clearly just the tip of the humanity’s challenges. iceberg when it comes to identifying the economic and social changes that the iPhone has brought to society. It Now, however, when I cross the train tracks in Palo Alto, has, for example, made possible a rapid transformation the city where I grew up, I see the 24-hour crossing of the workforce as so-called “talent platforms,” har- guards who are there to prevent teenage suicides and nessing today’s workers into the gig economy. Jobs are wonder whether the iPhone isn’t also changing our no longer something that you pursue for an entire career, world in darker more fundamental ways. but rather increasingly granular activities that may last That is the argument of Jean Twenge, a psychologist for months, weeks, days, or even hours. who believes that the iPhone has had a debilitating Then there is the question of what the iPhone effect on a young generation she dubs “iGen.” In her has done to the delivery and consumption of news— book iGen: Why Today’s Super-Connected Kids Are increasingly the fundamental link that connects citizens Growing Up Less Rebellious, More Tolerant, Less to their democracy. Happy—and Completely Unprepared for Adulthood— It is richly ironic that as a youngster in Palo Alto I and What That Means for the Rest of Us, she cites a delivered papers to the future homes of both Steve raft of statistics that the mobile post-pc era of computing Jobs and Larry Page, arguably the two people who did has effectively “destroyed” an entire generation. It more to change the way news is delivered than anyone has made them more depressed, more suicidal, less indi- else on the planet. vidual, and less attentive.

48 CORE 2018 PCs were an example of a technology that augmented human intelligence. Today, smartphones may bind us more closely together, while leaving us relatively mindless. © APPLE/PROQUEST

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 49 Tony Fadell, one of the iPhone’s in- ventors, wonders whether he has set loose a privacy nightmare—not unlike the cyberspace of Vernor Vinge’s True Names.

50 CORE 2018 By the end of this year, more than half the adult population of the world will have some kind of smart- phone and the line between what is human and what is computer will increasingly begin to blur.

I am less concerned about the economic collapse of nology. Indeed, the Berkeley Free Speech Movement was newspapers—a consequence of the power of the internet in part responding to a centralized and computerized to digitize the creation and communication of informa- bureaucracy and personal computing was a decentral- tion—than I am in the power of an intimate computing izing force. technology, like the iPhone, to become the principle Today, is the pendulum swinging backward? For sev- vehicle for the delivery of “fake news.” eral years it has occurred to me that the biggest concern There is growing evidence that a disinformation we face in the ubiquity of the computing technology campaign carried out by the Russian government was the iPhone represents is the Borg of Star Trek. “Resis- instrumental in tipping the scales in the 2016 American tance is futile, you will be assimilated” is good science presidential election. Russian designed software bots fi ction, but it is also the technological trend that people disseminated billions of impressions of political opinion like Tony Fadell are worrying about as the smartphone that Facebook, Twitter, and Google smartphone users weaves our society more closely together. believed were created by other us citizens. Ironically, it is also not a new concern. In fact they weren’t. Rather they were the product of At the dawn of the computing era in the early Russian troll factories bent on secretly reshaping Ameri- 1950s, Norbert Wiener, the pioneering cyberneticist and can politics and sowing the seeds of political discord. author of The Human Uses of Human Beings, issued We should have seen this coming. In the 1980s, com- a similar warning: “When human atoms are knit into puter scientist and science fi ction writer Vernor Vinge an organization in which they are used, not in their explored the question of what would happen in a world full right as responsible human beings, but as cogs and with relatively infi nite computing power and infi nite levers and rods, it matters little that their raw material bandwidth. The result was True Names, a novel about is fl esh and blood.” the power of anonymity to transform society. Can we avoid this fate? The rise of powerful artifi cial intelligence technologies I think there is still cause for hope. A number of years that can seamlessly create, tailor, and deliver infor- ago, I realized that at the dawn of the era of interac- mation to individuals raises questions about human tive computing in the early 1960s, two laboratories set individuality in the face of a global network that is out independently to invent the future of computing. weaving us all together into a new kind of society if not John McCarthy intended to build a working artifi cial community. intelligence system at the Stanford Artifi cial Intelligence It is increasingly likely that iPhone has insured that we Laboratory on one side of the Stanford University cam- are surrounded by a continuously expanding cloud of al- pus, and, on the other side of campus, Doug Engelbart gorithms that offer us an infi nite variety of advice, from planned to amplify the intelligence of individual humans where we should go for Korean bbq to who we should at what was then the Stanford Research Institute. marry, with little transparency. That is very much still our choice—whether we design The danger, of course, is that this new web will create humans into or out of the future. And whichever way a form of soft control. Historically, successive com- the next generation of computer designers lead us, it will puter generations have marked a pendulum-like swing be played out in the palm of our hands, on the iPhone. between the centralization and decentralization of tech-

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 51 SOMERSAULTS

52 CORE 2018 AND

MOON LANDINGS

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 53 BY DAVID C. BROCK DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY we couldn’t interrupt their displays. So what I wanted to do was to interrupt the astronauts to tell them there’s an emer- gency so they’d stop doing what they’re doing, OK? So big meeting. And fi rst the hardware guys said, “Can’t be done.” Remember, I’m still relatively new to this, especially to the hardware. And I said, Software pioneer Margaret Hamilton was elected a Fellow of the Museum in 2017 “Well—” and, also, they all looked at me as for “her leadership and work on software a beginner, and I’m not a hardware person, for dod and nasa’s Apollo space missions so what do I know, right? (laughs) and for fundamental contributions to So, anyway [ ... ] they said, “It can’t be S software engineering.” In particular, she done,” and I said, “Why not?” They said, played a leadership role in the software “Well, fi rst of all, the hardware is not on for the Apollo Guidance Computer, which throughout all the mission,” right? And I literally took man to the Moon with said, “So, leave it on. Why can’t it be left Apollo 11. on,” right? And then another hardware Excerpted from a recent oral history guy said, “I don’t know. We’ve never left it with the Center for Software History, on that long. It might not work that long,” Hamilton refl ects on the all-too-exciting right? So I said, “Well, that’s too bad. moment of that mission—the moment of Maybe we could put it on at times (laughs) landing on the Moon—when the results when there’s most likely to be an emergen- of her persistence and technical creativity cy.” They said, “Let us think about this,” took center stage. In a second selection right? So they came back, maybe a couple from the interview, she illustrates the kind of days, and they said, “We’ve decided to of dogged, open-minded problem-solving leave the hardware on.” that she found so important in software- A prototype input/output Brock: (laughs) module for the Apollo making to her own creative solution to Hamilton: I was so happy that—I mean Guidance Computer in the a problem with the physical education Museum’s collection. requirements of her undergraduate institu- here these guys are; they’re all experts. tion, Earlham College. They all have their egos like everybody does, and the fact that they listened to me and they said, “Hmm, we really could—” On the Apollo 11 Experience because it was a challenge for them, right, Hamilton: . . . I think it was around 1966, and they came back and said, “We’ll do it.” and I don’t know what made me think Well, then the systems guys came along, of this, but I started worrying about the “Can’t do it.” I said, “Why not?” And they astronauts and what-ifs, you know. And said, “Because we’ve read all these things somehow it worried me, “What if there’s about parallel processing and what you’re an emergency and they didn’t know it?” trying to do has a real problem because it’s Because they’re just merrily going away, no longer async[hronous] now. It’s parallel, reading the data and putting it in, but [ ... ] that’s a whole parallelism thing going what if there’s something really major on.” So I was really upset. I got through going on and that’s it? So I had a meeting the hardware part. Now, that night I with software and hardware people. By went home and I had to solve it because it software people, at the time, probably, I’m mattered to me ... So I came back with a meaning systems people, system designers and everything, and the hardware people. And I wanted to put something in. Now remember, we have an asynchro- nous environment, right, with all the software. However, we were not asynchro- nously communicating with the astronauts, OK? We could send something. They’d see the displays, they’d put something in, but PREVIOUS SPREAD: COURTESY MIT MUSEUM / THIS PAGE: COLLECTION OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM, X37.81A OF THE COMPUTER HISTORY COLLECTION MIT MUSEUM / THIS PAGE: PREVIOUS SPREAD: COURTESY

54 CORE 2018 of lower priority stuff and just—so that’s why it happened more than once. Now Houston knew, they’d seen the 1201 and 1202 before, and the astronaut knew that he had put the switch in a position that had solution the next day. (laughs) And, again, caused extra stuff affecting the computer, these guys were gurus. I mean all these and he realized, “Oh, yeah,” and he put it guys were gurus. They’d been around in back in the right place and they landed. this area for a while. And they thought about it and they said, “I think it can be On Problem-Solving in Software & Life Just because people say it’s never gonna done.” And it was something they said had work, you know, that doesn’t mean you Brock: The next question is about any life never been done in parallel processing, but have to give up. And there have been lessons or advice that you’d like to impart I came up with this rudimentary thing . . . many times when people say things like to young people, and maybe young people the problem was he’s [the astronaut] got that and you ignored them and it was a considering a career in doing something his normal display and now you put up a good thing. priority display. Which one is he answering, technical. you see? And so I came up with the idea of Hamilton: Yeah, you know, I have always counting to fi ve before he answers. found when I’ve hired people, the combi- For more on Margaret Hamilton, watch So Houston—the hardware guys got nation of the experts and the young kids http://bit.ly/margaret2017chmfellow, and read computerhistory.org/atchm/2017-chm-fellow- behind it. They put the stuff into the hard- works best because sometimes the experts margaret-hamilton/. ware, and then the Houston guys put it can get stuck in a traditional way and the into their manuals, whatever you call them, young kids might come out and say, “Why The Oral History Program is made possible checklists for the astronauts. They prac- this,” right? And I think I’ve learned along by contributions from Museum donors and ticed. It was called the fi ve-second display, the way from the young kids. But keep- members. For more information on the Oral so it got in all the missions starting from ing in mind there’s old people that are still History Program, please visit computerhistory. the landing on the Moon, so it’s in there for young kids at heart, OK? They have an org/collections/oralhistories/. both the lem and the Command Module open mind. in case there’s an emergency, whatever it But I guess, don’t be afraid to question might be. You warn them [the astronauts], things and don’t be afraid to ask so-called you tell them what it is with this display, “stupid” questions. I mean I remember— and they’re given a choice. You either go this is a little off from your question ... here or there, that kind of thing. at Earlham, believe it or not, in order to So, anyway, now we go to Apollo graduate you had to do a somersault in (laughs) 11 and it’s time to land, OK? And phys. ed. and I could not do a somersault, ... they’re going through all the things you and I thought, “I’m not gonna graduate.” go through for landing, and all of the I haven’t passed this, right? And so for sudden guess what comes up: 1201 and years I’d not been able to. I was just afraid 1202 priority displays telling them there’s of this thing. an emergency. This is just before they land. And all of the sudden—and I was taking And here were the things that I had wanted ballet, swimming, and all that—and it hit to do was to warn the astronaut when me: I can do a somersault. I’ll do it in the there’s an emergency; and 1201 and 1202 water. (laughs) So I passed that physical means that there were too many things go- ed. exam. Well, it’s learning to think of ing on in the computer. solving a problem. If you can’t solve it, One was to do with the tasks, too many put it in a different place, you know, and tasks trying to get scheduled, and the other don’t be afraid to disagree with the experts. was too many jobs based on priority get- You know, in our company, I’d always say ting scheduled. So it went to a restart and “Never say never, yeah, and never give up.” the restart programs were set up to go back to checkpoints, not start the program over again, but go to the last safe place so that it could just pick up and carry on, getting rid

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 55 FEATURED ARTIFACTS

COLLECTION BY DAG SPICER SENIOR CURATOR

CRAY INC., CX-1 PERSONAL SUPERCOMPUTER

CHM #: 102741154, X7838.2016 Date: 2008 Donor: Gift of Cray Inc.

Supercomputers have been the lifeblood of high-technology development and ad- vanced scientifi c research since their fi rst appearance in the 1960s. As they are expensive to purchase and operate, these ultra-fast machines are often shared with many users to make them more cost effec- tive. To bring supercomputing performance to the desktop and to partially eliminate the need to share supercomputer resources with other users, Cray developed the cx-1 “personal supercomputer,” a desk-side platform for advanced high-performance computing. The system runs a version of Windows or Linux, and its hardware can be optimized by the user for a wide range of applications.

56 CORE 2018 RICHARD WILLIAMS, ADAM OSBORNE DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION, ART1 PROGRAM OUTPUT, US COLLECTION, US DECTALK

CHM #: 102776170, X8054.2017 CHM #: X7926.2017 CHM #: 102757099, X8003.2017 Date: 2016 Date: 1975−2009 Date: 1984 Donor: Gift of Mike Albaugh Donor: Gift of Cynthia Geddes Donor: Gift of Bob Blankenship

Making computer art can be highly techni- Adam Osborne was a pioneer in the history Speech synthesis has been an area of cal and early attempts were often created of personal computing. The founder of active research since scientists began by computer researchers and programmers Osborne & Associates, he began selling working on the problem in the 1960s at since few working artists had the required computer-themed books in the 1970s, as Bell Labs. In the 1980s and 1990s, Digital computer skills. In 1970 University of well as attending early Homebrew Com- Equipment Corporation became a leader New Mexico computer scientist Richard puter Club meetings, a legendary group of in the fi eld with its dectalk system. Based Williams created a program to allow art- computer pioneers and hobbyists, many largely on the work of mit scientist Dennis ists who were computer novices to more of whom went on to shape Silicon Valley Klatt, dectalk could read printed text in easily create art. His art1 program ran on for decades to come. He founded Osborne a number of different voices. dectalk was ibm computers and was used by several Computer Corporation in 1980, releasing used in many applications, including sta- well-known artists, most notably Frederick the Osborne 1 a year tion identifi cation for the National Weather Hammersley. chm member and docent later. The computer’s success, based in part Service, reading patient medical informa- Mike Albaugh was recently given a copy on its inclusion of thousands of dollars of tion in emergency rooms, and perhaps of the art1 program and ran it on an software as part of its basic price, led to most famously, providing a voice for famed operational ibm 1130 (1965), from which rapid growth for the company and fame theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking. this output comes. for Osborne. The company failed only four years later due to management issues and Osborne passed away in 2009. His family has donated a large selection of materials to the Museum, including a rare metal- cased Osborne 1 prototype, many of the books published by Osborne & Associ- ates, internal business documentation, and hundreds of photos of Osborne, both the company and the man himself.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 57 DONOR PROFILE FRANKLIN “PITCH” & CATHERINE H. JOHNSON PROVIDE SUPPORT FOR TWO MAJOR INITIATIVES AT THE MUSEUM

BY PAMELA GESME MILLER ASSOCIATE VICE PRESIDENT OF DEVELOPMENT

When venture capitalist Franklin Pitcher “Pitch” “We’ve had college kids here before—get to know Johnson Jr., founding partner of Asset Management the men on the fl oor to learn how to make steel.” Company, Palo Alto, California, was approached in Looking back, Pitch can attribute much of his 2015 about providing major support to help com- venture capital success following the principles plete the Museum’s new Make Software: Change the of this advice. World! exhibition (opened in January 2017) and for In 1962, with a combination of savings and family the new entrepreneurial and innovation center (now loans, he and a friend, Bill Draper, a former Inland named the Exponential Center and launched in June salesman, cofounded the Draper and Johnson 2016), he did not hesitate because he loves technol- Investment Company, an early venture capital fi rm, ogy, history, and the Museum! in Palo Alto. Together they literally knocked on the “I believe the Computer History Museum gives doors of newly formed companies to learn about us the best opportunity available to understand the promising new inventions in which they could invest past of a society with computers and gives the next and guide. They “did not think of themselves as generation of citizens an increased ability to shape it, pioneers, but it did seem like a good business.” as technology and its uses evolve,” says Pitch. Draper and Johnson invested in entrepreneurial op- Pitch is a self-described “Midwest boy” who portunities and advised the companies in their early takes pride in the values of speaking his mind, be- phases. After three years, they sold their portfolio to ing honest, and helping others. A native of Quincy, Sutter Hill Ventures, and in 1967 Pitch launched his Illinois, he grew up focused on track and fi eld. His own fi rm, Asset Management Company (amc). father, an Olympic hurdler, was the track and fi eld For over 45 years, amc has invested in more than coach (1928−1940) and director of the Drake Relays 200 tech startups, including Amgen, Biogen, and (1933−1940) at Drake University in Des Moines, Tandem. In 2012, amc became a family offi ce focus- Iowa, and later went on to become the track coach ing on managing the Johnson family investments (1941−1943) at Stanford University. and supporting a variety of nonprofi t organizations. Because of an excellent physics teacher at Palo Pitch and Cathie raised four children in the Palo Alto High School, Pitch became interested in tech- Alto home where they have lived since 1967. He has nology and attended Stanford, where he took cours- been an active jet pilot, a close follower of track and es in mathematics, physics, and chemistry before fi eld, has attended 13 Olympic Games, and served graduating with a degree in mechanical engineering. as chair of the San Francisco Opera Association. He earned an mba from Harvard University in 1952 Pitch also developed and taught a course on venture and then served as an aircraft maintenance offi cer capital at the Stanford Graduate School of Business in the us Air Force for two years, during which he for 12 years—it was the fi rst venture capital course married Catherine Holman. From 1954 to 1962, he taught in a graduate school of business. was an open-hearth trainee and supervisor at the In- land Steel Company’s Indiana Harbor Works. Pitch was advised by his superintendent on his fi rst day,

58 CORE 2018 LIFETIME GIVING SOCIETY SUPPORT

Lifetime Giving Society TERA / $1M–$4.99M MEGA / $100K–$499K Fairchild Semiconductor Pierre and Pam Omidyar Computing is the story of Corporation Broadcom Foundation 1185 Design Oracle people, the technology we First Tech Federal create and how it has forever William V. Campbell, Jr. Accenture Technology QUALCOMM Credit Union changed our world. It is a Ventures Cisco Systems Rambus Inc story that belongs to all of ACM - Association of Tom and Carolyn Friel us. The Computer History Google Jon Rubinstein and Karen Computing Machinery Fry’s Electronics Inc Museum’s Lifetime Giving Homer Family Foundation Richardson Society is a leading class of Adobe Nan and Chuck Geschke Dave Rossetti and Jan Avent donors whose cumulative J. Burgess and Libby Applied Materials Foundation Diane Greene and Mendel gifts total $100,000 or more. Jamieson Meredith and Ray Rothrock Rosenblum These visionary donors Paul Baran Franklin “Pitch” and Harry and Carol Saal form the foundation of our Catherine H. Johnson Forest Baskett Margo and Bill Harding institution and pave the way Scott and Jennifer Sandell Harvey Family for a future as inspiring as Mark and Debra Leslie Robin Beresford and Robert Garner Western Digital Foundation the story of computing. Florence Miner Dotty and Terry Hayes (As of June 30, 2017) Steve Blank and Alison Eric and Wendy Schmidt Gloria Miner John L. Hennessy Elliott EXA / $10M+ Seagate Technology Inc The David and Lucile Hitz Foundation David Bohnett Foundation Severns Family Foundation Donna Dubinsky and Packard Foundation Urs Hölzle and Geeske Joel Leonard Shustek William K. Bowes, Jr. Sigma Partners Max and Jodie Palevsky Mark Horowitz Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Grant and Dorrit Saviers Silicon Valley Bank Foundation Peggy Burke and Dennis IEEE Foundation Stephen S. and Paula K. John and Sheree Shoch Boyle Institute of Museum and Elaine and Eric Hahn Smith Charles Simonyi William Carrico Library Services Gardner Hendrie and Barbara and Larry Sonsini Joan and Irwin Jacobs Karen Johansen GIGA / $500K–$999K Jack and Casey Carsten Laurence Spitters Derry and Charlene PETA / $5M–$9.99M Enrica D’Ettorre and Gene and Patricia Carter Foundation Pierluigi Zappacosta Kabcenell Bell Family Foundation SRI International Lawrence and Janice Finch Steven and Michele Kirsch John and Ann Doerr Cisco Systems Foundation Sun Microsystems Inc Hewlett-Packard Company KLA-Tencor Foundation Jeff Hawkins and Citrix Systems, Inc. Vadasz Family Foundation Janet Strauss IBM Corporation Bill and Gay Krause James H. Clark Andreas von Bechtolsheim House Family Foundation Gordon and Betty Moore Sheldon Laube and Nancy Cornish & Carey Commercial Laube, M.D. Warmenhoven Family Intel Corporation Gordon and Betty Moore Council on Library and Foundation Foundation John Mashey and Intuit Inc. Information Resources Angela Hey Thomas W. Weisel Bernard L. Peuto and Andrea Cunningham and Anne Bertaud-Peuto Burt and Deedee McMurtry L. Curtis Widdoes, Jr. Rand Siegfried Howie and Suzie Rodenstein Microsoft Corporation Susan Wojcicki and David N. Cutler Dennis Troper SAP Gary and Eileen Yogen and Peggy Dalal Morgenthaler Raymie Stata Vinod and Sadhana Dham Ike and Ronee Nassi Edward and Pamela Taft Bruce and Elizabeth National Semiconductor Dunlevie Corporation Ericsson Inc. Paul and Antje Newhagen Carol and Chris Espinosa Jim and Stephanie Nisbet Judy L. Estrin NVIDIA Corporation

Lifetime Giving Society list refl ects donations as of June 30, 2017

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 59 DONORS

Annual Fund Donors CORE CIRCLE CORE CLUB Ralph and Leah Bernstein Greg* and Laurie Just as magnetic-core $16,384–$65,536+ $1,024–$16,383 Papadopoulos William Carrico memory was the heart of $65,536+ $8,192–$16,383 William and Joan Pratt early computers, the Com- George Cogan and puter History Museum’s Core Diane Greene and Mendel Craig and Barbara Barrett Fannie Allen Rich* and Susan Redelfs donors are the heart of our Rosenblum C. Gordon Bell*, Bell Family Robert E. Davoli and Eileen Sheila K. Sello, in memory organization. Core donors Gardner Hendrie* and Foundation L. McDonagh Charitable of Dr. Harry Sello provide the largest source Karen Johansen Foundation of support for our Annual Ron and Penny Blake Yoav Shoham Fund, which in turn provides Dave House*, House Family Caroline Donahue* Judy* and Michael Bruner Stephen S.* and Paula K. fl exible resources to support Foundation Martin Duursma* Smith immediate needs including Donna Dubinsky and Jack and Casey Carsten collections, live program- Leonard Shustek* David N. Cutler Michael and Judith Gaulke Ray and Maria Stata ming, and educational Michael Gustafson Grace C.N. Wei programs. This listing recog- Raymie Stata* Paul R. Daugherty* nizes the generosity of Core Phyllis and Bill Draper John Gustafson L. Curtis Widdoes, Jr.* donors who made gifts to the $32,768–$65, 535 Eli and Britt Harari Paul Winalski Annual Fund between July Vinod and Sadhana Dham Bob and Ruth Anne Fraley 1, 2016 and June 30, 2017. Tom* and Carolyn Friel Lore Harp McGovern* Wade and Brenda Woodson Giving levels are inspired by Eric and Wendy Schmidt Marcian and Judith Hoff Laurie Yoler* and Ben LeNail the standard binary sizes of Laurence Spitters Paul R.* and Judith Gray computer memory. Foundation Elaine and Eric Hahn Robert and Ginger Jenkins John and Rosemary Young Margo and Bill Harding* Peter* and Beth Karpas Pierluigi Zappacosta and $16,384–$32,767 Enrica D’Ettorre Dotty* and Terry Hayes Rudi and Jeff Katz David Bohnett Foundation Hitz Foundation Steven and Michele Kirsch Lawrence and Janice Finch $2,048–$4,095 Jon Iwata, IBM Corporation Sofi a and Jan Laskowski Guzik Foundation Gil Amelio Bill and Gay Krause The Long Family Charitable Urs Hölzle and Geeske Joel Chitra Balasubramanian* Foundation Sandra L. Kurtzig and Sunil V. Rajaraman John C. Hollar James and Patricia Jay T. Last Ned and Jimi Barnholt Mayfi eld Fund Markevitch Chris* and Melody Allen Baum and Donya White Gordon and Betty Moore David* and Roben Martin Malachowsky Barry and Sharla Boehm Bernard L. Peuto and Anne John Mashey* and Angela Linda and Mike Markkula Bertaud-Peuto Hey Charles E. Branscomb Burt and Deedee McMurtry Dave Rossetti* and Jan Avent Craig J. Mathias Jarred and Amy Capellman Donald R. Proctor* Jon Rubinstein and Karen Katherine and Robert Gene P. and Patricia Carter Richardson Arthur and Toni Rembe Rock Maxfi eld Stephen L. and Karen A. Casner Grant* and Dorrit Saviers Archana and Shirish Sathaye Philip McKinney* Cohan-Jacobs Family Fund John* and Sheree Shoch Barbara and Larry Sonsini* Debby Meredith* and Tevanian Family Charles and Karen Thacker Curtis Cole Steve and Beth Crocker Carrie and Bob Zeidman Vadasz Family Foundation James and Rebecca Morgan Yogen and Peggy Dalal

$4,096–$8,191 Stan and Joan Myers Aart de Geus and Esther John Al and Katie Alcorn Ike* and Ronee Nassi Anand and Sonali Deshpande Karen Appleton Page* Jeanne Astrin-Ichnowski Irwin and Concepcion Evelyn Berezin Federman Brian Berg and Joyce Avery Edward Feigenbaum* and Penny Nii

Annual Fund Donors list refl ects donations fromJuly 1, 2016 through June 30, 2017 *Computer History Museum Board of Trustees

60 CORE 2018 James and Joan Forster $1,024–$2,047 Ellis Fisher John and Marion Lowrance Jerry Snyder Dov Frohman David L. Anderson* Norman Fogelsong Dale Luck Mark and Mary Stevens Robin Beresford and Mary Artibee and Milt Robert Frankston May Family Foundation Charles and Nan Strauch Robert Garner Mallory Bill and Peri Frantz Kirk McKusick and Eric Jim and Bea Strickland David and Jennifer Gillespie Molly and Rick Bahr Allman Nancy W. Frisch Bob Supnik Allison Hale Paul and Debbie Baker Carver A. Mead and Barbara Samuel H. and Carol W. Edward and Pamela Taft Smith Daniel Hannaby Sheila and John Banning Fuller and Colleen The Bill and Dianne Mensch Leonard G. Hill III Debasis and Bertha Baral Bernard Goldstein Barton Foundation Derry and Charlene Bruce and Leona Baumgart David B. and Deanna L. Fritz and Nomi Trapnell Michelle M. Mertz Kabcenell Gustavson John and Maggie Best Jeanie Nieri Treichel Neal and Lynne Miller Robert Kahn and Patrice Rob and Yukari Haitani Lyle Bickley Lorna and Duane Wadsworth Lyons Avram Miller Jan Half Janie Boone John Wakerly and Joanne Ray and Laurel Kaleda Pamela Gesme Miller John and Rebecca Hall Jacobs Charles P. Bourne Mitchell Kapor and Freada Mooring Family Foundation John L. Hennessy Al Whaley Kapor Klein Nathan Brookwood and Bernard Morais Patricia Hendriks Kathryn M. Hill Donald Whittemore Niemasik Kaufman Jane and Malachy Moynihan Family Fund Leo Broukhis Feng Hu Ron Williams Nancy S. Mueller Tom Kopec and Leah Paul D. Carmichael Matthew and Connie Ives Sandy Wu Carneiro Family Fund Gib and Susan Myers Alison Chaiken Jamie Zawinski Lucio L. Lanza George and Emily Jaquette Nachtsheim Family Tu Chen Steve and Catherine Zelencik Foundation Loewenstern Foundation Suzanne M. Johnson Joseph Cherney Jason and Nicole Nemeth Carol and Larry Masinter Herbert and Lee Kanner Chizen Family Foundation Ronald and Jennifer McElwee Family Kenyon Family Fund Marshall G. Cox Nicholson Mendelsohn Family Fund Jerry and Judy Klein John and Norma Crawford Jeremy Norman and Patricia Dean O. Morton Leonard and Stella Kleinrock Gilbert Todd and Cynthia Daniels Donald and Helen Nielson Donald and Jill Knuth Duane Northcutt and Monica William and Sonja Davidow Lam Jim and Stephanie Nisbet Kathy Kolder Jian Deng Inglesea Charitable Trust David and Sandra Perloff Thomas E. Kurtz Lloyd and Eleanor Dickman Lorna and Donn Parker Michael, Laura, and Hudson Bernard LaCroute John and Wynne Dobyns Plitkins Raikes Foundation Richard and Ellen Lary Marlene Dunwoodie Frank and Denise Quattrone Tim and Lisa Robinson Gary and Laura Lauder Foundation AMD Family Fund Patricia Roller David and Jean Laws Bruce Ray and Miriam Ungar Lester D. Earnest Mark Roos and Catherine Catherine Lego Jean Shuler Charles Eaton Rossi-Roos Anonymous Robert and Lee Sproull John R. Ehrman Peter and Valerie Samson Leslie Family Foundation Jan* and Sylvia Uddenfeldt David* and Han Emerson Gene and Vilma Sinclair TL Trust Marc and Lori Verdiell David and Sarah Epstein Alvy Ray Smith and Alison Gopnik Peter and Deborah Wexler Fusun Ertemalp Stephen L. Smith and Guy C. Fedorkow Diana T. Go Robert and Bette Finnigan

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 61 INSTITUTIONAL PARTNERS

Institutional Partners SUSTAINING $100K+ FOUNDING LEVEL $50K+ INVESTING LEVEL $25K+ SUPPORTING $10K+ We are pleased to recognize the generosity of our corpo- rate and foundation partners who made gifts of $10,000 or more between July 1, 2016 and June 30, 2017.

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UPRIGHT MARKETING

Institutional Partners list refl ects donations from July 1, 2016 through June 30, 2017

62 CORE 2018 LEADERSHIP

BOARD

Board of Trustees Gardner Hendrie Larry Sonsini Bill Gates Angela Kingyens Sigma Partners Wilson Sonsini Goodrich Cochair, Bill & Melinda Version One Ventures Leonard J. Shustek & Rosati Gates Foundation Charles House Nisha Maharani Chairman Chairman, Microsoft InnovaScapes Institute Jan Uddenfeldt Google VenCraft Corporation jUTechnology David House Sunil Nagaraj David Anderson John Hennessy Brocade Communications Janet S. Wong Ubiquity Ventures Innovative Capital Ventures Chairman of the Board Systems Enviva Partners Gregory Badros Alphabet Veronica Pinchin Robert Johnson Laurie Yoler Mixpanel Prepared Mind Innovations Walter Isaacson Interana Zoox Chitra Balasubramanian Aspen Institute Irene Shao Peter Karpas Khan Academy CircleCI Trustees Emeriti Floyd Kvamme Karpas Enterprises Partner Emeritus, Kleiner Eric Theis C. Gordon Bell Donna Dubinsky Chris Malachowsky Perkins Caufi eld & Byers Barefoot Networks Microsoft Corporation Numenta NVIDIA Regis McKenna Marie Williams Grady Booch Bernard L. Peuto Dave Martin Regis McKenna Inc. Coderella IBM Research Concord Consulting 280 Capital Partners Gordon Moore Jacquelyn Wong Judy Bruner Eric Hahn John Mashey Cofounder, Intel Google SanDisk (retired) Inventures Group Techviser Jack Busch Nathan Myhrvold, Stephany Yong Lore Harp McGovern Cofounder, Intellectual Facebook Busch International Honorary Council McGovern Institute for Brain Ventures Paul Daugherty Research, MIT Vint Cerf former Chief Technology Accenture Offi cer, Microsoft Phil McKinney Vice President and Caroline Donahue CableLabs Chief Internet Evangelist, Samuel J. Palmisano Intuit (retired) Google Former Chairman and Debby Meredith President & Chief Executive Martin Duursma Icon Ventures Paul E. Ceruzzi Main Sequence Ventures Curator, Aerospace Offi cer, IBM Corporation Dr. Ike Nassi Electronics and Computing David Emerson TidalScale and National Air and Space Greendale Ventures Alphabet UC Santa Cruz Museum of the Smithsonian Charles Simonyi Edward Feigenbaum Karen Appleton Page Institution Chairman, Charles Simonyi Stanford University Apple Morris Chang Fund for Arts and Sciences Tom Friel Greg Papadopoulos Founding Chairman, Steve Wozniak Heidrick & Struggles New Enterprise Associates Taiwan Semiconductor International (retired) Manufacturing Company Cofounder, Apple Donald R. Proctor Paul R. Gray Bk97 Digital Scott Cook University of California, Founder and Chairman of NextGen Berkeley Rich Redelfs the Executive Committee Advisory Board Foundation Capital (retired) Board, Intuit Bill Harding Joel Franusic VantagePoint Capital David Rossetti John Doerr Okta Partners Cisco Systems (retired) Chair, Kleiner Perkins Serge Grossman Caufi eld & Byers Dotty Hayes Grant Saviers Google Intuit (retired) Adaptec (retired) Ching-Yu Hu John F. Shoch Google Alloy Ventures Bert Kaufman Stephen S. Smith Zoox Arma Partners (retired)

Board of Trustees are current as of January 31, 2018

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 63 ABOUT CHM

BACKGROUND

The Computer History Museum is the world’s leading institution exploring the history of com- puting and its ongoing impact on society. The Museum is dedicated to the preservation of computer history and is home to the largest international collection of computing artifacts in the world, encompassing computer hardware, software, documentation, ephemera, photographs, oral histories, and moving images. The Museum brings computer history to life through large- scale exhibits, an acclaimed speaker series, a dynamic website, docent-led tours, and an award-winning education program.

HOURS Wed–Sun 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. (See website for special hours)

CONTACT Computer History Museum 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd. Mountain View, CA 94043 [email protected] 650.810.1010

Like us on Facebook.com/ computerhistory Follow us on Twitter @computerhistory Follow us on YouTube.com/ computerhistory Follow us on Instagram @computerhistory

Opposite Page: Detail of The Progress of the Century, 1876, by Currier & Ives. People once spoke of the telegraph as “the nervous system of the planet.” Radio telegraphs in the 1910s pioneered wireless data. Discover more technologies and products that led to the

iPhone on page 26. © BETTMANN/GETTY IMAGES

64 CORE 2018 COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM C