2010 AICCM BOOK, PAPER AND PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM 15 & 9%03:%. & age. It )3./-930 & 31 & #312%9.5 & Colourant, hardener Plasticiser tackifier Hardener, Solvent/diluent Solvent/diluent Preservative Solvent/diluent, tackifier, hardener, preservative Solvent/diluent, tackifier Solvent/diluent Preservative, flavour, scent Solvent/diluent tackifier Hardener, Solvent/diluent, preservative Solvent/diluent Preservative pH adjustment Hardener Solvent/diluent Solvent/diluent Preservative Probable uses -93831@ & %60$72318 &

31 & "223/34%.5 & ?7./9"$3"1 & hosted by the National Library of Australia. 4 "12 & 10 (1.4%) 73 (10.5%) 65 (9.4%) 61 (8.8%) 46 (6.6%) 42 (6.0%) 42 (6.0%) 42 (6.0%) 27 (3.9%) 17 (2.4%) 17 (2.4%) 14 (2.0%) 14 (2.0%) 13 (1.9%) 12 (1.7%) 12 (1.7%) 10 (1.4%) 621 (89.4%) 109 (15.7%) 100 (14.4%) Number/percentage of recipes in which ingredient occurs 0-,,-1 & ,-./ & *+ S 31/%91"/3-1"$ & & E !)% P & I '( & C E dichromate Lead acetate Glycerine Alum (aluminium potassium sulphate) Acetic acid Nitric acid Clove oil Borax Turpentine Ammonium hydroxide Essential oil (e.g. lavender) Sodium hydroxide Aluminium sulphate Sulphuric acid Calcium hydroxide Mercury dichloride Ammonium carbonate Potassium Ingredient Water Alcohol Carbolic acid !"#$% ';<+='>*+5

R these, Of overall. adhesives for recipes 695 identified research The only 47 recipes were found in Australian sources. These were all found in Australian photographic journals and in the ‘home hints’ section of some newspapers, accessed via the online Australian Newspapers database

and records held 3 . 2 N IO

CT . The research aimed to identify adhesive recipes . The research aimed to identify adhesive recipes DS 1 RA DUCT OR RO YW the implications of these findings for the practicing paper conservator. the implications of these offices. For this research, recipes and commercial products in use in Australia during 1870–1920 were identified. However, the However, in Australia during 1870–1920 were identified. recipes and commercial products in use offices. For this research, adhesives from regarding the likely composition of unknown discovered precludes any firm conclusions limited number of recipes & Co Mucil commercial products, such as Clag or Angus little available information about Australian this period. There is also trade as recipes published in international America quite closely, usage trends mirrored those of England and is likely that Australian to commercial adhesives were shipped Additionally, available in Australia within months of publication. and amateur journals were Gloy the Leadenhall Press, the the Russia Cement Company, businesses, such as those produced by Australia and sold by local to be in use and the formulations and products known and Chas. M Higgins & Co. This paper presents Manufacturing Company ABST studios and preparations or made by hand in homes, for use with paper were either commercial From 1870–1920 adhesives lice Cannon Victoria, on which the author was working and commercial products used on paper from 1870–1920, both and commercial products used on paper from range was chosen to internationally and within Australia. This date at the State Librarycorrespond with particular collections found of of Melbourne work, as they are often disfiguring and damaging to paper- work, as they are often disfiguring and damaging based collections. Conservators may remove old animal glue, documents and starch paste and rubber cement from art works, from old mounts, to ephemera in order to release collection items treatment. flatten cockling or in order to attempt stain reduction on research The information presented in this paper is based at the University conducted by the author for a Masters degree KE starch paper, adhesive, Australia, conservation, glue, history, INT conservator’s Old adhesives are an integral part of a paper Australian adhesives for paper, 1870-1920 for paper, adhesives Australian A and in newspapers. Patents were also consulted, via the online and in newspapers. Patents were also consulted, European and United States patent databases Recipes and product advertisements for adhesives were found Recipes and product advertisements for adhesives in trade literature in various journals and magazines of the era, role of specific additives within recipes of Australian origin will be discussed further in following sections. components required to make an adhesive — binder and solvent — with the addition of extra ingredients to alter various properties. Supplementary ingredients were added to increase to make extend shelf life, repel insects and tack, improve flexibility, most 1 shows the Table the adhesive more resistant to water. common additives (excluding the binders themselves) contained within all of the recipes identified, international and Australian. The soluble silicates and adhesives based on lime (calcium carbonate) Formulations and sugar were used, but much less frequently. containing cellulose, in which it was most likely converted to cellulose nitrate, were used on occasion. Other synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers did not come into use commercially as adhesive materials until after the 1920s. Recipes frequently contained more than the two basic Overall, the research found that both homemade and commercial adhesives from this period were quite varied, though usually based on natural sources. Animal glue, gelatin, fish glue, starch, in dextrin, and gum arabic were the most common binders flour, use. Plant resins (e.g. dammar and mastic), polyolefins (rubber and gutta percha), gum tragacanth, linseed oil and shellac were also used, to a lesser degree. Egg albumen, casein, blood, at the National Archives of Australia. The research was limited to resources in English. Non-cockling paste: Nelson’s No. 1 Gelatine, 4 ozs.; water, 16 No. 1 Gelatine, 4 ozs.; water, Non-cockling paste: Nelson’s ozs.; Glycerine, 1 oz., alcohol, 5 ozs. Dissolve the gelatin in the 1908) then add the glycerine and then the alcohol. (Anon water, When prints are mounted on thin cards, it too often happens that the cards “buckle” all out of shape. The following mountant drachms. The resulting liquid is well adapted for wood, iron or drachms. The resulting liquid is well adapted steel. (Anon 1900) india rubber India rubber solution is made by dissolving good but has a in chloroform or benzine, the latter is the cheapest, Proportions: Eight to ten grains of rubber per pungent odour. ounce of spirit. (Anon1902) …gutta percha tissue, an article in sheet form, on sale at all rubber supply stores and much used by tailors. It melts at a low temperature, so that a moderately heated flat-iron is the only essential to its application. It is most useful as a mounting medium. A piece the size of the print is cut, placed between print and mount, a protecting slip of paper over all, and the flat- iron is applied. The adhesion takes place at once, and with a bit of cloth any surplus may be easily rubbed from the edges of the print. (Callaway 1907) Solutions of gum arabic soon mould and sour, and finally and sour, gum arabic soon mould Solutions of of quinine It is said that sulphate property. lose their adhesive it imparts no bad odour of its own. will prevent this, while of a few crystalsThe addition of a solution of this salt to gum formation of mould quite as effectually arabic will prevent the analogy it is safe to suppose that the as carbolic acid, and by in writing ink, mucilage, and possibly same salt could be used glue (Anon 1872) can be A liquid cement which is useful for many purposes glue carpenter’s prepared as follows:-Place equal weights of and stand it in a saucepan of boiling water and vinegar in a jar, as vinegar, until the glue has melted. Add half as much alcohol it tightly corked and, stir the cement until it is well mixed. Keep in a bottle. (Anon 1917c) This is very and cheap. Boil together for several efficient 5 ounces; nitric acid, 2 hours: Ordinary glue, 2 ounces; water, was also often used for this purpose. Some binders, such as shellac and mastic (both terpenes), required organic solvents for dissolution and were therefore used to create adhesives thought to prevent paper and card from cockling: Rubber-based adhesives were sometimes recommended in adhesives were sometimes recommended Rubber-based and distortion often photographic journals, to avoid the cockling at various adhesives. Some authors, caused by water-based photographic adhesives caused times, also felt that water-based generally recipes prints to discolour and fade. Rubber-based employed an organic solvent: was used in sheet Gutta percha, a polyisoprene similar to rubber, prints: form as a heat-set adhesive for photographic Some recipes used alcohol as a solvent to avoid the cockling binders, though generally the binder associated with water-soluble added Glycerine was most likely had to be solubilised first in water. to the following recipe to make a more flexible adhesive — sugar These recipes also indicate that resistance to decomposition was to decomposition that resistance indicate recipes also These the was achieved through in an adhesive. This also desirable camphor or oil of cloves. use of preservatives as vinegar, such also of quinine were and, on occasion, sulphate Carbolic acid for this purpose: suggested adhesive during these years but Animal glue was a common of requiring heat in order for it to be liquid had the disadvantage often cooked with an acid such as vinegar enough to use. It was an adhesive that remained liquid at room or nitric acid to create temperature.

!"#$%&'(&)*+,-$-.%&/,(0* ran an article on photographic mountants (Standage on photographic mountants ran an article off the stove, and stir in two teaspoonfuls of oil of cloves. This paste will keep for a very long time. I have some which was made nine months ago, and it is still good. (Anon 1918) “Greta” (Melbourne) sends directions for making a good paste for office use. Soften by soaking in a little water 1 1/2 oz hot When gelatine. Put it into a saucepan with one pint of water. add 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of arrowroot, mixed to a thin paste and boil for five minutes, stirring all the time. Take with water, oil of cloves. (Anon 1917b) A good paste for labels, suitable for bottles, may be made by and then heat to boiling soaking good glue in strong vinegar, This is very and will not decompose when adhesive, add flour. kept in wide-mouthed bottles. (Anon 1883) two ounces of clear gum arable [sic], one and one-half ounces gum Pulverise the of fine starch, one half ounce of fine sugar. arabic, and dissolve it in as much water as the laundress would use for the quantity of starch indicated. Dissolve the starch and sugar in the gum solution. Then cook the mixture in a vessel The suspended in boiling water until the starch becomes clear. kept and kept so. It can be cement should be as thick as tar, from spoiling by dropping in a lump of gum camphor or a little A cement which will adhere perfectly to glazed surfaces, repair A cement which will adhere perfectly to glazed taking in fact, stick to anything, is made by broken minerals, or, A quickly-made glue which is very strong is made by rubbing of paper with the a little piece of cold boiled potato on a sheet fingers. (Anon 1914) inclined to be lumpy, but with vigorous beating a good deal of but with vigorous inclined to be lumpy, overcome. The feature of the paste is this drawback can be than other pastes, and leaves no stain. that it is much stronger (Anon 1920) “Zena” (St Kilda) says that a sticking paste which will not leave “Zena” (St Kilda) says that which it may touch is made by pouring marks on any material made is The paste thus dryboiling water directly onto flour. The mixture of protein and polysaccharide was quite common and can be found within recipes for all sorts of purposes. This recipe was designed for ‘office use’:

a strong adhesive. many were designed for the application of paper labels to glass, many were designed for the application of paper to have around metal and ceramic vessels — handy adhesives to be important the house. Strength and good tack appeared the use of multiple properties of such adhesives, achieved through In one of binders or by making them up to a thick consistency. are combined with the following recipes, starch and gum arabic capable of adhesive properties though also added for itself sugar, animal glue and flour are combined to create other, In the flexibility. A very mucilage can be made out of onion juice. A convenient for a short time, will good-sized Spanish onion, after being boiled of veryyield on being pressed quite a large quantity adhesive fluid. as well as the more It is a cheap and good mucilage, and answers costly cements. (Anon 1897) For example, Some recipes specified use for particular purposes. The focus of such recipes was often to produce an adhesive that The focus of such recipes was often to produce vegetables readily was cheap and quick to prepare, using starchy available in the kitchen, such as potato and onion.

1902b) featuring a number of recipes provided by H C Standage, provided by H C Standage, a number of recipes 1902b) featuring and books on adhesives who had published an English author Standage 1893, 1902a). other art materials (see recipes were located in the ‘home hints’ Many of the remaining They were generally simple recipes, made section of newspapers. ingredients. For example: from easily available household The small number of recipes identified of Australian origin Australian identified of of recipes number The small analysis of the ingredients. meaningful statistical precludes any from recipes were reprinted some of these Additionally, the sources. For example, international Journal

2010 AICCM BOOK, PAPER AND PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM 16 2010 AICCM BOOK, PAPER AND PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM 17 products, such as the 1919 auction sale of the Star Glass Bottle (Anon 1919), which offered bottles made to contain Clag Works amongst other products for sale. (Whether the bottles were empty or full at the point of sale is unclear). Local glue factories were in existence, but it is also likely that many overseas products were imported. In Australia, some businesses acted as distributors for international products, such as Harringtons Photographic Supplies and Baker Brisbane, & Rouse. Both businesses had shopfronts in Sydney, Adelaide and Melbourne. Advertisements run by these businesses and shipping records indicate that a number of American and Figure 2: An advertising insert for Stickphast paste. Dimensions: 221 x 141mm. Date unknown. Collection of A. Cannon. Evidence of commercial Australian-made adhesives was hard to find. The National Archives of Australia holds the trademark application for ‘Clag’ (Angus 1898–99) and bottles of mucilage manufactured by Angus & Co (likely the same Angus who went on to produce Clag) have been found in antique shops. However, advertisements for such local tradenames have not been located. Sale notices in newspapers occasionally made reference to local card: stock cards, with generic images and spaces or blank and spaces images with generic stock cards, card: specially be printed, and cards messages could backs on which European trade Some by a particular company. commissioned in large numbers suggesting been found in Australia cards have in origin others are American were available locally; these goods English 2007, pp.13–25). details added (O’Neill with local retailers’ gummed or bound favoured magazine ‘inserts’, advertisers (Hudson 2008). For example, The inside the covers of journals attached inserts for Stickphast Paste Leadenhall Press frequently May 1896, see Figure 2). Collectors inside its publications (e.g. Australian inserts to date (O’Neill 2007, have not found any such pp.25).

ES V ESI H AD

MADE

Y- Commercial products were also EAD R 12)$"%3*4&.&5()26*7&$(-)&'*82-.%&/,(06*&)9* CIAL R or paste will prevent it: A: White shellac, 1 oz.; alcohol (spirits), (spirits), 1 oz.; alcohol shellac, it: A: White will prevent or paste Add a small proportion mastic cut in chloroform. 2 oz. B: Gum it to “set” just long apply to the print, allowing of A to B, and on before placing the print a trifle “sticky” enough to become (Anon 1907) the mount. OMME editorialised ‘how-to’ sections of newspapers and journals. editorialised ‘how-to’ sections of newspapers In America, trade cards were a popular form of advertising from about 1870–1900; they were less common in England and its colonies, although not unknown. These were postcard-sized advertisements featuring products and suppliers, often depicting comical scenes (see Figure 1). except in the most general of terms. Whereas photographic except in the most general of terms. Whereas the of verywere journals art journals to’, ‘how and on’ ‘hands much with the mechanics period did not appear to concern themselves However, of mounting (for example) to any great degree. in journals as advertisements for adhesives have been found wide-ranging as The Ladies’ Home Journal. often mentioned by name in ‘question and answer’ columns and Internationally, advertisements for commercial products and Internationally, trade tradenames were found in photographic journals, produced for specific bookbinding literature and other publications such as markets. Advertisements in more general publications, possibly because the newspapers and magazines, were rarer, adhesives potential market did not warrant the cost. Interestingly, examined, were not commonly referred to in the art journals C developed during Many still-familiar adhesive trade names were Higgins, Perkins, LePage and Australia’s the nineteenth century. own ‘Clag’ were all nineteenth century tradenames, although the changed drastically formulation of these adhesives has no doubt since their original conception. Figure 1: An example of an American tradecard produced for LePage’s glue. Dimensions: 81 x 137mm. Date unknown. Collection of A. Cannon. cards were handed out in shops and at exhibitions, or Trade included with mail-ordered goods. They were frequently collected and pasted into scrapbooks. There were two main types of trade likely, therefore, that adhesives prepared by Australians could have therefore, that adhesives prepared likely, recipe. Overall, these recipes show been based on any published during this era were varied and could that adhesives for paper than just a binder and solvent. contain many more ingredients of their presentation and a frequent source of grief for the amateur. a frequent source of grief for the amateur. of their presentation and undoubtedly had ready Australians As mentioned previously, recipes published overseas. International access to formulas and and books were often available in Australia photographic journals as evidenced by the acquisition within months of their publication, contained in public collections. It is quite date stamps on material Photographic journals were a rich source of adhesive recipes, source of adhesive recipes, journals were a rich Photographic and a a relatively new technology photography was partly because very prints was an integral part popular amateur pastime. Mounting & & ?@ & -D & and 5 and -1 G0H-78"$$ & of both E 6 , peaks & -1 F-$$%0/3-1 & M"12. & " & 71I1-J1@ & D9-, & H"/% indicative of polysaccharides (Derrick et. al. 1999). 1000-1200cm adhesives contained peaks adhesives contained peaks at around 3400cm the FTIR spectra Cannon. program included The testing chemical spot solubility and Fluorescence tests, X-Ray (XRF) and Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR). Though the results were not conclusive, they indicated that both adhesives were Both polysaccharide-based. tested positive for starch using the iodine test & :"./%N & G703$"8%@ & LM/30ID"./ & F- & D-9 & E & ?187. & -D & "24%9/3.%,%1/ & C-//$%. ?1 & & K( B( & & detected no strong elemental peaks in the sample of Clag; 7 Mucilage (both are easily soluble in cold water) and starch or flour Mucilage (both are easily soluble in cold water) a more likely base for for the Clag. Commercially dextrin is perhaps gum arabic. Angus Mucilage, as it was much cheaper than However, the FTIR spectra for these two samples did not resemble the However, many other peaks that of a reference flour or starch spectrum, with whether added present. This suggests a combination of materials, product. Simple by design or formed by deterioration of the original Angus Mucilage solubility tests found that, after 20 minutes, the Clag sample was sample was completely dissolved whereas the other results, this into account the only slightly swelled. Taking for the Angus suggests either gum arabic or dextrin as a base top lid or have been due to the inclusion of some other ingredient. Space limitations preclude a detailed discussion on the issues further surrounding binder identification methods here. However, analysis of known samples may help to build a more useful reference library of for identification of unknowns. Exploration analytical techniques that are more successful with mixtures of materials would also be beneficial. however the Angus Mucilage sample gave peaks for calcium, potassium and iron. Calcium and potassium are found naturally in gum arabic, as salts of arabic acid, so these results may indicate these elements may Again, however, the presence of this binder. have also leached from the glass storage bottle or metal screw- A3879% unknown. A3879% publication (1885­1886). Collection of the State Library of Victoria. XRF

An actual sample of either adhesive could not be obtained. The precise date of production of the two samples used for testing is These were the only two Australian commercial products conclusively identified from the time period of interest, though a Sands & MacDougall publication (1885-1886) did feature an advertisement for ‘Stickfast’ (see Figure 5). This may or may not have been the same product as the English ‘Stickphast’, manufactured by the Leadenhall Press. sample of Clag and Angus & Co Mucilage (see Figures 3 & 4) Figure 3: A bottle of Clag. Date unknown. Collection of A. Cannon. of wheat starch, plant resin, salicylic acid and oil of turpentine of wheat starch, plant resin, salicylic acid and most likely added as (Standage, 1893, p.123). Salicylic acid was a preservative, the plant resin to increase tack and the turpentine as either a solvent for the plant resin or as another way to increase strength. the adhesive’s As part of the Masters research some analytical testing was performed on various historic adhesive samples, including a Trade authors occasionally mentioned details of the composition of authors occasionally mentioned details Trade ‘Gloy’ was reported some commercial adhesives — for example, chloride (Rideal to be comprised of dextrin mixed with magnesium chloride is 1920, p.33; Standage 1902, p.90). Magnesium it may also have had sometimes used as a coagulant in cooking; product thicker and this effect on the dextrin adhesive, making the made from a mixture more viscous. ‘Stickphast’ was thought to be of the patent holder to change the formulation or to substitute of the patent holder to change the formulation from the period were ingredients as they saw fit. Le Page products patents relating to often advertised as based on fish glue, but no to Higgins these adhesives have been found. Patents pertaining starch; later they products reveal them to be initially made from of antiseptics employed white or yellow dextrin with the addition and flavourings. — particularly Higgins’ paste or ‘Photo-Mounter’ (Anon 1904; (Anon 1901) Fisher 1903; Smith 1905; Swan 1905). Le Page’s and ‘Seccotine’ (Fisher 1903) were also mentioned. adhesives can be The precise formulation of such commercial records can be difficult to determine, unless associated patent often vague — found. Even then, patent specifications were announcing the right intentionally or not — or included statements the Leadenhall Press, were listed in ship manifests (Anon 1890). the Leadenhall Press, stationers and general stores were Businesses such as druggists, adhesives and their raw ingredients — for also likely to have sold run by Elliot Bros. & Co (druggists and example, an advertisement drysalters Sydney) lists for sale both with outlets in Brisbane and and isinglass, ‘Brazil’ isinglass gelatin and Swinbourne’s Nelson’s Bros. 1879a; 1879b). Some of these and ‘Glue, Russian’ (Elliot to in Australian photographic journals products were also referred occasion (e.g. Anon 1898) and was registered by trademark registered by trademark Anon 1898) and was occasion (e.g. Manufacturing Co. 1897a- colonies (Gloy in various Australian cartons and crates of such items as c). Shipping arrivals list and ‘stationery’‘glue’, ‘gelatin’, ‘starch’ as well as potential raw Starch (e.g. Anon 1886; 1895c), ingredients, such as Colman’s have been used for laundrywhich would otherwise purposes. such as ‘Stickphast’, manufactured by Occasionally tradenames English adhesives were imported to Australia. Higgins’ Mountant Mountant Higgins’ to Australia. were imported adhesives English into Australia by Clarified Glue were imported and Le Page’s Baker & Rouse imported 1898a, 1898b); Harrington (Harrington 1906b). ‘Gloy’ (Baker & Rouse 1906a, Tissue Kodak Adhesive least one auction house on at sale by an Australian was listed for

2010 AICCM BOOK, PAPER AND PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM 18 2010 AICCM BOOK, PAPER AND PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM 19 , , resolution The Brisbane –1 , Wednesday 24 , Wednesday !//'(0&$(-)*;-%*F%&92*4&%G* Northern Territory Times and Northern Territory F,2*4&($'&)9*42%0"%3*K*L")$2%* Northern Territory Times and Northern Territory , Saturday 21 July 1883, p.3. The Brisbane Courier S E S E Master of Arts by Research. Department of History, Department of History, Master of Arts by Research. NC T . O , Saturday 26 March 1881, p.2. , Friday 11 June 1897, p.2. , Saturday 13 July 1872, p.7. –1 ERE !9,2#(:2#*;-%*/&/2%*<=>?@

Anon1881, ‘Odds and Ends’, Gazette Anon 1883, [Paste for labels], River General Advertiser Anon 1886, ‘Shipping’, p.4. February, Anon 1897, ‘Home-made gum’, Gazette R Angus, Joseph 1898–1899, Patent, $($'29*1'&.*()*%2#/20$*-;*&9,2#(:2*/&#$2*H*I3*J-#2/,*!)."# National Archives of Australia, series number A11731, control symbol 5744, barcode 5002761. keep gum arabic from moulding’, Anon 1872, ‘To Courier ENDN

was available in Australia within months of publication. The of publication. months within in Australia was available conservatorAustralian paper to find any may therefore expect these material. Some of mixtures on collection and all adhesive be ageing, may no longer through design or through adhesives, agents warrant Enzymes and chelating in water. easily soluble as treatment methods. further investigation S OR T ERVA NS O C ER P A P OR F

NS NS IO IO T A C I NCLUS PL M from overseas and therefore may also be found on Australian collections. Evidence of the precise composition of Australian commercial products is hard to locate; ‘Clag’ and ‘Angus & Co Mucilage’ are the only two commercial Australian adhesives identified from this time period. It is expected that Australian use of adhesives followed European and North American trends as published reference material from overseas quite closely, CO This paper has shown that adhesives from the period 1870–1920 were varied, though generally based on organic substances. Though Australians made their own adhesives, both at home and it appears that international brands were imported commercially, have taken place within an aged adhesive is a topic for another discussion indicates that conservators this brief However, paper. may encounter adhesives from this period that are resistant to treatment methods. New methods of applying normal water-based enzymes and chelating agents may need to be explored in order to solubilise such adhesives, such as those pioneered by Richard 2000) for cleaning oil paintings and furniture (see Wolbers Wolbers surfaces. to swell in hot water. It is possible that any ‘polyhydroxy’ acid to swell in hot water. groups) could have (those having three or more hydroxyl functional used to increase this effect. Borax (sodium tetraborate) was often the tack of starch and dextrin adhesives; phosphoric acid is also reported to increase the viscosity of potato starch (Kerr 1950, pp.190, 466-470; Kruger & Lacourse 1990). A more in-depth discussion of the variety of reactions that may groups, such as organic acid chlorides and anhydrides, has groups, such as organic acid chlorides and anhydrides, The in this way. the potential to react with proteins and starches fully understood. mechanisms through which this occurs are not with hydroxyl groups For starch, it is likely that the aldehyde reacts of bonds between on the starch chain, resulting in the formation groups on the methylene groups on the aldehyde and hydroxyl ability of the starch starch, causing crosslinking and reducing the protein-based adhesive. This effect is also known to occur with protein-based adhesive. This effect is also known in some cases ions such polysaccharides (Horie 1992). However, of hydrogen as copper (II) and iron (II) can catalyse the formation instead of peroxide within proteins, resulting in depolymerisation crosslinking (Banik 1989). and starch- Aldehydes (e.g. formaldehyde) also oxidise protein reactive with amino based adhesives. In fact, any reagent that is proteins, polysaccharides and other organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides and other organic Here protein and the process known as the Maillard reaction. reaction, carbohydrate molecules combine in a condensation loss of a larger molecule but with the concurrent resulting in a new, smaller molecule, often water (Karpowicz 1981). and iron, are known Multivalent metals, such as aluminium, copper melting point of a to cause protein chains to crosslink, raising the each other chemically in mixtures, nor the precise effects of each other chemically solubility of an adhesive. Combining two these reactions on the doubt change the solubility of the resulting different binders will no it could be assumed that mixing dried adhesive — for example, will produce an adhesive with water starch into animal glue either of those two substances solubility somewhere between reactions may occur between alone. A variety of chemical flour, conservators egg plant resins, casein, may also encounter flour, oil, soluble silicates percha, shellac, linseed gutta albumen, rubber, any of these materials. Old adhesives and various mixtures of other ingredients such as metallic salts, are quite likely to contain alkalis, essential oils and other materials organic solvents, acids, of the adhesive. added to alter the properties these organic molecules interact with It is not clear how all of I this about adhesives from is still much unknown Though there varied. could be quite it is clear that their composition time period, and glue, gelatin, starch usual suspects of animal As well as the , , , Academic , Bailliere, , United , 20 August , 20 August Titled Gloy !//'(0&$(-)*;-%* The Brisbane The Brisbane !//'(0&$(-)* Material , Butterworth- , National Archives of , The Leadenhall Press , ed. I. Skeist, Van , ed. I. Skeist, Van , 21 February1898, p.48. , Oak Knoll Press & The British Adhesive Compound [M/%-:29*4&)";&0$"%2*-;* to in or relating Improvements in the Digestion Improvements F,2*!"#$%&'(&)*+,-$-.%&/,(0*J-"%)&' U!.2().*&)9*\2$2%(-%&$(-)*-;* F,2*\2#(.)*K*+%()$().*-;*S/,2M2%&*()* , National Archives of Australia, series , National Archives of Australia, `2#$2%9&3V#*+&/2%*H*1-''20$().* , Great Britain, patent no. 2746. , Studies in Conservation, vol. 26, Issue 4, , John Furphy Pty Ltd, Castle Hill NSW. F,2*0&%I-,39%&$2#*&)9*&'0-,-' 1,2M(#$%3*&)9*[)9"#$%3*-;*P$&%0,6 , Great Britain, patent no. 17,337. Materials for Conservation Phil May’s Gutter-snipes Phil May’s F,2*!"#$%&'(&)*+,-$-.%&/,(0*J-"%)&' L&)9I--G*-;*!9,2#(:2# , Great Britain, patent no. 1885. , 1 October 1879, p.7. , 1 October May, Phil 1896, May, Ltd, London. Carroll, Scott, et al. 2006, Odegaard, Nancy, 0,&%&0$2%(5&$(-)*$2#$#*;-%*-I_20$#*-;*&%$*&)9*&%0,&2-'-.3 Archetype Publications Ltd, London. O’Neill, Vivienne 2007, S/,2M2%&*()*!"#$%&'(& Rideal, Samuel 1920, London. and Cox, Tindall Higgins, Charles Michael 1891, 1891. States patent no. 466,239 filed 29 December Higgins, Charles Michael 1895, Adhesive Pastes Higgins, Charles Michael 1897, Adhesive Compounds Higgins, Charles Michael 1900, -;*P$&%0,*&)9*$,2*4&)";&0$"%2*-;*\2]$%()2*+&#$2#*&)9*-$,2%* +%-9"0$# Horie, CV 1992, Heinemann Ltd, Oxford. Hudson, Graham 2008, ^%($&()*&)9*!M2%(0&*<>B?@

2010 AICCM BOOK, PAPER AND PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM 20 2010 AICCM BOOK, PAPER AND PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM 21 , , 20 , , The

\(%20$-%3*4&/*-;*+%&,%&)E* 1'2&)().*+&()$29*P"%;&02#*H*!c"2-"#* LS F,2*!"#$%&'(&)*+,-$-.%&/,(0*J-"%)&' P2&'().@a&]2#6*a&;2%#6*K*Q$,2%* Cements, Pastes, Glues and Gums Cements, Pastes, AI T U1-0G'().*a,2)*4-")$().E*[$#*1&"#2*&)9*L-W* U4-")$().*+%()$#*a($,-"$*1-0G'().V E D

trained in paper conservation at the University of

PHY , Sands & McDougall, State Library, Sands & McDougall, of Victoria call , The Australian Photographic Journal, 20 April 1905, , The Australian Photographic CT . She currently works as a paper and photographic . She currently works as a paper and photographic , Archetype Publications Ltd, London. A NT !9,2#(:2#*;-%*/&/2%6*<=>?@