Civilisation britannique L II TOPIC I : THE INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF BRITAIN In Britain they speak of the constitution as being uncodified or flexible, whereas the American and the French systems are based on a single document. In its widest sense the constitution covers the various institutions that make up its core : the Crown, Parliament, the Government and Administration, and the Judiciary. More details The British constitution does not adhere to the doctrine of the separation of powers as practiced in the US and France. In the USA the constitution is enshrined in a document and the Supreme Court has the power to declare legislation unconstitutional while the President has the power to veto legislation. In this way congress(the legislature) is controlled or checked by the Supreme Court (the judiciary) and the Government (the executive). The three main branches of the constitution in Britain are the Legislature (Parliament, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons), the Executive (Government : Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the Civil Service) and the Judiciary (the law i.e, the courts, House of Lords). In this system, all members of the Executive must also be members of the House of Commons and House of Lords.
I. The Role of Parliament Parliament can be traced back to the great assemblies of the middle ages when powerful magnates gave advice to the King and acknowledged the decisions. Since the end of the 18th century, the prerogative powers of the Crown have been gradually exercised by Ministers, and Parliament has become accountable to the electorate. A. The Monarchy Two of the most important powers of the monarchy relate to the opening and dissolution of Parliament. The former is associated with the Queen ‘s speech which, according to convention is written by the Government of the day. The second operates before the calling of a general election or after a major defeat of
1 the Government in the House of Commons. The Crown also appoints and dismisses Ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. In general the Monarch gives automatic consent for all the bills passed in parliament. But as Head of State, the sovereign has in certain times of crisis played a constitutional role in helping to select Prime Ministers. Prime Ministers meet the Queen on a weekly basis to keep her abreast of political developments, and to ask for her advice, In recent years the popularity of the monarch has plummeted. A poll published in the summer of 1997 revealed that only 48 per cent of the respondents thought that Britain would be worse off if monarchy was abolished… The decline is partly due to the undignified behaviour of younger members of the family, but also far more to substantial problems, such as the cost of the institution. Parliament used to finance the royal family through the annual Civil List (list of sums appropriated annually by parliament to pay the expenses of the sovereign and his or her household) to whom money is paid by the government , while further expenses on behalf of the monarch were made by various ministerial departments. In spite of the immense wealth of theCrown the Queen used not to pay any income tax. But as from 1993, the Queen agreed that the Civil List should be reduced to include only herself, the Duke of Edinburgh and the Queen Mother, and announced that she would be paying income tax. Public sympathy for the royal family was not restored by the death of Princess Diana, princess of Wales in 1997. However, the death of the Queen Mother in 2002, along with the Golden Jubilee (the 50th anniversary of the Queen’s accession to power in 1952) of the same year, led to an upsurge of nostalgia and affection in public opinion. This mood was further reinforced when Elizabeth II turned 80 in 2006, which suggests that the existence of the monarchy is not a contentious issue today. B. The House of Lords Britain not only has a hereditary monarchy but also an Upper House, the membership of which is based largely on the same principle. The present House of Lords consists of the following groups. 1. Hereditary peers of the Realm. Those who have inherited their titles. number 814 2. Hereditary peers of Scotland 3. The Lords spiritual 4. The Lords in appeal 5. Life peers
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The Lords spiritual (6) comprise the Archbishopsof York and Canterbury, the bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The Lords in appeal known as the law lords, perform the judicial work of the House of Lords when it seats as a Court of Appeal. But recently their function has been taken over by a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom that was officially installed on October 1st, 2009. Lastly there are the life peers, about 590, who are usually appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister after a long period of public service. This group often includes ex-Prime Ministers, Cabinet Ministers and civil servants. They are appointed because they have a certain expertise in their respective domains and can help the government.
There is an ongoing debate about how to make that chamber democratic and more representative.
C. The House of Commons The House of Commons is the major legislative and debating body of the country. Representation in the present House of Commons is governed by the Representation of the People Act of 1985. There are now 646 Mps. An MP is elected either in a general election, (within every five years of Parliament) or a by election, the latter taking place usually after the death or the resignation of a sitting member. The influence of the House of Commons comes from its ability to speak to and for the people. An MPs’ day in the House begins in the early afternoon and can go on throughout the night. Half of the time is taken up with debating stages of a bill and raising local constituency issues. The rest is usually associated with various duties including oral questions to ministers, motions to discuss important current issues, scrutinizing of Government expenditure and Private members’ bills. The Speaker of the House, who is an MP protects its rights and is responsible for order and discipline during debates. He is elected by a secret ballot since 2009. He acts as an adjudicator in all procedural matters and has the power to temporarily evict a sitting member if he feels convention has been breached. When a debate is concluded, the Speaker puts the question to the House by rising from his chair and saying , « The question is… » He will then ask for a voice vote either for or against the question and makes a judgement as to who
3 has the majority. If the house agrees with his decison the debate ends. However if a party feels the need for a more formal vote, the Speaker will call for a second vote. The main function of the House is to scrutinize and analyse Government policies and actions through the conventions of questions in formal debates or in committees. The purpose of a question is to « obtain information and press for action » There are many types of questions : The usual one is the ORAL QUESTION although in fact the great majority of such questions are given written answers. But the most obvious and adversarial quesion time is the half hour each Wednesday afternoon when the Prime Minister has to answer MPs’ questions. During this time the Leader of the Opposition (the largest minority party in the House) is given a special opportunity to question the Prime Minister. This convention allows the backbenchers (MPs who do not hold office) to question ministers and to put their constituents’ views across. The committees also have a critical function in the detailed discussion that surrounds a piece of legislation.. Here MPs examine proposals of legislation and recommend revisions and changes.This is done outside the chamber and is part of the cross-examination process. Once a bill passes its second reading in the House of Commons it must be considered by a committee of the house which has responsibility for examining each clause and suggest improvemens and amendments. There are many types of bills • Public bills Bills that affect the entire community and are part of the general law of the country. Such bills are in general introduced by the minister responsible for the policy and would usually have been foreshadowed in the Queen’s speech. • Private bills They are introduced to change the law in respect of a particular locality or company. Unlike a public bill, such bills do not seek to affect the country as a whole.
• Money bills They are normally associated with the Chancellor of the Exchequer in the form of budget proposal :
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• Private member’s bills : Certain Fridays of the Parliamentary session are alloted to these bills. MPs not in government are allowed to bring in their own legislation and are chosen by ballot.
II. THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS Parliament’s main role is to approve legislation.Bills often range from simple administrative proposals to highly controversial political changes, such as the privatization of nationalized industries or the introduction ofLocal Government finance. Ideas for new legislation can come from a variety of sources, for instance party advisers and professional bodies, but most bills originate in the parties’ electoral manifesto, which embodies most of its law making intentions. A. The Passage of a bill A bill goes through many readings in the House of Commons. Then it goes to the House of Lords and after new many readings it is given the Royal Assent.
III. THE PRIME MINISTER AND CABINET GOVERNMENT The cabinet is a committee of the government made up of twenty or so ministers who meet for about five hours per weekto co-ordinate the work of the government. The monarch nominally selects the Prime Minister who is usually the leader of the largest single party and therefore commands a majority in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister then appoints his or her colleagues to the cabinet and other ministerial positions. This constitutes Her Majestys Government and wields power accordingly. These powers are : • The final determination of policy to be submitted to Parliament • The supreme control of the Executive in accordance with policy prescribed by Parliament • The continuous co-ordination and delimitation of the authorities of the numerous departments of state Thus when one talks about the British Government one always refers to the Prime Minister and senior members of the Cabinet. Such officers include : • The Foreign secretary • The Home Secretary 5
• The Chancellor of the Exchequer • The Secretary of State for Defence • The Secretary of State for Industry and Trade • Health • Employment etc The cabinet functions under the convention of collective responsibility which means that all members must accept the decision reached or resign from office. The Prime Minister thus holds a position of almost supreme governmental power and in consequence has a number of important functions. These can be summarized as follows ; • He or she has the power of appointment and dismissal and is the sole arbiter of Cabinet Office • He or she is the chairperson of the Cabinet and therefore conrols its agenda and ultimately the lines of discussion • He / She is the leader of the majority party and therefore carries immense responsibility both to party and Parliament.
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TOPIC II THE RULE OF LAW I. CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW In virtually all modern legal systems, a distinction is drawn between the civil and criminal law. Usually a separate system of courts and procedures are built around this differentiation. The English system is no exception. The functional difference between the civil and the criminal law is that in the latter, the state is concerned to enforce the law by ensuring that a legally binding code of conduct is observed throughout the country. In the civil law, the state does not have an official role other than to provide a framework for settlement of disputes between individuals. For example, in cases of breach of contract, civil misconduct or torts, and property disagreement. The civil law has been built up gradually over the centuries and it defines the rights and duties of the individuals in their relationships with others. This includes the law of contract, law of tort, property law, family law as well as constitutional and administrative law. Such cases are usually brought by the individual against another (the name of the Plaintiff first, folllowed by the defendant) A. Branches of the civil law Tort : This comes from the medieval word meaning twisted or wrong. It is mainly concerned with wrong or alleged wrong conduct by one idividual against another. For instance, negligence, defamation, nuisance or trespass Contract : This deals with the enforcement of legally binding agreements entered into by both parties. Family law : this includes law relating to marriage, divorce, maintenance and custody of children.. Constitutional and adminstrative law This law attempts to define exactly where the individual stands in terms of personal liberty. Constitutional law is concerned with the existing organs of government. Administrative law deals with local government and public corporations and ususally takes the form of tribunals and inquiries. Property law : This is concerned wiwth the ownership of land. Conveyancing is the term given to the process of legally transferring property. It also deals with landlord and tenant law, for instance, security of tenure, fixture of lease and rent agreement. 7
B. Criminal law is concerned with offences such as • Assault. • Battery. • False Imprisonment. • Kidnapping. • Homicide – crimes such as first and second degree murder, involuntary manslaughter, and vehicular homicide. • Rape, statutory rape, sexual assault, and other offenses of a sexual nature . Civil law and criminal law are included in what is called Common law. Common lawas a centralized systemdeveloped gradually until it became necessary for regional customary law to give way to national law. This national law can be known as the common law. Its name derives from the fact that it is common to the whole country andis based on precedent rather than on legislation. Trials in Britain are based on the jury system by which members of the public are called to listen to and give a verdict on cases.
II. THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM In England and Wales, one of the central principles of the legal system is that a defendant is innocent until proven guilty. In major criminal cases, the decision rests with a 12 person jury. They have to be convinced beyond all reasonable doubt, that the accusedis guilty. Otherwise they must find the defendant innocent. When a defendant finds that they are wrongfully convicted, they can go the Court of Appeal. To succeed in appeal, defendants must usually produce new evidence to support their case or show that a legal irregularity or mistake took place during the original trial. In Scotland, a lawyer called the procurator fiscal is involved in cases from the beginning. In a murder case for example, he will examine the body, question the witnesses and supervise the police. Also in Scotland, the Crown decides in which court and in which form the prosecution will proceed. Most cases are dealt with by a sheriff, the chief judge of a county. Serious cases such as murder are dealt with in the High Court which can sit in any of the 55 sheriff courts. Finally there are 15 people on Scottish juries compared to 12 in England. 8
They decide by a simple majority vote whether the accused is guilty, not guilty or whether the case is not proven. In Northern Ireland, trial by Jury for terrorist cases was removed in 1973 on the grounds that juries could not be relied on to give proper verdicts because of the fear of reprisals. But that judicial measure was reinstated after the Good Friday peace agreement.1
III. The Legal Personnel The Lord Chancellor He / he has the executive role of Secretary of state for Justice The Lord Chief Justice He is the Head of the Judiciary The master of the Rolls Head of the Civil court The Attorney General He represents the crown in important criminal and civil cases. He also gives advice to government departments on legal matters. He is usually an MP, appointed by the Prime minister. The solicitor general He is the deputy to the Attorney general The Director of Public Prosecutions He is the head of the Civil service Department and investigates criminal prosecutions. Judges : They are appointed by the crown, are independent and cannot be removed except for bad behaviour Magistrates : Locally appointed. They are characters of good repute. They are also known s justices of the peace. Sollicitors : A sollicitor is a qualified lawyer who gives legal advice to clients and represents them in a magistrates or county court. Most of their work goes
1 Or Belfast Agreementreached on 10 April 1998 between the British and irish governments, on most of the political parties in Northern Ireland on how Northern Ireland should be governed. It also included the estblishment of a government in which Unionists and Nationalists would share power. 9 into preparing cases for Barristers and dealing with mundane laws for example property conveyancing. (Notaire)
Barristers (lawyer) He or she is an advocate who defends clients in courts :
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TOPIC III : ELECTIONS AND THE POLITICAL PARTIES
A. Elections : History and Elections Today Less than 3 percent of the British populationare members of political parties and just over 3 000 hold official political office. However, in general elections prior to 2001, on average 70 percent of the population turned out to vote. In the 2001 election, that dropped to 59 per cent, perhaps revealing a deeper malaise at the heart of the body politic. But in the latest election held on December 2019, the turnout was about 65 percent. The Brexit issue was at stake. At present every British subjeect over the age of 18 years has a vote (although peers of the realm, long-term prisoners, lunatics and those found guilty of electoral corruption are barred from exercising that right.) However the move to universal suffrage has a long history which began0.deep in the 19th century. Before 1832, the exercise of both the franchise and political power was based on land ownership ; however, as the economic sructure changed, so this ancient settlement came under increasing pressure. In 1832, popular pressure reached a climax and the government passed the great reform Bill which increased the electorate by just over 50 per cent. The next great statute appeared in 1867 when the vote was extended to all male householders with one year’s residence in urban areas although the concept of property ownership still underpinned this new edifice. Two further Acts extended democracy by establishing the secret ballot (1872), then by giving the vote to all male householders (1884-1885). In 1918, women were brought into the electorate when the coalition headed by the Liberal Lloyd George granted the vote to all women over the age of 30 whose husbands occupied premises or land to the annual value of £5. All men over the age of 21 were also enfranchised. This act was further modified in 1928 when women were finally given voting parity with men. The following post-war period also saw significant changes. In 1948, plural voting (the system by which those with two resident addresses
11 could vote twice) was ended, while in 1969, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18.
The UK is today divided into 646 units called constituencies ;each having an average of 60, 000 electors (These can vary). Each of the large and towns is subdivided into smaller constituencies ; Birmigham for instance has 11 Mps, while Liverpool has 6. At present there are 529 English, 59 scottish, 40 Welsh and 18 northern Irish constituencies. This system has a catalogue of antecedents. Relatively equal electoral districts are a feature of the late 20th century. During the 19th century, inequitable distribution was widespread but as the century evolved, electoral districts became more evenly balanced. It was not until the middle of the 20th century that more formal attempts were made to establish parity. In 1948, the Boundaries Commission was set up to regularly review constituencies and as a result, many of the glaring anomalies were eradicated.
After the election, the party with the most MPs forms the government, the number of votes cast plays a secondary role. Thus in each constituency the candidate with the highest number of votes is declared the MP for that area and the party with the highest number of MPs throughout the country is deemed to have won the election. This produces some obvious anomalies. In some constituencies candidates are often elected on a minority vote (the combined votes of the losing candidates being larger than the victor’s vote). Sometimes, it may be that the party with the most votes in the country may not be the party with the most MPs. In 1951, for example, the Labour Party outvoted the Conservative Party but lost the election. This system is called the « first-past- the-post » system. The problem with this system is that parties can have a large majority in Parliament and therefore a strong mandate to govern, but be opposed electorally by a majority of the population. The Thatcher governments of the 1980s are an example of this. In order to stand a general election a candidate must now deposit £ 1, 000 with his nomination papers and this money is not returned unless he or she polls more than 12 per cent of the vote. Election expenses must not exceed £ 2,700. The names of all candidates appear on the ballot paper and voting is done in secret. Demands for reform of the electoral system have a long histoty but in more recent years the debate has become more prominent.
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B. Political Parties : History Three political parties have dominated British political life since 1918. The Conservative and Labour Parties have alternated in government since 1945, while the liberal party was the main opposition group to the Conservatives up to the outbreak of the First World War. During the 1980s the liberals and the newly formed Social Democratic Party almost broke the two party stranglehold which had gripped British politics since the end of WWII. The concept of two-party politics is rooted in British political history. The party system has its origin in Parliament and therefore gained in importance as that institution gradually won its independence. Once this had been established (1685), it followed that the parties in Parliament would assume more constitutional importance. By the end of the 17th century the concept of party had turned into an instrument of government and as a result, the dividing line between the parties became blurred often turning into the question of support for the government of the time. The two-party system grew up around the Whig (labour) and Tory (conservative) Parties. These major parties, once established in the mid-19th cenury began to serve two functions. On the one hand they were increasingly seen as a means of mobilizing electoral support, while on the other, they were the means by which popular demands and grievances could be channelled and eventually translated into official policy. These two purposes, although complementary, often involved major clashes of interest and ideology.
C. The Parties Today • The Conservative Party It is the majority party today, with about 365 seats in Parliament. Organizationally the Conservative Party has three inter-linked pars : The party in the constituencies, the professional organization based at Central Office and the Parliamentary Party of MPs. The latter is still the most powerful body. The leader is chosen by a secret ballot of all MPs, and even this is a recent invention brought in in 1964. Up to that time, leaders of the party were chosen by an inner-cabal and were effectively foisted on the party. The rules now require the candidate to gain a majority plus 15 percent of those eligible to vote. If such a figure is not achieved then a second or even a third ballot is necessary. On these ballots a simple majority is required over the losing candidate ; if this does not occur then a final ballot is fought out between the two most popular candidates. 13
The overall structure of the party bears the hallmark of Conservative preference for hierarchical institutions and in many respects, it is a system that reflects the elitist past of the Party. Each gathering at the Annual Conference bears witness to this structure with debates being carefully managed and voting virtually non- existent. Even the manifesto, which forms the Party’s electoral programme, is drawn up by the leadership. The leader has total control over the direction of the Party. Being one of the oldest political parties in existence, the ideological content of British conservatism is elusive. Historically, the Party has always adopted flexible, open approach to doctrine, preferring to adapt or adjust to trends rather than provide ideological commitment.Modern Conservatives trace their roots back to Sir Robert Peel in the 1830s and to Benjamin Disraeli in the 1870s. Both played a major role in defining and conceptualizing conservatism with the latter being particularly important for his allying of the Party with the national interest. Many present-day conservatives see themselves as being part of this flexible continuum and often contrast themselves with their more ideological opponents. Two strands of thought both with long traditions can be discerned within conservative thinking. The Tories always saw a strong state, the establishment of authority and the maintenance of law and order as the basis for society. Secondly the party accepts the notion of free enterprise capitalism, favouring the market as a leading force for the organization of the economy and society. Currently the Conservative Party is a loose amalgam of ideas and perspectives with a range of preferences rather than being based on fierce ideological dependence. • The Labour Party The second largest party with about 203 seats in Parliament. Labour Party was built up from below in protest against a Parliament unresponsive to working class concerns… it took the form of an elaborately structured federal structure, on which the Party, born in 1906, had to be grafted. The Labour Party is in essence a federation of trade unions, constituency parties and socialist societies, all of which are affiliated to the Party. The Labour Party dates its official beginning from the foundation in 1900 of the Labour representation committee, which was established to promote the election to Parliament of working class men committed to a socialist programme of reform. However, among its antecedents, it included the socialist pioneer Robert Owen who attempted to develop a cooperative movement and a socialist 14 alternative in industry in the 1820s and 1830s, and the Chartist movement, which was a mass movement for political, social and economic reform in the period between 1836 and 1850. In 1906, the Labour Representation committee took on the name of the Labour Party after getting 29 MPs officially returned to Parliament. From its inception, the party was sponsored by the Trade Union movement and consequently the unions played, and still play a major role in the affairs to the present-day party.
Ideology The Labour Party has always been perceived as a more ideological unit than the Conservative Party. Most members would regard themselves as socialists in some form or other. However, the philosophical underpinnings of this critique of society are multifarious and individualistic. During the Thatcher years, the Party almost lost its electoral base.Many traditional voters amongst the manual and skilled working classes deserted the Party and these groups now regarded Conservative policies and objectives as being more in line with their own interests and values. The 1983 election was a catastrophe, with support falling to its lowest share ever. The New Labour Party that emerged after Tony Blair’s election as leader represented an attempt to rebuild and broaden electoral support in what is perceived as a changing society with looser political affiliations. New labour therefore began the task of inviting wealthy multi-millionaires to become major donors. The Party developed a new ideology based on fiscal orthodoxy, limited public spending, low inflation, a strong work ethic as well as embracing free market orthodoxies. Equal opportunity and a kind of « New Deal » designed to promote self –reliance through work was preferred to the traditional Labour doctrine of equality of outcome and redistribution of wealth. New Labour has become the watchword for the « third way » politics where meritocratic ideas are embedded in a commitment to social improvement, upward mobility and social inclusion. For some, New Labour represents the betrayal of traditional socialist values, and end to long term commitment to greater social equality through the redistribution of wealth, as well as the nationalization of the commanding heights of the economy. It is also seen as marking the end of traditional party politics where ideologies created « clear blue water » between the competing parties. Instead claim some commentators, we now have two or more parties with broadly the same agendas.
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• The Liberal Democrats Born around 1859 as the Liberals, that party was during the 19th century one of the major political forces. During the postwar period it endured « repeated division and decline. It merged in 1988 with the SDP and both adopted the name of Liberal Democrats (Lib Dems). The Lib Dems want the extension of social welfare and of civil rights. Today that party is seen as the « Cinderella » of modern British Politics. In 1997, the Liberal Democrats obtained their best general result in over forty years with 46 MPs. However, the question is how can Lib Dems create and maintain a distinctive programme while being sandwiched between two much wealthier rivals ? • The Nationalist Parties The nationalist parties in Scotland or Wales retain a small but powerful voice in general electons but are more oriented towards their own parliaments. In Scotland the SNP (Scottish National Party) fights for independence and for the European Union. They currently have 48 Mps after last month’s elections (December 2019). In northern Ireland, party politics remain sectarian. There is a protestant side and a catholic side. On the Protestant side, the Democratic Unionists, have now displaced the more moderate Ulster Unionist. In the same way, the Catholic electorate now favours Sinn Féin, the political arm of the IRA, over the SDLP, a moderate Catholic party. This new polarization bodes ill future for the peace process.
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TOPIC IV : BRITAIN AND THE WIDER WORLD Dean Acheson, a distinguished American statesman once commented : « Britain has lost an empire and has not yet found a role. » This remark was made in 1962. It highlighed the quandary in which Britain found herself after the period of de-colonization but before entry into the European Economic Community (which it has just left). For nearly 300 years Britain’s role as a colonial power has overshadowed her relations with other European states. A large part of her navy and army were developed to maintain her trading and colonizing positions in Asia, Africa and America. From the end of the Dutch wars of the17th century to the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century, Britain’s world power status became increasingly linked with her maritime supremacy and colonial security. In the 20th century, and more particularly since the end of the Second World War, Britain’s economic strength and international power have declined while that of the USA, Germany, the USSR, Japan and China have all increased. During this period of relative decline, most of Britain’s colonies were granted independence. In spite of the delay which constantly angeredboth Asian and African nationalists, the Empire was ceded with very little violence and the post- colonial era was marked by the emergence of constitutional governments based on the British model.
I. FROM THE EMPIRE TO THE COMMONWEALTH The term « empire » was in general use long before the massive colonial expansion of the late 19th century. Usually the termimplies a centralization of rule and domination over dependents. Ever since the reign of Richard II at the end of the 14th century, the term has been applied to the lands and territories ruled over by the British monarch.
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Another term of ancient meaning « commonwealth, has also been passed down through the centuries into more common usage and eventually came to mean partnership or a sharing of rights and duties within those realms. The circumstances in which those two terms came to be applied are inextricably linked to Britain’s position as the pre-eminent sea power. There are two broad periods of expansion :The first from the start of the 16th century to the loss of the American Colonies (Old colonial empire), the second dating from the accession of Queen Victoria up to outbreak of the First World War, usually associated with the « scramble for Africa ».
A. The Old Colonial Empire The British Empire was not a planned process. It was a by-product of early attempts to find and exploit new territories for the purpose of trade. Much of this exploration was carried out by trading companies like the famous East India company. The Empire was thus begun as a private enterprise mission and the early colonial governments were loosely supervised bodies chartered by the English Crown. This private enterprise did not survive as the small colonies in North America, for instance, Virginia, Maryland and New England, could not remain isolated from British and European politics. Virginia, for example became the first royal colony in 1624 after James I revoked their charter. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, centralization proceeded apace. Jamaica became a Royal Colony in 1660, in 1664 all the land between Maryland and Connecticut was annexed by James II. In 1868 ; the king had a hand in creating the « the Dominion of New England » which placed under a single governor Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and the « Jerseys », Massachusetts ; Maine and New Hampshire. Of the few colonies founded in the 18h century, Georgia (1732) was controlled by aboard of trustees until it became a Royal colony and Nova Scotia (taken from the French in 1710) was a military post. By the end of the 17th century an empire had evolved. It was highly centralized and designed to supervise the trade of the colonies.From the middle of the 18th century to 1840, the East India company completed its hegemony over India. Above all, the system was connected to the rise of British maritime power.The system developed, with England as the commercial and manufacturing centre, and the colonies acting as both a market and as supplier of raw materials. But the loss of the American colonies at the end of the 18th century marked a watershed in the history of the first Empire. The American Declaration of 18 independence of July 1776 marked the severance of a connection with Britain. This had a direct and indirect effect on colonial policy and thinking for the next half century. A. The Second Empire The Victorian era saw the heyday of British trade, finance and naval power.By the early decades of the 19th century, the colossal wheels of the industrial revolutionwere beginning to sweep across Britain, giving her a virtual monopoly over world trade. By the last quarter of the century, the changing European balance of power and he slaowing down of Britian’s indusrial development led to the « Scramble for Africa ». During this period there was a spectacular change from informal to formal methods of colonial control. Actually the occupation of Egypt in 1880 marks the start of a frenetic scramble for land that resulted in Britain spreading its power over aquarter of the world’s surface. Throughout the 19th century, two broad views of empire could be delineated. After the granting of dominion status to Canada in 1867 and the subsequent discussion about the removal of garrisons from New Zeland in 1869, many feared that Britain would dismantle her colonial possessions. Two schools of thoughts emerged and could be split into « the voluntarist » and the « federationists ». The first school saw the granting of dominion status to the colonies as the way forward for the Empire. Gladstone, the liberal leader between 1868 and 1874 defined this doctrine as follows : « Govern them upon a principle of freedom---let them not feel any yoke upon their necks- let them understand that the relation between you and themare relations of affection ». The opposing school developed from a mixture of idealistic, strategic, economic and political considerations. Disraeli, Conservative leader and Prime minister between 1874 and 1880 associated Conservative party with the cause of imperial federation or union, an idea taken up by Joseph Chamberlain colonial secretary between 1895 and 1903 as « imperial Confedeation » which sprang from a vision of a united empire helping Britain compete in the more aggressive industrial world. Secondly it was part of some vague notion of Anglo-Saxon superiority based on the apparent quality of their political institutions. Various interpretations have been put forward to explain the scramble for Africa and Britain’s colonial expansion. The earliest was put forward by the English liberal J.A. Hobson, who saw imperialism as being linked to underconsumption at home and the emergence of surplus capital which could not be profitably invested in Britain. Thus the financiers re-invested abroad in the new colonies. These capitalists then financed governments to take political control when their investments where under threat ; Other theorists rather saw imperialism as the
19 result of increased political tensions in Europe.So some main colonial events are : • 1840 annexation of New Zealand • 1858 The Queen proclaims British rule over India • 1867 Establishment of the Dominion of Canada • 1869 the Suez canal isopened and in 1882 Britain ccupies Egypt • 1885Zululand is annexed • 1900 Northern Nigerian protectorate is established. • 1901 Ashanti land is annexed ; Commonwealth of Ausralia is formed • 1910 the Union of South Africais created.
B. The Emergence of a Multi-Racial Commonwealth in the 20th Century In the century up to the outbreak of World War II, two contradictory theories of Empire held the attention : the voluntarists and the federationists. Ironically, it was this latter group which first popularized the concept of commonwealth as allied to the empire. The commonwealth today bears very little relation to those federal, super-state ideas which surrounded the debates at the end of 1918. The first Wolrd War helped to force the pace of change in the Empire, and the 1921 Anglo-Irish treaty saw Ireland join the Commonwealth alongside dominion status territories such as Canada. The 1926 Imperial Conference rejected the idea of a constitution for the Empire and instead, outlined the so- called Balfour declaration which defined four characteristics of dominion status : their equality of status ;their autonomy in internal and external affairs ; their common allegiance to the crown ; their free association in the Commonwealth. The status (of Westminster (1931), which re-affirmed he 1926 declaration, which effectively renounced British Rights over the dominions and confirmed Parliamentary sovereignty for the dominions. In fact, it was the power and influence of the Indian nationalists in their sruggle for independence that began the process by which the colonies gained their independence. In Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and West Africa, at the end of the war, national movements sprung up, influenced by the doctrine of self-determination enunciated by Woodrow Wilson in 1917. In 1947, India and Pakistan were given Independence and in 1948 Ceylon, (Sri Lanka) became an independent Commonwealth state. Burma (Myammar) followed in the same year. In 1957, the Gold Coast (Ghana) became the first independent member of the Commonwealth. Once Ghanaian independence was
20 achieved, Nigeria in 1960, Sierra Leone in 1961 and the Gambia in 1965 followed suit. Kenya and Rodhesia with their large settler elements proved more difficult. In 1960, Harold Macmillan, the British Conservative Prime Minister, made a tour of the African states. At the end he made his famous « wind of change » speech, in which he made strong reference to the growth of African consciousness. As a result independence quickly followed for Tanganyika in 1963. Uganda in 1962 and Kenya in 1963. In 1964, Zambia and Nyasaland were given independence and in the same year the republic of Tanzania was formed (Tanganyika and Zanzibar). In the Mediterranean, Cyprus was made a republic in 1960, followed by Malta in 1964. In the Caribbean Jamaica and Trinidad were given complete independence in 1962. The last three decades of the 20th century saw the final winding down of what was left of the British Empire. The Rodhesian problem was finally solved at the Lancaster House conference (1979) which resulted in the peaceful transfert of power to the black majority and in the renaming of the country as Zimbabwe, the last former African colony to achieve independent status in 1981. On July 1, 1997, the last British colony of some size and significance, Hong Kong was formally handed over to China in a ceremony attended by Prime Minister Tony Blair and the Prince of Wales. The remaining territories are now officially known as « Briish overseas territories », a term that is less demeaning than the former « dependent territories ». From 1947 to the early 21st century, the British Empire therefore underwent a fundamental transformation, becoming in the process the multiracial Commonwealth of which Britain is still a prominent member, but no longer in a position to call the tune. Today’s commonwealth is made up of most of Britain’s former colonies. The British monarch is still its figurehead, but the member countries are so diverse that there is no such thing as a clearly defined Commonwealth foreign policy. Instead the commmonwealth concentrates on promoting health, education and economic development through a number of specialized schemes.
II. BRITAIN AND THE EUROPEAN UNION :A Historical Perspective Britain’s relationships with Europe have always been somewhat problematic, because Britain has always been jealous of her sovereignty. Brirain’s historic links with Europe go back to the Norman conquest. For two centuries after the conquest French was still the language of aristocratic
21 society. By the 4th century however, most of the Crown’s possession in France had been lost. The reformation marked the further separation of Britain from Europe particularly after the establishement of the English Church during and after the reign of Henry VIII. From the middle of the 18th century, Britain began to look increasingly outward beyond Europe and into the Americas and India. During the Napoleonic wars, Britain fought alongside her European counterparts but still retained her military independence. Similarly, during the First and Second World Wars, Britain fought with France and Russia but at the end of the conflagrations, preferred to develop relations with her colonial possessions. Winston Churchill came up with the idea of a European council which was to have at least ten states, its own army and unified law courts (The United States of Europe). But during discussion with France, Italy and Belgium in 1949, Britain refused to join such a federated body. These opinions represent the dilemma at the very heart of Britain’s European policy These reservations were due to Britain’s links with the Commonwealth and the various trade agreements negotiated wiithin that body. Britain’s traditional role in world politics had always been more worldwide than eurocenric. And opposition to greater European integration cut across traditional party lines. During the 1960s, successive governments tried to negotiate entry in Europe but were vetoed in 1963 and 1967 by President De Gaulle who felt that Britain was too closely linked to the USA and her Commonwealth. But Britain finally entered Europe in 1973. But after the Single European Act (1987) and the Maastricht Treaty (1992), the European debate flared up again. Britain was scared of a possible political integration while the purpose of these agreements were ostensibly economic, Margaret Thatcher, in 1988 had made it clear that Britain would resist all attempts to reduce her federal sovereignty and that a federal Europe was unacceptable. And Britain refused to enter the Euro zone in 1999. Overall, Britain, placed at the intersection of three partly overlapping circles : the commonwealth, the English speaking world (the US) in particular and Europe sees herself as « unique », as an added value. That is why they finally left Europe.
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