AVAILABLE NOW The Word Became Fresh Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 ISBN 978-962-7673-316 ISSN 2324-6375

Cover Photo A royal knight of chivalry kneels in prayer in a chapel of the Tower of London. The Tower is one of the residences of the British monarchy – it was founded in 1066 and houses the crown jewels. This whole complex has witnessed the Bohemian Reformation of the 14th century, the Gutenberg Press revolution of the 15th century, the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century and the English Reformation of the 16th century; now, silently it is witnessing the digitoral revolution of the 21st century.

Because the Sovereign LORD helps me, I will not be disgraced. Therefore have I set my face like flint, and I know I will not be put to shame. Isaiah 50:7

After the suffering of his soul, he will see the light [of life] and be satisfied; by his knowledge my righteous servant will justify many, and he will bear their iniquities. Isaiah 53:11 Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the very nature2 of a servant, being made in human likeness. And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death—even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father. Philippians 2:5—11 The Word Became Fresh

Orality Journal is the journal of the International Orality Network. It is published online semi-annually and aims to provide a platform for scholarly discourse on the issues of orality, discoveries of innovations in orality, and praxis of effectiveness across multiple domains in society. This online journal is international and interdisciplinary, serving the interests of the orality movement through research articles, documentation, book reviews, and academic news. Occasionally, print editions will be provisioned. Submission of items that could contribute to the furtherance of the orality movement is welcomed.

Editorial Committee Editor - Samuel E. Chiang Associate Editor - William Coppedge Associate Editor - Laurie Fortunak Nichols Assistant Editor - Joni A. Chiang

International Editorial/Advisory Committee Amos Aderonmu Calvin Chong Gilles Gravelle Geoffrey W. Hahn William D. Taylor Mary Verghese Hannes Wiher

Graphic Design: Cindy Morris Photos: Courtesy of Steve Evans, [email protected] Editorial Email: [email protected] Website: www.orality.net Your Feedback Is Very Important! We welcome your comments, questions, and suggestions! Let us hear from you. Send your feedback to: [email protected]

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Orality Journal Disclaimer: Articles published in Orality Journal are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the editors, or the International Orality Network.

ISBN 978-962-7673-316 ISSN 2324-6375 Copyright © 2015 International Orality Network In cooperation with Capstone Enterprises Ltd., Hong Kong

PRINTED IN HONG KONG CONTENTS

Editor’s Note...... 9 Samuel E. Chiang

Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative...... 11 Werner Mischke A survey across both the Old and New Testament recognizing honor-shame within the Gospel message.

Leader Development Laboratory: Japanese Oral Culture...... 37 Joseph Handley with Michael L. Wilson We discover that a highly developed literate society in Japan is actually very much an orality based culture.

William Carey’s discovery of Oral Learning Preference in the Propagation of Indian Christianity...... 41 Andrew D. McFarland After learning the social context, Carey adjusted his Gospel strategy to embrace orality.

Literacy and Orality Working Together: The Intersection of Heart and Mind...... 63 Margaret Doll Case studies of why recovering an oral approach and integrating both literate and oral approaches can bring fruitful results. The Importance of Repetition for Oral Communicators...... 77 Annette Hall How do oral preference learners learn? Why is repetition important? Will this provide greater effectiveness?

My Journey in Bible Storytelling...... 83 Paul Trinh Bible storyteller continues his blog in this journal as well as at orality.net.

Theories of Human Communication...... 85 Book Review by Susangeline Y. Patrick

Theorizing Communication: Readings Across Traditions...... 87 Book Review by Susangeline Y. Patrick

Orality: The Power of the Spoken Word...... 89 Book Review by Irene Maonei Kabete

The King Jesus Gospel: The Original Good News Revisited...... 91 Book Review by Irene Maonei Kabete Orality Journal 9 Editor’s Note Samuel E. Chiang

In Sync with the Majority Worldview: Honor and Shame Our discussions on the “gospel” were lively. The participants at the Houston Baptist University consultation on orality and theological education were fully engaged; this included chancellors, presidents, provosts, academic deans, professors and practitioners. The issue was not the incorrectness of the gospel, but the incompleteness of the gospel presented from a Western evangelical viewpoint. In our modern, reductionist approach to speaking about the gospel, we often neglect the biblical worldview that is included in the Scripture, that of honor and shame.

Ever since the printing press revolution, the reading and understanding of Scripture has helped the spiritual growth of the individual, the understanding of doctrine, and the anchoring of theological moorings. However, in the process we have also privatized our faith; as some would describe it, we have become little popes interpreting the Scripture and expediently transmitting the gospel as we see fit. Often times, I have been reminded on this orality journey, that one of the central objectives is to make available the full counsel of the Word of God to all peoples. Contrary to popular association, orality is not merely storytelling. It is a broad discipline that provides the Church with potential tools from different communication paradigms which can be used so that people of different communication backgrounds can engage the whole Word of God.

Somewhere along the way the Church in the West got side-tracked. We did not teach every book of the Bible. We started to reduce what was to be taught. Combining this trend with the fact that people are engaging with Scripture less robustly, we teach only portions of Scripture—usually the New Testament—often skewed towards certain genre. I was speaking recently with a NT professor who teaches at a famous evangelical university. The professor was lamenting the trend in his NT Survey course: the students cannot even read through the entire New Testament. As a result, the professor was assigning only the book of Luke (not even Luke -- Acts) to be read as a course textbook; the shocking reality is that the students are not even able to finish the book of Luke! 10 Samuel E. Chiang

Scripture engagement needs attention, but also understanding of the Scriptural worldview that includes “honor and shame.” The West and the Church in the West are facing the acceleration of societies embracing “honor and shame” so much so that Christianity Today devoted major coverage to the topic of “honor and shame” in its 2015 March issue. Incidentally it quoted three of the participant-authors who were at the Houston Baptist University Orality Consultation. (Note their newest books are shown on the inside, outside, and back cover of this issue of the Journal.)

In the West, our literature, reflections, and theological approaches to “honor and shame” have been negligent. On the other hand, the rest of the world, the global south-east, the Majority Church continually to function within an “honor-shame” worldview. A treasury of riches awaits discovery and exploration by the Church. In this publication we intend to invite the richness from the Majority World to speak into this matter so that we can all appreciate better the “fullness” of the gospel.

In this issue, we are well-served by Werner Mischke, who provides an overview of biblical passages covering honor-shame and its implications to oral preference learners. Michael Wilson and Joe Handley disclose from the leadership lab what is succeeding in a highly literate Japan working with a predominantly oral culture. We are grateful to Andrew McFarland for tracing William Carey’s challenges with communication and how he came to embrace oral preference learners. Margaret Doll helps us to look at how the integration of literacy and orality can really work and how important it is to recover orality within the culture so as to be effective. Veteran orality practitioner Annette Hall discusses overcoming the temptations to “over-teach and explain,” which can often short circuit the learning experience for oral preference learners. Paul Trinh’s blog updates us to his own journey in orality and we are grateful to both Susangeline Y. Patrick and Irene Maonei Kabete for their book reviews.

I am personally delighted that Geoffrey W. Hahn has joined the Editorial Committee and that William Coppedge is agreeing to serve as Associate Editor.

On the journey together,

Samuel E. Chiang From Hong Kong, SAR, China Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 11 Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative Werner Mischke

Werner Mischke is Executive Vice President and Director of Training Ministries for Mission ONE. His new book is The Global Gospel: Achieving Missional Impact in Our Multicultural World. The book examines the values of honor and shame in scripture and how honor/shame dynamics can help us contextualize the gospel.

Introduction he pivotal cultural value of the Bible’s ancient peoples is honor/ Tshame (Malina 1993; Neyrey 1998; deSilva 2000), but this is largely unrecognized in Western theology and thus represents a blind spot for Christians trained in the Western theological tradition (Mischke 2015, 45–61, Tennent 2007, 77–101; Wu 2012, 52–53).

As this blind spot is removed from the reader’s eyes and the scripture is read in the light of honor/shame, a dominant motif of the Bible’s grand narrative emerges; that motif is honor-status reversal. This motif is observable in nearly all of the 66 books of the Bible; moreover, many of the Bible’s well-known stories are saturated with it.

This article comprises two parts. Part one provides for definition and examples of honor-status reversal. We will illustrate a multitude of cases from scripture to discover that honor- status reversal is literally hidden in plain sight—and is thus prevalent enough to be considered a dominant motif. Part two explores honor-status reversal as a central feature of the gospel. We will examine four iconic words that embody honor-status reversal for the gospel—Cross, Story, Mission, and Kingdom.

When honor-status reversal is recognized as a dominant motif of the Bible, one soon realizes that there are significant implications for the practice of orality. This article concludes by posing three areas of inquiry: 1) reframing the gospel, 2) resonating with the unreached, and 3) reversing honor in practice. 12 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

Part 1: Definition and Examples of Honor-status Reversal in the Bible Defining Honor-status Reversal Honor-status reversal is when a person, family, or people have whatever degree of esteem, respect, privilege, power, or authority before a community turned the other way around. One’s honor-status can be high or low or in-between, ranging from the lowest honor-status of a leper or a slave—to the immensely powerful high honor-status of a mighty king.

For this study, we classify honor-status reversal according to the end result: (1) End result is honor: Honor-to-shame-to-honor, or simply, shame-to- honor. (2) End result is shame: Shame-to-honor-to-shame, or simply, honor-to- shame. These variations may be expressed graphically as shown below:

Examples in Scripture The preeminent example of honor-status reversal in scripture is found in Paul’s description of our Lord Jesus Christ in Philippians 2 (depicted in Figure 2):1

Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 13 the form of God, did not count Christ’s entire Passion experience equality with God a thing to be was his humiliation. grasped, but emptied himself, by taking the form of a servant, being Moreover, Jesus’ crucifixion-as- born in the likeness of men. And destiny on earth was not the end of being found in human form, he the story. The pre-incarnate glory humbled himself by becoming and honor he once had in heaven, obedient to the then willingly laid point of death, even Jesus’ crucifixion-as- aside, was to be death on a cross. destiny on earth was not regained and then Therefore God has the end of the story. magnified as he rose highly exalted him from the dead and and bestowed on him sat down at the right the name that is above every name, hand of the Father. The honor and so that at the name of Jesus every glory of Christ was vindicated! knee should bow, in heaven and Again, this is an example of honor- on earth and under the earth, and status reversal—also known as every tongue confess that Jesus Christ’s exaltation. Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father (Phil 2:5–11). Here is another example of honor-status reversal from the Jesus Christ was with the Father words of Jesus: in the honor and glory of heaven “Whoever receives this child in eternity past. His honor-status in my name receives me, and was infinitely high. Christ was in whoever receives me receives his “pre-incarnate glory.” him who sent me. For he who is least among you all is the But Jesus willingly allowed for his one who is great” (Luke 9:48). honor-status to be reversed. He “emptied himself,” descending Karl Reich explains honor-status through the incarnation, born reversal this way: fully human to the virgin Mary The very words “least” … “taking the form of a servant.” and “greatest” would automatically call up the He humbled himself further by thought of the Greco-Roman dying, “even death on a cross”— honor/shame system which the most shameful and ignominious was ultimately concerned destiny a man could endure.2 with greatness. Malina and 14 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

Rohr argue that this verse cuts (Otherwise, of course, it cannot at the very heart of the honor/ be considered a motif.) Consider: shame system. They write, “A squabble over honor-status Adam and Eve are would be typical within “sent... out from any ancient Mediterranean the garden of Eden” grouping . . . Jesus’ reversal of (Gen. 3:23); they leave the expected order challenges the glory and honor the usual assumptions about of perfect fellowship with God what is honorable in a very and are shamed by their rebellion fundamental way” (Reich, (Gen. 3:10–11) to live apart from 2011, 156). the honorable presence of God. The honor of their fellowship with Referring to this verse, “And God is reversed to a condition of behold, some are last who will be being a permanent outsider—with first, and some are first who will be shame, guilt, and fear. last” (Luke 13:30), Reich continues: … The pithy comment stays Abraham: The story with the audience because of Abraham is a of its compact and forceful story of a wealthy nature and its enigmatic man who is called message. The transformation by God to essentially of polar opposites into their abandon his identity, to leave the antithesis is unthinkable. very source of his honor—his The saying of the Lukan father, his kinship, his homeland: Jesus undermines the honor/ “Go from your country and your shame system by proclaiming kindred and your father’s house to a reversal of roles (Ibid.). the land that I will show you” (Gen. 12:1). But consider the immense We have observed the dynamic honor he is promised by God: “And of honor-status reversal in I will make of you a great nation, Paul’s description of Christ’s and I will bless you and make your incarnation in his letter to the name great, so that you will be a Philippians. We have seen it blessing. I will bless those who briefly in one passage in Luke’s bless you, and him who dishonors Gospel. But it must be noted you I will curse, and in you all that honor-status reversal is the families of the earth shall be present throughout scripture. blessed” (vv. 2–3). Christopher Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 15

Wright says of God’s promise in by pharaoh’s daughter—and then the call of Abraham: “The word raised as a prince in the royal of God that spoke into darkness palace. Eventually, in a dramatic now speaks into barrenness with God-empowered salvation event of good news of astonishing reversal, epic proportions, Moses leads the holding before our imaginations oppressed Hebrews in the Exodus vistas of a future that is (almost) out of the shame of slavery in Egypt beyond belief. God’s mission of toward the honor of the Promised world redemption begins” (Wright, Land (Exod. 6:6–8). The reversal of 2006, 200; emphasis mine). It is an shame to honor for all God’s people honor-status reversal foundational is also depicted in Leviticus: “I am to the entire narrative and revelation the Lord your God, who brought of scripture—including the global you out of the land of Egypt, that mission of God. you should not be their slaves. And I have broken the bars of your yoke Joseph: The story and made you walk erect” (Lev. of Joseph takes 26:13). After many generations of up a large portion oppression, God rescues them. He of scripture (Gen. makes them “walk erect”—their 37–50): fully 14 dignity recovered, their honor chapters. Joseph is the favorite, restored. most-honored son of Jacob, but his brothers throw him down into Saul and a pit to be sold into slavery—a deep David: shame—from which he eventually The story rises to become the prime minister of Saul is of Egypt. It is a classic story of one of low honor-status reversal. status to kingly honor—back to low status and shame (1 Sam. 9:21; Moses and 10:22; 15:17). On the other hand, the Exodus: God takes David, a lowly shepherd The story boy who has faith in the living God, of Moses in and raises him to become a mighty Exodus is also king whose honor in the eyes of the an account people permanently exceed that of of honor-status reversal. A baby the prior king (1 Sam. 18:7). The born into the oppressed minority contrast between Saul and David society of the Hebrews is found in their honor-status-trajectory is 16 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke summarized in 1 Samuel: “There woman (Esther) from the minority was a long war between the house culture of the Jews ends up rising of Saul and the house of David. in honor as she is chosen to be And David grew stronger and the wife, the very queen, of the stronger, while the house of Saul king of Persia. When a plot to became weaker and weaker” (2 kill the Jews is hatched by the evil Sam. 3:1). God honors David even Haman, Esther’s uncle Mordecai to promising an eternal kingdom to asks Esther to courageously his son (2 Sam. 7:11–13), and many intervene with the king on behalf see Jesus as this son.3 of her people, the Jews. The ESV Study Bible says, “The reader is Mephibosheth: A clearly meant to laugh at the way dramatic story of [Haman’s] vanity traps him into honor-status reversal having to publicly honor the very is recorded in 2 Sam. man he intended to kill (6:6–11), 9. King David inquires and his death on the gallows he to find if there was had prepared for Mordecai (7:8– “anyone left of the house of Saul” 10) is a classic case of a villain in order to “show him kindness falling into his own pit.”4 We see for Jonathan’s sake” (2 Sam here, again, various examples of 9:1). One shameful survivor was honor-status reversal! found—Mephibosheth—“who is crippled in his feet” (v. 3). With great kindness, David instructs that all of Saul’s family land be returned to Mephibosheth, and that Mephibosheth eat at the king’s table (v. 7). What a reversal— Isaiah: The book of Isaiah is from the shame of disability and saturated with the dynamic of obscurity to eating every day with honor-status reversal. I will the king! mention just a few examples. Judah and Jerusalem are to be judged, disgraced, and shamed for their rebellion against God (Isa. 1:1– 8:22). The nations surrounding Judah and Israel are to be likewise Esther: The story of Esther is judged and shamed because of another classic. A beautiful their arrogance; a variety of Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 17 oracles are spoken against them “pierced for our transgressions (10–23, 34). In chapter 23, the … crushed for our iniquities” whole earth undergoes an honor- status reversal, being judged by have not been in labor! For the God for rebellion. children of the desolate one will be more than the children of her who Perhaps is married,’ says the Lord” (54:1). the most elegant Finally, chapters 60–66 describe and poetic various ways that (following God’s example judgment in 63:1–19), Israel and of honor- even all the nations (66:18–20) status reversal is in chapter 40: will experience a dramatic honor- “Every valley shall be lifted up, status reversal through worshiping and every mountain and hill be the one true and living God. This made low; the uneven ground shall honor in God for all of his people become level, and the rough places will finally end in shalom in “the a plain. And the glory of the Lord new heavens and the new earth” shall be revealed, and all flesh shall (66:10–17, 22).5 see it together, for the mouth of the Lord has spoken” (40:4–5).

Chapters 52–54 describe the honor- status reversal of the suffering servant. Chapter 52 has status reversals ending in both shame and Ezekiel: The book of Ezekiel has honor. Chapter 53 deals exclusively numerous examples of honor- with the shame of the Servant who status reversal. For example, is “pierced for our transgressions Israel is brought low by God for . . . crushed for our iniquities” her idolatries and immorality (53:5), “because he poured out his in chapters 5–6, and 20–24. soul to death” (v. 12). Chapter 54 This dynamic of bringing Israel deals exclusively with the upward down into shame is seen in these status reversal of God’s servant and verses: “Moreover, I will make the surprising, joy-filled honor to you a desolation and an object of come: “‘Sing, O barren one, who reproach among the nations all did not bear; break forth into around you and in the sight of all singing and cry aloud, you who who pass by. You shall be a reproach 18 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke and a taunt, a warning and a horror, to the nations all around you, when I execute judgments on you in anger and fury, and with furious rebukes—I am the Lord; I Daniel: The book of Daniel has a have spoken” (Ezek. 5:14–15). God high concentration of stories that uses the nations to judge Israel, contain the dynamic of honor-status but God also brings down those reversal. Repeatedly, Daniel and his same prideful nations—Ammon, friends are challenged in their faith, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Egypt keep their commitment to trust in God, (chap. 25–32)—for their arrogance descend into a severe trial, only to rise against God. in vindication and honor. In chapter 1, they are vindicated and promoted The comprehensive theme of for their refusal to compromise their honor-status reversal—bringing cultural identity as people of the down the proud while elevating Most High God. In chapter 2, Daniel the humble—may be seen in publicly praises God as the one who chapter 17. “And all the trees of “reveals deep and hidden things” (v. the field shall know that I am 22). Subsequently, Daniel reveals not the Lord; I bring low the high just what King Nebuchadnezzar tree, and make high the low tree, has dreamt, but also the dream’s dry up the green tree, and make profound meaning (vv. 31–45); as a the dry tree flourish. I am the result Daniel is highly honored and Lord; I have spoken, and I will promoted to the position of “ruler over do it” (17:24). The restoration the whole province of Babylon” (v. 48). of Israel’s honor from a place of degradation and shame is In chapter 3, Daniel’s three friends wonderfully represented in refuse to worship the huge golden chapters 36–37, especially in the image set up by the king, are thrown passage about the “dry bones” into the fiery furnace made seven that are raised up from graves times hotter than usual, and they to become “an exceedingly great survive without their hair being army” (37:1–14). God promised singed. God is literally with them that he will “restore the fortunes in the fiery trial as “the fourth [who] of Jacob and have mercy on the is like the son of the gods” (v. 25). whole house of Israel” so that Again God’s people are vindicated “they shall forget their shame” and experienced a rise in their (39:25–26). honor-status (vv. 29–30). Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 19

Chapter 4 reveals the honor-status under the sovereign rule of the reversal of King Nebuchadnezzar Most High God. himself. Because of the king’s sin (v. 27) and pride (vv. 28–30), God The Beatitudes sovereignly removes him from (Matt. 5:3–11) his throne. Nebuchadnezzar is begin with: humiliated as he apparently loses “Blessed are the his mind and becomes like an ox, poor in spirit, for theirs is the eating grass, ugly and unkempt, kingdom of heaven.” In every isolated in shame (v. 33). Then, verse in this most beautiful Nebuchadnezzar series, Jesus says, “My reason “My reason has returned to me,” is teaching has returned to and he gave eloquent praise to the that in his me” (v. 34), and Most High. kingdom he gives eloquent there is a praise to the Most High (vv. 34–35). new way of living, a new way of It is a dramatic example of honor- gaining and measuring the honor status reversal for Nebuchadnezzar: of a man or woman. This new “And for the glory of my kingdom, way of living is not a dismissal my majesty and splendor returned of the need for honor—or a total to me” (v. 36). rejection of the honor/shame values that permeated Greco- In chapter 5, King Belshazzar Roman culture. It is, rather, a throws a party using the vessels proclamation that a new honor, from the temple in Jerusalem—and a higher and permanent honor, in so doing, dramatically dishonors is now available to all as they God (vv. 1–4, 23). A mysterious live in God’s kingdom in loving hand appears and writes a message submission to the most honorable on the banquet wall, causing King of kings. intense fear and dread (vv. 5–6). Daniel is called in to interpret the The Parable of message from God (vv. 10–28): the Prodigal Son it is the doom and imminent fall (Luke 15:11–32) of Belshazzar. The prideful king is considered the is killed that same night by the best short story invading army of Darius the Mede ever told (Macarthur, 2008, p. 3). (vv. 30–31). It is another classic The younger of two sons has example of honor-status reversal turned away from his family and 20 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke his father. Entering a downward an end to war and will spiral of shame, he ends up in restore order everywhere: the most degrading condition Caesar, by his appearance conceivable—in a famine, has realized the hopes of feeding swine, wishing to eat our ancestors; not only what the pigs eat. He comes to has he surpassed earlier his senses and decides to return benefactors of humanity, home to his father, and rather but he leaves no hope to than being rejected and scorned, those of the future that the father greets him with kisses they might surpass him. and weeping. He gives the lost The god’s birthday was for son his prized robe. He provides the world the beginning of sandals for his feet and gives him the gospel that he brought a ring for his finger, signifying (Jewett, 2007, 138). the honor and authority of the family. Then the father calls for a Moreover, Nero was lauded as huge village celebration to welcome “the saviour and benefactor of home the lost son. Is there a more the universe” (Ibid., 139). In his powerful parable of honor- status commentary on Romans 1:16, reversal in scripture? Jewett asserts: The contrast with Roman Romans: civic [religion] brings Robert Jewett more clearly into focus explains the implications of Paul’s that Roman thesis and its correlation emperors were with the rest of the worshiped as exordium as well as the gods by the people of the Roman subsequent argument of his Empire. For example, concerning letter, because this gospel Caesar Augustus: shatters the unrighteous The imperial cult precedence given to the celebrated “the gospel” strong over the weak, the of the allegedly divine free and well-educated over power of the emperor, slaves and the ill-educated, viewing him, in the words the Greeks and Romans of an official document over the barbarians. If from the province of Asia, what the world considers as a savior . . . who put dishonorable has power Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 21

[Jewett is referring to the 1 Corinthians: gospel of the cross], it will “But God prevail and achieve a new chose what form of honor to those is foolish in who have not earned it, the world to an honor consistent with shame the divine righteousness. All wise; God who place their faith in chose what is weak in the world this gospel will be set to shame the strong; God chose right, that is, be placed in what is low and despised in the the right relation to the world, even things that are not, most significant arena in to bring to nothing things that which honor is dispensed: are, so that no human being divine judgment. Thus might boast in the presence the triumph of God” (1 Cor. 1:27– of divine All who place their 29). Richard Bauckham righteousness faith in this gospel asserts that “social status through will be set right... is the issue in much of the gospel Paul’s debates with the of Christ dominant faction in the crucified and resurrected Corinthian church.” The wise is achieved by transforming are “the powerful elite, or the system in which shame those who aspire to join them. and honor are dispensed. The strong are those whose The thesis of Romans wealth and social position give therefore effectively turns them power and influence in the social value system of society, while the people Paul the Roman empire upside calls weak are the powerless, down (Ibid., 138; emphasis the ordinary people with no mine). say and no muscle in this social world” (Bauckham, Therefore, we assert that 2003, 50). Into this intensely Paul’s letter to the Romans is status-conscious faith a theological treatise shaped in community, Paul proclaimed part by the social and cultural the foolishness of “Christ situation of the church in Rome— crucified, a stumbling block and incorporating at its core the to Jews and folly to Gentiles” dynamic of honor-status reversal. (v. 23). 22 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

Revelation: In God’s revelation to John of the cosmic struggle between God’s glorious kingdom Numerous other examples of and the devil’s empire of evil, honor-status reversal also appear God’s final judgment on evil in Revelation. In chapter 3, the is revealed. Foundational to saints at Laodicea are admonished God’s victory is the resounding by the Lord, “I counsel you to conquest of the the Son of God buy from me gold refined by who became the fire, so that you may be Lamb of God who the saints who rich, and white garments was slain—and were martyred so that you may clothe who has through are honorably yourself and the shame of resurrection clothed in your nakedness may not be become the fearless, white… the seen” (v.18), and then a few triumphant Lion once glorious, verses later, in an almost of the tribe of evil serpent, unthinkable expression of Judah (Rev. 5:6–7). the devil, elevated honor, the Lord The honor-status is finally Jesus says, “The one who reversal of Jesus vanquished... conquers, I will grant to Christ—from sit with me on my throne, crucified Lamb to as I also conquered and sit conquering Lion—could not be with my Father on his throne” (v. more clear. Also contained in 21). In addition, the saints who Revelation is the honor-status were martyred are honorably reversal of mighty Babylon. clothed in white (6:11) . . . the And he called out with once glorious, evil serpent, a mighty voice, “Fallen, the devil, is finally vanquished fallen is Babylon the great! (20:1–10) . . . even the once- She has become a dwelling inglorious unredeemed peoples place for demons, a haunt of the earth—represented by for every unclean spirit, their kings—bring their glory a haunt for every unclean into the new city (21:22–26). bird, a haunt for every This is but a sampling of the unclean and detestable examples in Revelation of beast” (Rev. 18:2). honor-status reversal. Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 23

Honor-status Reversal in Ephesians 2—Salvation by Grace through Faith Ephesians 2:1–7 gives us a dramatic picture of honor-status reversal from being “dead in the trespasses and sins” to having been “raised . . . up with him and seated . . . with him in the heavenly places in Christ Jesus.” From death to seated with Christ in exalted honor. Astounding! Let’s take a closer look at the profound dynamics of honor-status reversal in Ephesians 2:1–7 (see Figure 3).

Honor-status reversal—Humanity in relation to God (Ephesians 2:1–7) VERTICAL DIMENSION (COSMIC) Our original shameful status Our honor-status reversal in relation to God by grace through faith in Jesus Christ • Spiritually dead: “dead in … • Loving intervention, undeserved, trespasses and sins” (2:1) from the powerful, divine • Unwittingly following the world’s Benefactor directed toward us: spirit and devil: “But God, being rich in mercy, “following the course of this because of the great love with world”/ “following the prince of which he loved us” (2:4) the power of the air” (2:2) • Gave us new life us by enjoining • Victimized by evil spirit: “the spirit us to the Messiah-King: “made us that is now at work in the sons of alive together with Christ” (2:5) disobedience” (2:2) • Permanently raised our honor • DNA of an evil, shameful father: status in Christ’s resurrection: “sons of disobedience” (2:2) “and raised us up with him” (2:6) • Enslaved to self: “lived in the • Providing us rest and authority in passions of our flesh, carrying out relational co-regency with Christ the desires of the body and the the King: “seated us with him mind” (2:3) in the heavenly places in Christ • Destined for God’s eternal Jesus” (2:6) punishment: “children of wrath” • All to display God’s riches to (2:3) magnify his honor for all eternity: • Unexceptional: “like the rest of “so that in the coming ages he mankind” (2:3) might show the immeasurable riches of his grace in kindness toward us in Christ Jesus” (2:6) Figure 3: honor-status reversal in Ephesians 2:1–7 The first seven verses in Ephesians 2 speak to all believers—Jew and Gentile—of humanity’s relationship with God, from spiritually dead to “made alive with Christ,” “raised with Christ,” and “seated with him.” This is the vertical dimension. It refers to our personal, positional, eternity- future in relationship to God. 24 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

Let us consider the last 12 verses of Ephesians 2 (see Figure 4).

Honor-status reversal—Gentiles in relation to God’s People (Ephesians 2:11–22) HORIZONTAL DIMENSION (SOCIAL / CULTURAL) Ephesians 2:11–12 Ephesians 2:13–22 Our original shameful Our honor-status reversal status in relation to by grace through faith in Jesus Christ God’s people • Unclean, defiled and • From far away in shame to very near through the honor without hope of of Christ’s blood: “you who once were far off have been being made clean: brought near by the blood of Christ” (2:13) “Gentiles in the • Messiah King himself is our new source of honor—dispelling flesh, called ‘the our compulsion for honor competition and hostility: “For uncircumcision’ by he himself is our peace, who has made us both one and has what is called the broken down in his flesh the dividing wall of hostility” (2:14) circumcision” (2:11) • For a completely new kind of kinship group made in peace: • No access to “by abolishing the law of commandments expressed in the honor and ordinances, that he might create in himself one new man in benefaction of place of the two, so making peace” (2:15) the Messiah King: • The shame of Christ’s body on the cross absorbed humanity’s “separated from compulsion for honor competition and hostility—to create a Christ” (2:12) new body among humanity—a community of peace: “and • As aliens in relation might reconcile us both to God in one body through the to God’s great cross, thereby killing the hostility” (2:16) people Israel: • Both Jew and Gentile (no superiority for being Jewish) “alienated from the were equally in need of the preaching of this grace and commonwealth of peace: “And he came and preached peace to you who Israel” (2:12) were far off and peace to those who were near” (2:17) • Unaware of any • The high honor of access to Holy God is now available to all relational destiny peoples—further dispelling honor competition: “For through in God: “strangers him we both have access in one Spirit to the Father” (2:18) to the covenants of • Shameful state as strange aliens replaced by multi- promise” (2:12) dimensional honor of citizens, saints, family members: • Living in despair “So then you are no longer strangers and aliens, but you without God’s are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the presence: “having no household of God” (2:19) hope and without • Entering into the honor of God’s ancient story, the crux God in the world” of which is the Messiah King and Son of God: “built (2:12) on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ • Disconnected from Jesus himself being the cornerstone” (2:20) the most honorable • Brothers and sisters in Christ become the new “sacred relationship: “far off” space”—wherever they are: “in whom the whole … “strangers and structure, being joined together, grows into a holy aliens” (2:12) temple in the Lord” (2:21) • On the other side of • In Christ your new community is the dwelling for the most “the dividing wall of honorable, holy presence of God. “In him you also are being hostility” (2:12) built together into a dwelling place for God by the Spirit” (2:22) Figure 4: Honor-status reversal in Ephesians 2:11–22 Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 25

The last 12 verses of Ephesians status reversal. The vertical 2 speak to Gentile believers dimension refers to a person’s and their relationship to God’s relationship with God. The chosen people. Paul describes it horizontal dimension refers to the as a profound transformation—a Gentiles’ relationship with God’s reversal of shame to honor. people. The epic drama inherent in From separated, alienated, these dimensions of honor-status strangers, having no hope—the reversal—along with the liberation “uncircumcision” (v. 11)—to that this brought spiritually, citizens, saints, full-fledged family emotionally and socially—is the members who together are a context for “salvation by grace dwelling for the presence of God. through faith.” This is the horizontal dimension, the right-now, life-on-earth-with- Timothy Tennent writes: “The my-neighbor dimension. New Testament celebrates a salvific transformation that has At the crux of two dimensions of both vertical and horizontal honor-status reversal: “salvation dimensions. Personal salvation in by grace through faith.” the New Testament is inextricably What is located between these two linked to becoming a part of the dramatic expressions of honor-status reversal— between verses 1–7 and 11–22? The often-quoted verses about salvation by grace through faith: For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast (Eph. 2:8–9).

This “salvation verse” sits at new humanity of Ephesians 2:15” the intersection of vertical and (Tennent, 2010, 62). As salvation is horizontal dimensions of honor- vertical because sin is personal, so 26 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke also is salvation horizontal because said about him. And Simeon sin is corporate. According to blessed them and said to Hiebert: “There is both personal Mary his mother, “Behold, and corporate sin and personal this child is appointed for and corporate dimensions to God’s the fall and rising of many redemption” (Hiebert, 2010, 99). in Israel, and for a sign that is opposed (and a sword will Is Honor-status Reversal a pierce through your own Fundamental Aspect of the soul also), so that thoughts Ministry of Jesus? from many hearts may be In Luke 2 is a scene where the revealed” (Luke 2:33–35; parents of Jesus have brought emphasis mine). the child Jesus into the temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:22–38). The man Simeon is under the anointing of Simeon is there, “righteous and the Holy Spirit (2:25). He hints devout, waiting for the consolation at the royal identity of Jesus the of Israel.” There is deep emotion Messiah: “Behold, this child is which permeates this passage of appointed for the fall [â] and scripture. Simeon is longing for rising [á] of many in Israel.” the restoration of Israel’s honor among the nations, “waiting for the Simeon summarizes the ministry consolation to Israel” (v. 25). He of Jesus as a ministry of honor- picks Jesus up in his arms and says: status reversal! The humble/ Lord, now you are letting contrite or shamed will be elevated your servant depart in in honor, while the proud/arrogant peace, according to your or honorable will be brought low word; for my eyes have seen and shamed. your salvation, that you have prepared in the presence Could it be that with respect to of all peoples, a light for the pivotal cultural value of honor revelation to the Gentiles, and shame, honor-status reversal and for glory to your people is the very essence of the ministry Israel (Luke 2:29–32). of Jesus?

Then something curious Richard Bauckham does not use happens: the word motif; nor does he use And his father and his the phrase honor-status reversal, mother marveled at what was but he does use the phrase Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 27

“consistent divine strategy” in order to make the non-élite referring to Paul’s proclamation a new élite, but in order to of how God works to bring down abolish status, to establish the high-minded and arrogant his kingdom in which no while he elevates the low and one can claim privilege humble. Alluding to the opening over others and all gladly chapter of Paul’s first letter to the surrender privilege for the Corinthians, Bauckham writes: good of others (Bauckham, In this passage and 2003, 51). its context Paul does something rather In light of the abundance of remarkable. In the first scriptural examples, how can we place, by echoing the Old not agree with Bauckman? Honor- Testament, he identifies a status reversal is a “consistent consistent divine strategy, a divine strategy.” Honor-status characteristic way in which reversal is a dominant motif of God works, to which the the Bible and a central feature of origins of the church at the gospel. Corinth conform. That God chose the first Corinthian Part 2: Honor-status Reversal is converts is the God who Central to the Gospel, Signified chose the least significant by Four Iconic Words: Cross, of all the people (Israel) Story, Mission, Kingdom for his own (Deuteronomy 7:7). This is Hannah’s God, Iconic Word #1: CROSS who exalts the lonely and Honor-status reversal is humbles the exalted (1 exemplified by Christ’s journey, Samuel 2:3–8), just as he is which has the cross as its also Mary’s God, who feels turning point (see Figure 2). The the hungry and dismisses atonement of Christ on the cross, the rich (Luke 1:51–53). followed by his resurrection, is the This is the God who chose axis of all theology, all mission, the youngest of Jesse’s sons, all history. Therefore, this truth David, the one no one had is never to be compromised: even thought to summon “For God so loved the world, (1 Sam 16:6–13). This is that he gave his only Son, that the God who habitually whoever believes in him should overturns status, not in not perish but have eternal life” 28 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

of a larger grand narrative. The various elements of an epic story are all present in the Bible’s stories of honor-status reversal: plot, setting, journey, family, romance, honor and shame, surprise, suffering, courage, mystery, tragedy, conquest, hero, enemy and villain, blood, crescendo and climax, (John 3:16). All theology and all destination and beatific ending. mission endeavors of the church must forever point to the cross Moreover, in proclaiming the of Jesus, where both God’s love comprehensive story of Christ’s for the world and God’s passion honor-status reversal, Christians for his glory (John 12:27–28) can avoid preaching a truncated find ultimate expression. That gospel. Theologian Damon So of people “should not perish but the Oxford Centre for Mission have eternal life” is the gift of Studies explains why: salvation communicated by the Regarding the content of the church to all the peoples of the Christian gospel, the gospel world. The cross of Christ is the story of Jesus occupies the crux of our salvation. central place, but students should be instructed to Iconic Word #2: STORY avoid majoring on one A gospel characterized by honor- phase of Jesus’ earthly status reversal is a powerful life only, as often seen in narrative for the unreached and Western preaching. Often, unengaged peoples. The drama of liberal churches in the West honor-status reversal is inherently major on the life of Jesus, a journey, a story. It is easy to while conservative churches grasp the Bible as a series of often major on the death sub-narratives with honor-status of Jesus. This dichotomy reversal as the motif— all inside between majoring on the Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 29

life and majoring on the guilt, forgiveness and heaven; death of Jesus closely it is also a narrative of the corresponds to the general conflict of rival kingdoms dichotomy in mission saturated with the dynamics between “social action of honor and shame. This epic only” and “proclamation story of God is one into which only,” neither of which all persons and peoples are grasp the full gospel story invited; this story offers the of Jesus and thereby do not comprehensive solution to the practice the holistic gospel problem of sin, brokenness, in mission. guilt, shame—in humanity, the world, and the cosmos. By presenting the more Thus, the gospel as a narrative complete story of Jesus of honor-status reversal is and his birth, baptism, well-suited for persons and temptations, public ministry, peoples for whom an oral entry into Jerusalem, style is the dominant way of death, resurrection, and learning and living. universal reign, the oral story approach employed b. A story for the unreached. If in non-Western contexts has the global gospel as an honor/ presented a more holistic shame narrative is ideally picture of Jesus Christ suited for oral peoples, then it who thus in the power of also has superior resonance for his person has drawn many the unreached and unengaged people unto himself (So, peoples of the world (Muslim, 2013; emphasis in original). Hindu, Buddhist, and tribal)— the majority of whom I heartily agree with Dr. So have honor and shame as a and contend there is powerful, prominent cultural value. inherent missional quality in the honor-status reversal story c. A story for the shamed and of Jesus for unengaged and marginalized. All people unreached peoples. groups will be represented by a. An epic story. The global those who believe; they are gospel is much more promised glory and honor at than a list of theological the end of the biblical grand propositions about sin and narrative (Rev. 21:22–27). None 30 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

are marginalized, because of Christ’s ministry. Likewise, Christ has transformed at least the gospel itself is a powerful some from every nation and multifaceted dynamic that creates people into a unique reflection upward and downward motion— of his glory. What an honor for honor-status reversal—both for all the redeemed to be seated those who receive Christ (John at the marriage supper of the 1:12) and for those who reject him. Lamb, the wedding a. Camaraderie, not feast of Christ and Honor-status reversal superiority. The his bride (Rev. 19:6– in the gospel is a gospel is indeed 9). What a hope! pattern for mission... “the power of What a gospel! God for salvation What a Savior! to everyone who believes” (Rom. 1:16). But Iconic Word #3: MISSION believers must share and live Honor-status reversal in the the gospel in camaraderie gospel is a pattern for mission; it with (not in superiority over) is inherently mission-in-motion. all peoples—including those Jesus said, “Peace be with you. of lower status, the poor and As the Father has sent me, even so oppressed. As members of a I am sending you” (John 20:21). global missionary community, As Jesus was sent by the Father Western Christians are still in the incarnational dynamic of making the shift, as Bosch says, honor- status reversal, even so from padre to compadre, no Jesus is actively sending believers longer participating “as the today in the same incarnational ones who have all the answers, dynamic of honor-status reversal. but as learners like everyone Believers and churches are to get else” (Bosch, 1991, p.453). Jesus on board, and enter God’s ongoing calls us: “If I then, your Lord story in motion. It is the life of the and Teacher, have washed your gospel of Jesus in the same mode feet, you also ought to wash of mission-in- motion. The life of one another’s feet. For I have Jesus, as recorded in the Gospels, given you an example, that you was a ministry of honor-status also should do just as I have reversal— he was “appointed done to you” (John 13:14–15). for the fall and rising of many in Israel” (Luke 2:34). People b. Against the status quo. were and are moved as a result Believers living by the gospel Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 31

of honor-status reversal are extension of Western power willing to violate the status and cultural superiority. The quo by stepping down to days of mission linked with serve among the poor and the power and empire are over, powerless, not only as friends, or should be. Mission in the but also as advocates and fellow 21st century must be mission sufferers. Jesus blessed the poor as servanthood, learning by and lowly, the hungry, the listening, collaboration, and persecuted (Luke 6:20–23) and above all humility—through pronounced “woes” against the the very mind of Christ high- status rich, powerful, (Phil. 2:5). and comfortable (Luke 6:24– 25)—while bringing liberty d. Vulnerability trumps power. to the oppressed (Luke 4:18). Jesus calls us to live the global Likewise, those who represent gospel as a descent into Christ, and the gospel of servanthood and vulnerability honor- status reversal, are (Mark 10:43; 2 Cor. 13:4). willing to speak against the This kind of ministry is status quo, challenging any more appealing to secular, social structure—any existing postmodern individuals and state of affairs—that is in peoples who are alienated by the contradiction to the Kingdom misuse of power by the church, of Christ. This is the prophetic may have been victimized by element of the gospel that may people in the church, or who not necessarily change the simply see the hypocrisies state of oppressive affairs, but of Christendom. Many see which, nevertheless, is good a controlling church which, news to the poor by the hope over the centuries, has too which it brings. often reinforced the powerful status quo at the expense of the c. Repentance for the church, powerless and marginalized— not just the lost. The global contradicting the life and gospel of honor-status reversal teachings of Jesus. Moreover, leads Christians to embrace a gospel that celebrates servanthood and vulnerability the acceptance, honor, and as the default mode of mission, community of its members will and therefore are wary (if not be much more attractive for the repentant) of mission as an secular multitudes in the West 32 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

who are often plagued by sin, spiritual DNA of those who isolation and shame, fractured follow Christ has been altered families, or a perpetual sense because they are “born, not of of homelessness. blood nor of the will of the flesh nor of the will of man, but Iconic Word #4: KINGDOM of God” (John 1:13)—a regal Honor-status reversal points to identity for the people of God the kingdom reign of Christ. (1 Pet. 2:9). The gospel that embodies honor-status reversal celebrates b. Honor surplus in the Kingdom the already-but-not-yet reign of of God. Since God has relocated Christ in his kingdom. The cross the Christian’s ascribed honor was not a morbid pause against into a new community and which God had to struggle kingdom ruled by the beloved in order to raise Christ from Son, Jesus Christ (Col. 1:13), the dead; it was more like an believers experience an honor unstoppable, gravitas of glory surplus saturated with the love that catapulted Christ into the of God. This honor surplus is highly exalted regal honor and not just an objective doctrinal glory of his kingdom. Believers truth concerning a heavenly live with the effect and the affect destiny (Eph. 2:6; cf. Rev. 3:21), of this new honor—that honor it is also a subjective visceral being in Christ himself, in his reality that believers feel today: family the church, and in his “And hope does not put us to kingdom. shame, because God’s love has a. New source of honor in Christ been poured into our hearts the King. Followers of Jesus through the Holy Spirit who have a new source of ascribed has been given to us” (Rom. honor; it is the honor of God 5:5). Paul was speaking of himself as the Father of a new an already, present- tense family, a new kinship group experience of the Holy Spirit, called the church, the body not a theological concept of Christ, the “one new man” pointing to the distant future. (Eph. 2:15). “But to all who did receive him, who believed c. Unlimited good in Christ. in his name, he gave the right Believers have a new unlimited to become children of God” source of honor today. (John 1:12; cf. 1 John 3:1). The Believers have had their honor Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 33

relocated into the regal King scripture. Steve Hawthorne and his kingdom: “Blessed are simply concludes that “the the poor in spirit, for theirs core of the drama that impels is the kingdom of heaven” all things [is that] God’s great (Matt. 5:3). Thus, believers honor reverses deep shame” can “vacate the playing (Mischke 2015, 18). We have also field” (Neyrey, 1998, 214) of seen that honor-status reversal honor competition is inherent— and violence, live “Blessed are the that is, essential, in the peace of poor in spirit, for fundamental, God (Matt. 5:9), theirs is the kingdom indeed, basic to the resist temptation, of heaven.” gospel of Christ. absorb shame, and even suffer persecution if What does this mean for necessary (Matt. 5:10). They contextualizing the gospel in our are freed from the dark side multicultural neighborhoods? of honor and shame—rivalry, What does it mean for the honor competition, honor- multitudes of unreached peoples based violence. The demonic for whom honor and shame is dynamic of “honor-trumps- a primary cultural value? What ethics” is replaced by the does this mean for the preaching highest freedom of Christ- of the gospel? empowered righteousness. They have exchanged the I agree with Jackson Wu who binding yoke of “limited simply states: “The gospel is good”6—for the freedom of already contextualized for honor/ the unlimited good of Christ, shame cultures.” And, “honor by which they experience the and shame are built into the abundance of God’s honor and framework of the gospel itself” glory, for he “will supply every (Wu 2014). need of yours according to his riches in glory in Christ Jesus” This means that the global gospel (Phil. 4:19). of Jesus Christ has the potential to resonate with the peoples of Honor/shame Dynamics at the our multicultural world—and Core of the Gospel with persons struggling with We have observed that honor- shame—perhaps far more than status reversal is a motif of we ever realized. 34 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

Concluding Questions

In this article, I introduce honor-status reversal as a dominant motif of scripture. Space does not permit a thorough investigation of the implications of this motif for the practice of orality in the mission of the church. However, the following questions are offered here to stimulate further dialog and study:

1. Reframing the gospel. 2. Resonating with the unreached. If the orality practitioners If it is true that a gospel motif recognized in their scriptures of honor-status reversal has the motif of honor-status great potential to resonate with reversal as vital to God’s story, unreached and unengaged how would this impact the way peoples (many of whom are Christianity is framed—both socially marginalized), how for gospel communication would this shape the practice and for Christian discipleship? of orality in missions? What What if believers were trained new endeavors would mission to articulate the gospel in a way agencies pursue to test this that extended beyond the Western probability? legal framework to one that is legal plus regal?

3. Reversing honor in our practice.

What if cross-cultural workers and orality practitioners more consistently lived out their mission in a way characterized by honor-status reversal— by which the shamed are honored and by which vulnerability trumps power and empire (John 20:21)? What if the Global Church’s efforts in collaboration more consistently included the attitudes and practices of 1 Corinthians 12:23: “and on those parts of the body that we think less honorable we bestow the greater honor?” How might we imagine these practices advancing the missio Dei in the 21st century? Honor-Status Reversal—Dominant Motif of the Biblical Grand Narrative 35

References Bauckham, Richard. 2003. Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker.

Bosch, David J. Orbis, 1992. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission. Maryknoll, NY. deSilva, David A. InterVarsity Press, 2000. Honor, Patronage, Kinship, Purity: Unlocking New Testament Culture. Downers Grove, IL.

Jewett, Robert. Fortress Press, 2007. Romans: A Commentary. Minneapolis, MN.

Hiebert, Paul E. B&H Publishing, 2010. Hesselgrave, David. MissionShift: Global Mission Issues in the Third Millennium; “The Gospel in Human Contexts: Changing Perceptions of Contextualization” in Stetzer, Ed.

Malina, Bruce J. Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology, Revised Edition. Louisville, KY.

Mischke, Werner. Mission ONE, 2014. The Global Gospel: Achieving Missional Impact in Our Multicultural World. Scottsdale, AZ.

Neyrey, Jerome. 1994. “Despising the Shame of the Cross: Honor and Shame in the Johannine Passion Narrative.” Semeia 68. Accessed December 18, 2013, from www3.nd.edu/~jneyrey1/shame.html.

Reich, Karl. The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill, NV, 2011. Figuring Jesus: The Power of Rhetorical Figures of Speech in the Gospel of Luke.

Tennent, Timothy C. Zondervan, 2007. Theology in the Context of World Christianity: How the Global Church Is Influencing the Way We Think about and Discuss Theology. Grand Rapids, MI.

–––––. Kregel, 2010. Invitation to World Missions: A Trinitarian Missiology for the Twenty-first Century. Grand Rapids, MI.

So, Damon. International Orality Network, 2013. “How Should a Theological Institution Prepare Students/Leaders Who Will Go Out into the Field to Train Local People (Storytellers) to Tell Bible Stories Effectively,” in Chiang, Samuel E. and Lovejoy, Grant, Eds., Beyond Literate Western Models: Contextualizing Theological Education in Oral Contexts.

Wright, Christopher J. H. InterVarsity Press, 2006. The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative. Downers Grove, IL. 36 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Werner Mischke

Wu, Jackson. William Carey International University Press, 2012. Saving God’s Face: A Chinese Contextualization of Salvation through Honor and Shame (EMS Dissertation Series). Pasadena, CA.

–––––. International Orality Network, 2015. “Rewriting the Gospel for Oral Cultures: Why Honor and Shame are Essential to the Gospel Story,” in Chapter 5, Beyond Literate Western Contexts: Honor & Shame and Assessment of Orality Preference, Hong Kong.

Endnotes 1. Figure 2 is adapted from a diagram I originally found on the online site of ESV Study Bible (http://esvbible.org) in connection to Philippians 2:5–11. This diagram is no longer included in their resources.

2. For an overview of the honor/shame dynamics in the arrest, trial, and crucifixion of Jesus, see Tennent, 89–91. Tennent cites Jerome Neyrey, (1994): 113–37. “Despising the Shame of the Cross: Honor and Shame in the Johannine Passion Narrative,” Semeia 68.

3. Ten times in Matthew’s Gospel Jesus is referred to as the Son of David, indicating the high honor accorded to David by God in Jewish tradition.

4. ESV Study Bible, Kindle edition locations 59670–59671.

5. Limited space does not permit us to include examples of all Old Testament prophets. But honor-status reversal is a widespread dynamic in all of the OT prophetic books. Examples include Jeremiah 33:1–13; Lamentations 5:1–22; Hosea 10:1–6; 14:4–7; Joel 2:18–29; Amos 2:1–16; 9:11–15; Obadiah 1–21; John 2:1–9; Micah 7:8–17; Nahum 2:1–12; Habakkuk 2:6–20; Zephaniah 2:5–15; 3:14–20; Haggai 2:20–22; Zechariah 3:1–6; 8:1–11:3; Malachi 3:11–4:3.

6. For an explanation of the honor/shame dynamic of the image of limited good, see Mischke, 2015, pp. 98–103. Leader Development Laboratory: Japanese Oral Culture 37 Leader Development Laboratory: Japanese Oral Culture Michael L. Wilson with Joseph Handley

As I, Joseph Handley, lead a mission focused on developing leaders who reproduce leaders and multiply churches for the transformation of Asia, I often hear stories like the one below.

Michael Wilson, church multiplication catalyst in the context of Japan, shares how orality operates in one of the most literate nations in the world.

apan is famous for having one communications is changing rapidly Jof the highest literacy rates due in large part to the Internet. in the world. However, there are Richard Jensen tells us that the several indications in the culture human race has lived through that orality still plays a large “three communication eras: (1) role: the use of haiku, learning oral or oral-aural, (2) script, which mathematics via onomatopoetic reached critical breakthroughs with sounds, and successfully planting the invention first of the alphabet daughter churches with lay and then later of alphabetic movable church planters via type, and (3) electronic . . . these inductive training. three stages are essentially stages In Japanese of verbalization” (1993, 17). Indigenous education, oral preference much of the In Japanese education, much of communicators/ learning is the learning is still done by rote learners and still done memorization. Oral recitation modern quasi-oral by rote of lessons is still common. And (i.e. digital) learners memorization. now that Internet usage has must be approached taken off in Okinawa Prefecture, in teaching differently with the lowest per capita income than those who have been and educational rate (Organisation socialized in a literary culture even for Economic Co-operation and though all adult learners profit from Development 2013), the smaller the introduction of some inductive jump from oral culture to quasi- elements that engage orality (and oral culture with polymorphic respect their experience) in the electronic communication affects learning process. The world of how ministry must be conducted. 38 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Michael L. Wilson Leader Development Laboratory: Japanese Oral Culture 39

The many relational oral ten minutes. This was very helpful communication elements of the at the last ALPHA meeting during ALPHA Course have made it a which we discussed what is “church” particularly effective vehicle for and how believers can be faithful communicating the gospel to to honor their father and mother primarily oral learners in Okinawa. while reserving their worship for The following two-column bullet Christ alone. With that important approach is helpful in comparing point understood, eight chose baptism elements of an oral culture and a and the church was birthed. literate culture. Later, in discipleship groups, we Preaching in an Oral Culture used a curriculum developed by 1. Stitching stories together Jeff Reed. The First Principles 2. Use of repetition Series (2003) has been adapted 3. Situational vs. abstraction and translated by Sendai Baptist 4. A tone of conflict Seminary into Japanese. This new 5. Right brain communication teaching method engages learners 6. Metaphors of participation orally. I once heard a lay church 7. Thinking in story planter from Keisen Church in Yamagata say that the new believers Preaching in a Literate Culture at his church plant were being 1. Linear development of ideas discipled using The First Principles 2. Structure ideas in space Series. He was excited because he 3. Propositions as the main claimed that believers taught using points the Church Based Theological 4. Analytical in nature Education (CBTE) curriculum 5. Left brain communication were developed into disciples who 6. Metaphors of illustration have their own individual vision 7. Thinking in ideas (Jensen which complements and fits within 1993, 43) the vision of the church.

While running the ALPHA Course, He was saying that the discovery we found it helpful to introduce the learning which takes place when Ten Commandments using a pictorial using CBTE results in disciples mnemonic drawing (See facing page who “buy into” the mission of 38). All 20+ attenders were able to the church with full engagement. memorize the Ten Commandments Keisen has sent out planters who and repeat them in any order in about have developed close to 20 new 40 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Michael L. Wilson daughter churches in other parts and decided to take the step of of Japan. All have been trained baptism. On several occasions, by the CBTE discussion and I was overjoyed and surprised reflection method that utilizes by the practical insights into literary elements but is clearly the scriptures that several new predominantly oral in nature. believers displayed amidst the reflection, discussion, and peer During one of our discipleship teaching of the CBTE small groups in Okinawa using the First group curriculum. Participants Principles Series, one lady who were engaged to play their had very little formal schooling part in fulfilling Christ’s Great caught the importance of baptism Commission.

References Jensen, Richard A. 1993. Thinking in Story: Preaching in a Post-Literate Age. Lima, Ohio: C.S.S. Pub.

“OECD Regions at a Glance 2013 – Japan Profile.” 2013. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Accessed January 22, 2015, from www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/Country-statistics-profile-Japan.pdf.

Reed, Jeff. 2003. Teaching the First Principles in the First Principles Series. LearnCorp Resources. Ames, Iowa: BILD International. Accessed January 22, 2015, from bild.org/resources/first_principles. William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 41 William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference in the Propagation of Indian Christianity Andrew D. McFarland

Andy McFarland is a Ph.D. candidate in Intercultural Studies, with a concentration in Evangelization, at Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky. His interests are cross-cultural evangelism, discipleship, and church planting in the North American and Indian contexts. His research focuses on the significance of William Carey’s interdependent missionary partnerships. Abstract y the time of his death in 1834, feature of Carey’s strategy for the BWilliam Carey had authored propagation of Indian Christianity. six complete Bible translations, 26 His approach contains valuable partial Bible translations, and a lessons for missionaries today. substantial number of other works. Even by today’s standards, his Introduction accomplishments are staggering. When we consider William Nevertheless, he did not go to Carey’s missionary strategy for the India for biblical translation, but propagation of the gospel in India, gospel propagation. This meant he we generally assume it was first and sought the most efficient strategy foremost a plan for translation. to communicate the gospel for Perhaps we picture him alone in the maximum number of people. his study feverishly composing his However, his strategy changed as translations by candlelight; after he became increasingly aware of all, some of Carey’s biographers the social context. Recent evidence have even described him in this suggests that Carey became way as one who had an aversion to convinced of the fruitfulness of “direct evangelistic outreach” and embracing an oral learning preference preferred rather to “beaver away in for evangelization. For this reason, his study” (Smith 1994, 249). What his translations were only part of if, rather, we could imagine him as his missionary strategy as he also a storyteller surrounded by Indian recognized the significance of oral inquirers wanting to know more learning preferences and modified about Christianity, or as a singer his approach to reach oral learners. of Bengali hymns in the crowded Eventually, this became a principle streets of Calcutta? 42 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland

William Carey DD, Professor of Sanskrit, Marathi and Bengali in Calcutta, 1885. William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 43

Simpson, William, India Ancient and Modern, published in 1867, view of Chitpore Road that cuts across Sutanuti from south to north. 44 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland

The truth is both of these examples However, Carey’s missionary illustrate parts of his approach. strategy developed over a period At the same time, neither of of time. In November 1793, when these is connected to his efforts in he and his missionary colleague, translation. In fact, we find that John Thomas, arrived in India, they when the missionary partnership assumed Indians had access to and between Carey and the Baptist could read their sacred texts. In Missionary Society (BMS) was their first encounter with Hindus, forged in the fall of 1792, “the Thomas asked two poor fishermen propagation of the Gospel if they had any Shastras (religious amongst the heathen” was the texts), to which they replied, “We declared intent, not translation. are poor men. Those who have This warrants a careful survey of many cowries (or are rich) read how Carey expected to accomplish the Shastras but we do not know this goal once in India. For them” (Carey’s journal, November instance, what was the message 9, 1793, in Carter 2000, 7). But that he communicated? How did he Carey soon became aware that communicate that message? How the social dynamics governing such did the message encourage the privilege were produced by caste founding of Indian Christianity? divisions. By the following July, he concluded that caste was “one of In each case, we have assumed the strangest chains with which the the answer is simple—vernacular Devil ever bound the children of translation. Nevertheless, Indians men” (Ibid., 36). Yet this conviction were far more interested in hearing led him to assume too much. Caste and experiencing the text. This study was not the only system influencing seeks to show that his translations the dissemination of knowledge were only part of his missionary in India. Oral transmission also strategy as he also recognized the had a role. significance of an oral learning preference and modified his Carey’s earliest exposure to oral approach to reach oral learners. Yet learning is likely to have come from Carey not only intended to produce his relationship with his language Indian translations, he sought to teacher (munshi). Ram Ram Basu propagate indigenous Indian had been Thomas’ teacher on one Christianity. For this reason, his of his earlier trips to India in the approach contains valuable lessons service of the East India Company. for missionaries today. Now having been informed of their William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 45 arrival, he came to meet them rather, he was convinced the (Chatterjee 2004, 204; George propagation of the gospel in India 1991, 72). The arrangements were would come through translation made for Basu to become Carey’s and preaching. He declared, “I teacher and the two men became know there are only two real close friends (Chatterjee 2004, 205). obstacles in any part of the Earth, a want of the Bible and the depravity Just two years later, Carey of the human heart” (Carey to confessed, “I have read some of Fuller, March 23, 1797, in Carter the shastras, they are the most 2000, 64; cf. Drewery 1979, 95). like Homer’s Iliad of anything I can think of both in manner and Therefore, he set himself to regular matters” (Carey to preaching in 200 villages for Ryland, November 26, By 1798… gatherings of 200-600. He 1796, in Carter 2000, all his efforts explained, “I took a boat for 137). However, while failed to my lodging . . . but performed Basu taught Carey the produce Indian the journey on foot walking Bengali language for the converts. from twelve to twenty miles purpose of producing a a day, and preaching, or Bengali Bible, he never rather conversing, from officially converted to Christianity. place to place about the things of Nevertheless, even before Carey’s God” (Carey to Society, January 12, arrival, Basu had started voluntarily 1796, in Carter 2000, 146). composing Christian hymns in Bengali for the purpose of his own When he was not preaching, missionary effort (Chatterjee 2004, he was translating. By 1798, 203). By 1798, Carey had begun he completed his Bengali to do the same. He wrote, “The translations of the last few people are very fond of singing chapters of Revelation and all hymns and I have been forced to the books of the Old Testament commence as poet to furnish them from Deuteronomy through with hymns to sing” (Carey to Malachi (Arangaden 1993, Sister, January 10, 1798, in Carter 178; Smith 2010, 65). Still, all 2000, 108). his efforts failed to produce Indian converts. Late in 1799, he Even so, at this point, Carey was confessed to his sisters that “little largely unaware of the significance fruit [had] appeared to encourage of this oral learning preference; our labors in the Gospel” (Carey 46 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland to Sisters, November 30, 1799, Therefore, soon after his baptism, in Carter 2000, 108), and as a he began a missionary effort in his result, he was deeply discouraged own neighborhood. In fact, one and perhaps even desperate. biographer explains, “Close to his home he built a preaching shed It was at this moment of despair where he talked with his neighbors. that new missionary recruits arrived He gathered lads about him to be from England. The new arrivals taught with his own children. He included the Marshmans and their [used] Bengali tunes [to compose] three children, the Grants and hymns soon sung everywhere” their two children, the Brunsdons, (Carey 1924, 233). Not only did Ward the printer, and Miss Tidd. Krishna’s whole family become Nevertheless, due to the British Christian, but neighboring families government’s prohibitions on did as well (Ibid., 234). missionaries at the time, Carey witnessed At Serampore, Carey came face to it became these developments face with oral learning preference. necessary as he visited them for Carey every Friday and to relocate the mission to the taught them from the Bengali Danish settlement of Serampore. scriptures. In time, he began By January 1800, they had to recognize the fruitfulness purchased property, agreed on of embracing oral learning for communal living arrangements, evangelization. Regardless, this and committed themselves to the “first native meeting house in work of the mission. Bengal” was Carey’s introduction to Indian Christianity (Baptist At Serampore, Carey came face to Missionary Society 1817, 67). face with oral learning preference. In December of that year, Krishna Oral Learning Preference in 19th Pal became Carey’s first Indian Century Indian Culture convert. This was at least in part due Even so, oral learning preference to Carey’s provision for evenings in 19th century India was complex. of Indian inquiry. But Krishna was It was governed by powerful a gifted evangelist. Moreover, he sociological, theological, and did not see theological instruction historical traditions. For instance, or European authorization as Walter Ong points out, “There is prerequisites for evangelization. no doubt that oral transmission William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 47 was important in the history of Therefore, it becomes necessary the Vedas. Brahman teachers or to reconcile this apparent gurus and their students devoted contradiction between orality and intensive effort to verbatim literacy. memorization . . .” (Ong 2002, 65). Ong offers some helpful terms One of Carey’s fellow missionaries, pertinent to this dilemma— William Ward, even observed that primary and secondary orality the Vedas were “put into the hands (Ong 2002, 12). He explains of children [upper caste] in the that primary oral cultures are first period of their education; and “untouched by any knowledge continue afterwards to be read by of writing or print” (Ibid., 11). rote, for the sake of the words, However, this does not mean without comprehension of the they suffer from a lack of shared sense” (Ward 1811, 212). However, knowledge. Neither do they suffer students were carefully instructed to from sociological disconnect. pay special attention to the author, Rather, he adds, “Listening to subject, rhythm, and purpose spoken words forms hearers into (Ibid., 211). In the same manner, he a group” (Ibid., 134). Secondary explained, “Thousands of Hindus oral cultures, he points out, are and Muslims spend an incredible “touched” by writing, albeit portion of time in audibly reading through intermediary devices what they have no apparent wish (Ibid., 11). This implies they lack to understand” (Ibid., 313). a reliance on the “spoken word.”

Yet this does not mean they were Jay Moon writes that they “have indifferent to the text. On the the ability to read and write, but contrary, Ward wrote, they prefer to learn or process It must be acknowledged, information by oral rather than that the Hindus in some written means . . .” (Moon 2012, former age or ages… made 30). These insights suggest there is considerable progress in a potential for both primary and several branches of learning. secondary oral learners to co-exist. Their grammars and In fact, this is precisely what Carey dictionaries of the Sanskrit encountered in 19th century India. language are proofs of much But this observation makes little ability in the science of sense without an understanding philology (Ibid., 191). of the caste system. 48 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland

Carey had not been in India long accounts for Carey’s discovery of before he recognized the priest oral learning preference among (Brahmin) and ruler (Kshatriya) both groups. castes had access to India’s sacred texts, whereas the commoner Carey’s Discovery of Oral (Vaisya) and servant (Sudra) castes Learning Preference did not. He complained that “not At this point, it is important to one in a thousand [Hindus] has ever clarify that Carey never actually seen or heard used the term [their shastras] Carey managed to identify and “oral learning . . . and many embrace certain aspects of Indian preference.” In [Brahmins] who culture that he perceived as distinct fact, he had no are esteemed from European culture terms for what learned don’t he observed. As know the Wilbert Shenk difference between the Sanskrit explains, “. . . by 1800 the human grammar and a religious book” sciences had not been established (Carey to Fuller, January 30, and there still was no explicit 1795, in Carter 2000, 79; cf. Ward and abstract concept of culture” 1811, 199). (1992, 68). Nevertheless, without the benefit of the conceptual Mary Drewery explains that framework, Carey managed to the caste system “separated one identify and embrace certain group of people from another aspects of Indian culture that from birth to the grave without he perceived as distinct from any possibility of change European culture. He discovered through education, marriage, or at least five features of oral by any other means” (1979, 66). learning preference that were Furthermore, Ward wrote, “The important for the propagation of shastras threaten the heaviest Indian Christianity—story, song, penalties on a Brahmin who shall dialogue, ritual, and proverbs. teach the knowledge of the sacred books to persons of low caste” 1. Story. The first feature of oral (1811, 311). This implies the upper learning preference that Carey caste groups exhibited secondary discovered was story. Ong explains orality whereas the lower caste that stories are important because, groups exhibited primary orality. “Oral cultures cannot generate Moreover, this clarification [abstract] categories, and so they William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 49 use stories of human action to were his own gathering and telling, store, organize, and communicate and not just brought together by much of what they know” (2002, one or more of his pundits” (Carey 137). Therefore, if Carey was to 1924, 216). Some of the stories tap into the knowledge of Indian Carey collected were: culture, it meant he needed a [A] rat, coming into familiarity with their stories. possession of a rupee, grew vain and contentious, Already, by 1795, he was collecting molesting all that came its and sharing Indian stories. He sent way, even the king’s elephant. at least three to his brethren back in “This rat must have money,” England noting, “So far I have given said the king, “or it would you extracts from my journal. I will never be thus insolent. Let its now add a fable or two which the hole be searched and cleared.” Brahmins repeated to me yesterday When this was done, and its from some of their ancient books.” rupee had vanished, the rat Most interesting are the titles he ceased its arrogance, and ascribed to each of the stories— was sensible once more. the evil of keeping bad company, the value of good counsel, and the [B]irds in a sandal tree were danger of ambition. The problem in very great peril. “See!” is no abstract titles would have said the dove to her mate, been given in the Indian context. “below, a fowler aims at Furthermore, each of these titles us his arrow: above us is point to potential biblical themes. a hawk. Only heaven’s These facts suggest that he mercy can save us!” At that intended not only to study Indian moment a snake bit the stories, but sought to communicate fowler, and he swooned, Christianity through them. and his arrow flew forth and struck the hawk. Regardless, these “examples” are but a fraction of his larger collection. In [A] king had a small tank 1812, he published a collection of dug in his courtyard, and 150 Indian stories in a book entitled resolved to fill it not with Itihasmala or Garland of Stories water but with milk. So he (Carey 1924, 216; cf. Chatterjee promised reward to all who, 1993, 169). Commenting on the on a given night, through work, one biographer adds, “They certain outer conduits, 50 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland

should pour a kalshi of milk This was Carey’s first attempt at into the tank. Yet on the an oral approach to evangelization. morrow the tank was full of Jay Moon explains why this is so water, and no trace of milk. important for oral cultures. He For each had judged that, writes, if his was a kalshi of water, Good oral performers often it would be undetected in a use sounds and gestures tank of milk. So each had to create a pleasing and poured water, and the king memorable experience… was indignant, and none This may be in the form of could get reward (Ibid., 229). a refrain that is sung at key points, questions asked, or All three of these stories could simple role-playing. All of have easily been used by Carey to these techniques are used to communicate biblical concepts for aid people in remembering oral learners. Unfortunately, there the story (2009, 226). is no conclusive evidence that he did so. Nevertheless, this represents one Mnemonic repetition is noted area of Carey scholarship which throughout Basu’s hymn. A has been virtually unexplored. portion of the English translation of the hymn (Chatterjee 2004, 2. Song. The second feature of 202) reads, oral learning preference that [O] who besides can recover us Carey discovered was song. He had O who besides can recover us initially become aware of the Indian From the everlasting darkness use of song through his relationship of sin with Ram Ram Basu, though he Except the Lord Jesus Christ failed to grasp its significance at Lo! That Lord is the Son of God the time. However, by 1800, he was The intermediate of a sinner’s convinced that Basu’s 1788 hymn salvation would be useful for the work of Whosoever adores Him the mission. Therefore, he not only Will get over his eternal ruin published it, he distributed copies O who besides can recover us of it for Bengali readers (Chatterjee In all this earth 2004, 210). Ward even reported that There is none free from sin one Brahmin complained, “They Except the savior of the world were all over the country. He could And His name is Jesus go into any house and read one.” O who besides can recover us William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 51

In fact, Carey encouraged Indian depicting an Indian renouncing converts to incorporate song his idolatrous past and embracing in their evangelism. In 1801, he Christ as Lord” (George 1991, concluded, “It appears to us all 128). Here, we find Carey not we ought to make the most of the only embracing the oral learning gifts of our Hindu friend and we preference for song, but also the oral are thinking how to employ our learning preference for storytelling. friend Krishna [Pal] so as to make him useful in the Lord’s vineyard” Ward explains why this practice (Carey to Fuller, August 14, 1801, was so important. He wrote, “In in Carter 2000, 172). this country, it is common for a few of the lowest of the people to take While Carey does not specifically up the trade of ballad-singers, or identify song as one of the gifts they beggars, for they have no written or intended to “employ,” he was well printed books to fell.” Regardless, aware Krishna was a bhajan singer. although Indian evangelists Eleanor Jackson even points out continued in this practice for that he “maintained his practice of decades, there is no evidence that it singing devotional songs all night ever became a widespread practice long when he became a Christian” for European missionaries. (Jackson 2008, 187). But he also composed numerous hymns in 3. Dialogue. Carey also discovered Bengali which were printed by a third feature of oral learning the mission, distributed, and sung preference: dialogue. This was an throughout the region. Moreover, important discovery since Indians he was not alone. Indian converts, were not likely to respond to an Raghu Nath (1805), Vrind Havun approach that required reflection (1807), and Tarachand Datta (1813) as individuals. Rather, George all evangelized in the same manner Edward explains that oral cultures (Ibid., 187-190). “tend to communicate in groups and don’t think very long without Even Carey and his missionary dialogue . . . They prefer to read colleagues tried the approach. aloud to groups” (2007, 7). So as Timothy George explains, “Ward early as 1794, Carey had begun had printed up copies of the ballad to engage in public dialogue with they sang and gave them out to the Indians (Carey’s journal, May 25, curious onlookers. It was a hymn 1974, in Carter, 2000, 30). The Carey had composed in Bengali following year he had even set 52 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland aside a day for “inquirers” to come conclusion. First, Carey thought for instruction (Carey’s journal, it best to begin with the New February 15, 1795, in Carter, Testament, but he also reasoned, 2000, 53). However, during this “There are many people who would period, his communication style scarce read four volumes, who demonstrated a tendency toward would read one with attention” monologue. It was not until 1800 (Carey to Ryland, August 17, 1800, that he began to show a significant in Carter 2000, 154). This means he commitment to conversation, already had oral learners in mind especially after the publication of when he sought to print the Gospel the Gospel of Matthew in Bengali. of Matthew. Second, he did not expect this work to be used for More than anything else, this the evangelism and discipleship of publication paved the way for individuals. Rather, he explained, dialogue. Carey used one of Basu’s I have opened a book in “poetic tracts” called the Gospel which I insert, the name, Messenger (Hurkura), consisting and place of abode of every of 100 lines of verse, as an person to whom a book is introduction to his newly completed given. The design of this Bengali translation (Chatterjee is that when we go to any 2004, 210; cf. Marshman 1864, part we may be able to know 62). A few points about this whether the Word of Life work are noteworthy. First, Carey has been sent thither or not included Basu’s “introduction” (Ibid., 154). only in this work. Second, Carey printed only his translation of the This implies he expected his Gospel of Matthew and some Old “target audiences” to be specific Testament prophecies, although he villages or geographical regions. had completed the entire Bengali If this is true, it suggests he translation by this time. Third, he composed his Bengali translation, made just 500 copies with an aim not for individual reading, but to distribute them immediately. Is for the oral transmission of the it possible he intended this work gospel throughout India. to be read by Indian evangelists to groups of oral learners? Perhaps this should come as no surprise since Carey later There are at least two pieces developed and practiced an of evidence that support this oral approach to translation. William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 53

One biographer describes his hundred . . . had voluntarily laid approach. Carey knew, “All his aside their caste, together with pundits knew Sanskrit. If he all their idolatrous practices and could put a Sanskrit Bible into their reverential acknowledgment their hands, they could make of Mohammed and had sent three thence first-draft translations into deputies to Serampore to inquire their own vernaculars” (Carey into the nature of Christianity” 1924, 134). He would then check (Christian Observer 1803, 317). the translations for errors. After Three years later, Carey explains all this, he later concluded, “It what happened: appears that our business is to [H]e wrote, “Brother Ward, provide materials for spreading more than three years ago, the Gospel” (Carey to Ryland, went to that village [Ram June 23, 1803, in Carter 2000, 138). Krishnapore] to see our This plan meant that every day friend, Mr. Cunningham. Carey and as many as 30 Hindu On this occasion he went pundits read the Bible together into the market place, verse by verse and discussed what and distributed a few it meant (Drewery 1979, 133; cf. pamphlets, having but one George 1991, 141). This, in turn, New Testament, he left led to the development of a small that at a shop for the use pundit community. of the village, telling the shopkeeper to put it into However, his emphasis on the hands of any one who translation does not mean he could read it. One of these assumed a passive role in the papers fell into the hands propagation of the gospel in India. of a devotee whose name is Rather, he sought to strategically [Jager Nath], he employed distribute not only copies of the a neighbor named Krishna Bengali translations, but also to read it. This Krishna got Bengali tracts, in the hopes that information about it, and a reader would discover them afterwards read it frequently and share them with his or her to a few neighbors; the neighbors. Moreover, he did not consequence was that God have to wait long for results. By begins a work of grace upon 1803, the Christian Observer the hearts of several, and could report that “…a body of carried it on long without the natives amounting to two our knowing any thing 54 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland

of the matter” (Carey to Carey’s first real exposure to Morris, February 17, 1806, Indian ritual came the following in Carter 2000, 185; cf. Carey month with the festival of Churruk 2000, 251). which was the practice of “self- tormenting” in the final days of Nevertheless, the smaller results their calendar year (Carey’s journal, were no less significant. During this April 9, 1794, in Carter 2000, 23). period, Indians from every caste These rituals, or acts of worship and region were showing up at the (puja), were performed as a kind mission desiring either Baptism or of penance. Most commonly, they instruction. Carey even wrote that consisted of falling on iron spikes, in 1813, “Five natives of high caste thrusting bamboo through their have lately been baptized who have sides, and hook swinging. But been brought to a knowledge of the he noticed only the lower castes truth without any communication participated in these rituals while with us. They met with Bibles, and the upper castes never did. Still, it other tracts, and God wrought was three years before he declared them” (Carey to Fuller, March 25, caste to be incompatible with Indian 1817, in Carter 2000, 163; cf. Carey Christianity (Carey to Fuller, March 2000, 299). 23, 1797, in Carter 2000, 64).

4. Ritual. The fourth feature of By 1800, Carey understood these oral learning preference that Carey rituals were more than idolatrous discovered was ritual. No festival practice or cultural superstition. in India was complete without an As Jay Moon points out, rituals are elaborate display of ritual. In fact, “used in oral cultures to help people the whole Indian year was carried understand and experience God” along by its festivals (Drewery (Moon 2009, 264). This meant 1979, 86). His introduction to that these rituals were part of a this reality was the festival of the much larger divine narrative which Incarnation of Krishna in March worked to reinforce caste divisions. of 1794. However, since he refused Therefore, Carey determined to to expose himself to idolatry introduce rituals that emphasized on the Sabbath, he remained an alternative narrative—the indoors to watch the dancing narrative of intercaste community. of worshipers as they returned from the celebration covered in As Eleanor Jackson explains, red powder. “intercaste community” for Carey, William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 55

Marshman, and Ward, was “a else that happened at this meal. theological statement of the What is clear is that even the Indian authenticity of the gospel and the servants recognized the ritualistic Church in Bengal” (Jackson 2008, nature of this event as they cried 170). It was, first and foremost, out that Krishna and Gokul had a statement about the nature of “become Europeans” (Smith 2010, God and his purpose for creation. 84; Drewery 1979, 120; Marshman However, rituals are meaningless 1864, 65). This was also cited as the without symbolism. Moon writes reason for their being attacked on that symbols “help people feel, their way home. This was a time touch, taste, see, or smell God’s of separation. presence” (Moon 2009, 264). For this reason, Carey sought Second, Carey included Indians to make the process of entering who had eaten with Europeans intercaste community experiential as members of the mission for oral learners. Furthermore, his family through baptism. After approach follows the three stages all, he had long suspected that of ritual outlined by Arnold Van Indian converts would “become Gennep (Moon 2013, 46). outcasts immediately” and would thereby need support (Carey to First, Carey invited Indians who Ryland, November 26, 1796, in had been inquirers to eat with Carter 2000, 137). However, he Europeans. But this was no also insisted that if Indians joined ordinary meal. Both Indians and them, “all should be considered Europeans knew quite well that if equal and all come under the same they were to eat with Europeans, regulations” (Carey to Fuller, they would lose their caste and be November 16, 1796, in Carter ostracized from Indian society. So, 2000, 137). In fact, after 1804, this when Krishna Pal and Gokul, his statement of Indian equality was friend, expressed a willingness to one of the confessions recited by eat with them, they entered into every mission station three times a time of prayer. Next, they were annually (George 1991, 123). asked if they understood what they had heard during their period Regardless, some, like Krishna Pal, of inquiry (Smith 2010, 84; cf. chose to remain in the village from Drewery 1979, 120). After this, they which they came. Others chose to shared a meal. Unfortunately, there take up residence in the Christian is no detailed record of anything village, near Serampore, which had 56 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland been established for that purpose could win India for Christ. This (Chatterjee 2004, 95; cf. Jackson made the training up of pastors, 2008, 176). Either way, Moon teachers, and evangelists one of explains, “This important stage is their highest priorities. This was marked by uncertainty, confusion, a time of reincorporation. and chaos” (Moon 2013, 46). This was a time of transition. 5. Proverbs. Carey also discovered a fifth feature of oral learning Third, Carey initiated Indians preference—proverbs. As early as who had become part of 1795, Carey explained to the mission family into He gave them the BMS, “Partly from intercaste community a new way to local circumstances, and through communion. worship as they partly from paucity of One the one hand, he served Christ with words, my preaching is sought to present this their various gifts. very different to what it reality in the most potent was in England” (Carey way. Therefore, when to Society, August 13, Krishna Prasad, a Kulin Brahmin, 1795, Carter 2000, 84). However, the most esteemed in India, attended it may be that his poor Bengali his first communion, he was served vocabulary, during this period, was the common cup from the hands of the very thing that created space for Krishna Pal, a Sudra (Nicholls 1993, Indian expression. Moon points 121). Indeed, this image would have out why this is important for oral been seared into the mind of every cultures: “Indigenous proverbs Hindu in attendance. capture many of the core values of a culture using terms and metaphors On the other hand, he sought that the people recognize as ‘their to produce disciples who would own’” (Moon 2009, 262). Two propagate Indian Christianity. occasions in particular show that Whereas some previous traditions Carey understood this. had given converts a new name, Carey insisted they keep it (Carey The earliest evidence comes from to Fuller, August 4, 1801, in Carter one of his Bengali sermons for 2000, 173). Instead, he gave them a 200-600 Indians in May 1795. new way to worship as they served He recorded in his journal, “I Christ with their various gifts. told them that their books were After all, by 1805, he was convinced like a loaf of bread, in which that only Indian missionaries was a considerable quantity of William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 57 good flour, but also a little very will “see the reason of these malignant poison, which made the apparent irregularities, and gain a whole so poisonous that whoever flexibility of expression” (Ibid., iv). should eat of it would die” (May 9, 1795, in Carter 2000, 58). The Some of the proverbs Carey following January, he used a identified were: similar imagery in conversation [M]an is like a clod: which with a group of Hindus. He way soever the gods throw declared, “Try to make your heart him, there he remains truly good, you will find it harder work One can stay four or five days still. See the buffalo, he feeds upon nowhere, and have the wind grass. See the tiger, he feeds upon blow on one’s body flesh. Go and make the buffalo eat Your light did not come on flesh, or the tiger eat grass, you well this morning will find either of these easier than Nothing sticks in the mouth: to make your evil heart good.” a man may say anything He was all the ability which By 1802, Carey could write, “I may there was: all others are say, indeed, that their manners, stupid elephants customs, habits, and sentiment are What can I say, there is no so obvious to me as if I am myself path for words a native” (Chatterjee 2004, 94). While it is unclear to what degree Unfortunately, no record has this understanding influenced survived which illustrates how his translations or evangelism, Carey used such expressions. It a hint may be found must suffice to say in the preface to his He recognized that that he was aware Dialogues Intended metaphorical imagery of them, thought to Facilitate the was important for them valuable, and Acquiring of the understanding Indians encouraged others Bengalee Language. and communicating to use them. At He wrote that “many the gospel to them. the same time, he allusive expressions, recognized that and idiomatic metaphorical imagery forms of speech, have scarcely was important for understanding any intelligible meaning when Indians and communicating the translated literally” (Carey 1818, gospel to them. In some ways, it iii). Moreover, he hopes the reader even came natural for him. 58 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland

Conclusion he expected his translations to William Carey’s translations bear fruit which could be seen were only part of a much larger and tasted. Therefore, he did strategy. He did indeed recognize not perceive his labors to be the significance of an oral learning merely “preparatory,” as some preference and modified his biographers have supposed. In approach to reach oral learners. fact, it made little sense to him Nevertheless, his strategy was to produce translations that did experimental and his conclusions not also lead to salvations. For this were tentative. He simply kept reason, his translations were only what worked and discarded what the beginning of his strategy for did not. This is precisely why the evangelization of India. some have found it difficult to categorize He learned how to Even so, what was the his approach. Still, he make his message message that Carey did not immediately memorable. He communicated? At recognize the preference sought to treat a period when most for oral learning or Indians as equals, Europeans were its importance for and likewise, preoccupied with translation. It was partner with extracting India’s only after he gained a Indians as family. resources, Carey sought considerable familiarity to invest in India’s with the Indian context that he people. He longed to encourage the began to see the insufficiency of gifts of Indians, especially where it an approach which emphasized pertained to India’s evangelization. translation alone. His primary conviction was that God had placed an immeasurable However, if this is true, we must value on the human soul. However, reconsider our assumptions about it was not only the salvation of him. We can no longer perceive souls in the afterlife that concerned him to be the antisocial scribe him, but the suffering of souls obsessed with the production in this life as well. For this reason, of vernacular translations. To the very heart of Carey’s strategy be sure, he devoted much of his for India was an expectation for time to translation, but he never God’s kingdom. imagined the translation of the gospel to be disconnected from the Still, how did Carey communicate propagation of the gospel. Rather, this message? Perhaps, the answer William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 59 is simple. First, Carey left his England. Yet, somehow he home, his country, and all he had came to realize that raising ever known for an unfamiliar place up Indian evangelists under to invest in people he had never European superintendence was met. In short, he was willing to not the answer either. Instead, he be the catalyst for the message. seemed to sense that the time for Second, he learned how to make Europeans was coming to an end his message memorable. He and that the time for Indians was sought to treat Indians as equals, dawning. He became convinced and likewise, partner with Indians that releasing Indian evangelists as family. We must remember, in was as important as raising them 19th century India, that message up for the evangelization of India. had no parallel in Indian or Carey also encouraged them to European culture. work within their own cultural framework. He understood that Third, he took seriously the a foreign Christianity was no cultural context in which he would Christianity at all. He believed communicate this the gospel had to message. He studied Carey also encouraged be personalized Indian culture nearly them to work within their for Indians, and as much as he own cultural framework. thereafter by studied scripture. He Indians. So he found that story, song, dialogue, modeled Christianity for them ritual, and proverbs were all deeply with his own life and then invited interwoven with Indian culture, them to improve on his example. and more specifically oral learning He knew that only Indians held preference. the key to Indian Christianity and he gave his life helping Indians Nevertheless, Carey did more find that key. than communicate the message: he released the message for Whatever we may think of Carey the propagation of Indian and his approach, he expected all Christianity. He nurtured his labors would eventually lead the development of Indian to the establishment of indigenous evangelists, pastors, and teachers. Indian Christianity. Likewise, this He knew that the evangelization meant he assumed the gospel of India would never be possible would be propagated by oral for missionary recruits from learners. The significance of this 60 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland strategy cannot be missed. After reaching all of India was the goal. all, this one small detail prevented Regardless, Carey’s embracing of the transplanting of European an oral learning preference for Christianity and ensured the the propagation of the gospel maintenance of a strong Indian continues to serve as an important identity. This was essential if example for missionaries today. William Carey’s Discovery of Oral Learning Preference 61

References American Baptist Society.1852. The First Hindu Convert: A Memoir of Krishna Pal. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society.

Arangaden, Christopher. 1993. “Carey’s Legacy of Bible Translation.” In Carey’s Obligation and India’s Renaissance. Eds. J.T.K. Daniel and R. E. Hedlund, 176-186. Serampore: Council of Serampore College.

Baptist Missionary Society (London).1800. Periodical Accounts Relative to the Baptist Missionary Society 1. Clipstone: J.W. Morris.

_____. 1801. Periodical Accounts Relative to the Baptist Missionary Society 2. Clipstone: J.W. Morris.

Baptist Missionary Society (Massachusetts).1817. “Short Account of the Conversion and Baptism of Krishna Pal.” In The American Baptist Magazine and Missionary Intelligencer 1(2).

Carey, S. Pearce. 1924. William Carey D.D., Fellow of Linnaean Society. London: Hobber and Stoughton.

Carey, William. 1818. Dialogues Intended to Facilitate the Acquiring of the Bengalee Language. Serampore: Mission Press.

Carter, Terry G., ed. 2000. The Journal and Selected Letters of William Carey. Macon: Smyth and Helwys.

Chatterjee, Sunil K. 1993. “William Carey and the Linguistic Renaissance in India.” In Carey’s Obligation and India’s Renaissance. Eds. J.T.K. Daniel and R. E. Hedlund, 157-175. Serampore: Council of Serampore College.

_____. 2004. William Carey and Serampore. Serampore: Chatterjee.

Church of England. 1803. The Christian Observer 2(1).

Drewery, Mary. 1979. William Carey: A Biography. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Edward, George. 2007. “Orality and Anthropological Issues.” In Dharma Deepika 11(1), issue 25.

George, Timothy. 1991. Faithful Witness: The Life and Mission of William Carey. Birmingham: New Hope. 62 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Andrew D. McFarland

Jackson, Eleanor. 2008. “From Krishna Pal to Lal Behari Dey: Indian Builders of the Church in Bengal, 1800-1894.” In Converting Colonialism: Visions and Realities in Mission History, 1706-1914. Ed. Dana L. Robert, 166-205. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

Marshman, J. C. 1864. The Life and Labours of Carey, Marshman, and Ward. London: Alexander Strahan & Company.

Moon, W. Jay. 2009. “Indigenous Proverbs, Rituals, and Stories: Evidence of God’s Prevenient Grace in Oral Cultures.” In World Mission in the Wesleyan Spirit. Ed. Darrell L. Whiteman and Gerald H. Anderson, 260-269. Franklin: Providence House.

_____. 2012. “Understanding Oral Learners.” In Teaching Theology and Religion 15(1).

_____. 2013. “Using Rituals to Disciple Oral Learners.” In Orality Journal 2(1).

Nicholls, Bruce J. 1993. “The Theology of William Carey.” In Carey’s Obligation and India’s Renaissance. Eds. J.T.K. Daniel and R. E. Hedlund, 114-126. Serampore: Council of Serampore College.

Ong, Walter J. 2002. Orality and Literacy. New York: Routledge.

Shenk, Wilbert R. 1992. “Reflections on the Modern Missionary Movement.” In Mission Studies 9(1).

Smith, A. Christopher. 1994. “William Carey: Protestant Pioneer of the Modern Mission Era.” In Mission Legacies: Biographical Studies of Leaders of the Modern Missionary Movement, Ed. Gerald H. Anderson, Robert T. Coote, Norman A. Horner, and James M. Phillips, 245-254. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books.

Smith, George. 1885. The Life of William Carey, D.D. London: John Murray. _____. 2010. The Life of William Carey, D.D.: Shoemaker and Missionary. Lexington: Feather Trail Press.

Ward, William. 1811. Account of the Writings, Religion, and Manners of the Hindoos: Including Translations from their Principal Works. Serampore: Mission Press.

Endnotes 1Ibid., 219. 2Ibid., 229. Literacy and Orality Working Together 63 Literacy and Orality Working Together: The Intersection of Heart and Mind Margaret Doll

Margaret Doll has served with WBT/SIL since 1989. She is the Associate International Coordinator for Vernacular Media, VM Resource Coordinator, and is a Media Consultant. She has an M.Div. and D.Min. from Gordon- Conwell Theological Seminary. Her doctoral thesis includes strategies for cross-cultural leadership training in oral societies.

In this article, we take a look at one missionary’s strategy to integrate literate and oral methodologies where literacy is valued but orality is the preferred learning style. We explore the rationale and strategies for recovering the value of oral communication methods for the sake of the gospel.

Introduction work in a department that emphasis on literacy become a Iwas originally tasked to help hindrance to spiritual growth determine and provide media in some language communities? options to enable language groups Has an emphasis on literacy given who were oral communicators to an implicit message that oral access translated scripture that communication methods are less had been completed. Many of valuable? the language groups that had received translated scripture were The Case not using them as they were simply Billy Coppedge and his wife are not interested in reading. In fact, missionaries in East Africa, where 75% of the remaining languages they are involved in training pastors that still need scripture are spoken in partnership with Africa Gospel by oral communicators. Media Church. Their mission organization has an important part to play in has been training pastors there in language programs and even in a non-formal program since 1999. being foundational to language program ownership and language Over the years, an extensive literate- development. Literacy programs based curriculum was developed have always been a major part of for traditional pastoral topics the strategy that accompanies a such as Old and New Testament, translation project. But can an basic doctrine, preaching, etc. 64 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Margaret Doll

Typical lessons were based on a want to dismiss the educational topical outline and communicated expectations of those coming to via lecture. But as the program the workshop (Coppedge 2012). expanded throughout Uganda, questions began to arise as to its Influence of a Literate Worldview effectiveness. Evaluations and on Oral Societies fieldwork indicated a gap between It has long been believed that a theory and practice. This gap person has to learn to read the forced reconsiderations on the Bible in order to become spiritually training methods being used. mature. Those who could not read certainly could not become In 2008, a decision was made by leaders in their churches. But the the mission organization, World introduction to literacy has not Gospel Mission (WGM), and the always had a positive impact; in Africa Gospel Church, to consider some African communities it has using oral methodologies for caused class divisions. Not only training. In 2009, Billy introduced that, but those becoming educated oral methods using storytelling have often been more interested in in a training program for Alur education for economic reasons pastors in rural northwestern than for missiological reasons. Uganda. These pastors were predominately oral preference According to Herbert Klem, “After learners. But Billy was surprised 100 years of literacy oriented when they continued to ask for missions, more than 75% of worksheets and written notes from Africa does not read well enough to each story. manage basic Bible passages, and many more who can read, simply Why were they requesting do not enjoy the process” (1995, literate materials? He realized 59-60). Even among those who that they lived in a culture that are educated, there is a preference prized literacy. It was a modern for hearing their language rather expectation. Literacy had cultural than reading it. A survey of about value—storytelling no longer had 30 African university students the same value. Now Billy faced and graduates showed that all a conundrum. He did not want of them prefer oral forms of to see oral preference learners at communication to print-based. a disadvantage by handing out They said it is more aesthetically written lessons. But he also did not and relationally rewarding (Lovejoy Literacy and Orality Working Together 65

2010, 2). This is understandable— in a one-way lecture-based most African cultures are strongly environment like that. Active oral and strongly relational. participation is necessary for effective communication to occur. Many who have gone on to become But a high value for literacy educated no longer relate well to and the use of literate methods their communities. permeates everything, Sometimes, it is Spiritual maturity from the involvement because they try to cannot be achieved of community members communicate in a in a one-way lecture- in the translation task literate style that based environment. to training indigenous is not understood pastors (with scripture by their communities. Such was engagement and language the experience of one pastor development in between). who spent two years in a Bible college. When he returned home Worldview dictates values and to his congregation, they could beliefs. It is what we believe to not understand his sermons, and be true. A person’s worldview is there was little spiritual growth the framework of thought upon among them until he attended a which his or her belief system is Bible Story workshop and began built. It provides structure for to include that method of teaching all thought. One’s worldview is in the local language. substantially formulated by the story of his or her culture. Typical pastor training methods are usually based on a literate Replace a person’s core heritage worldview at the expense of the story with what God’s word oral worldview of the people says about origins, value, among whom they are called relevancy, and you can change to minister. Almost everything their worldview. For too long, these pastors are taught to do is the culture of Western society based on a literate worldview, and has embraced a core story that because of it, they have a hard excludes God. And even for time passing on what they have those who claim Christ as Lord learned to their communities and Savior, society has pushed a and congregations (Snowden story that values things such as in Coppedge 2012). Spiritual education, money, power, and/ maturity cannot be achieved or a name. 66 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Margaret Doll

Western literate humanity easily who are hearing and receiving the compartmentalizes life, separating gospel, sustain relevancy if their the spiritual from the secular, identity is in anything of this world? the private from the public. Our core identity is important—who We have a two-tiered view of we say we are is important. So who reality, keeping the supernatural are you? Who do you say you are? or spiritual separated from the This is what will motivate you, and physical world, the world that can this is what you will communicate be confirmed scientifically. But as to others. Western literate humanity easily compartmentalizes life, separating the spiritual from the secular, the private from the public. author David Wells says, God is Bible Translation—A omnipresent and omnipotent and Communication Task if we do not acknowledge him in Everyone would agree that Bible all realms we are denying him. translation is a communication We need to recover a sense of the task. God wants to be known greatness and holiness of God and he has communicated that “will lift our vision, fill our with humanity in various ways. hearts [and] make us courageous Hebrews 1 says it this way: for what is right . . .” We cannot “Long ago, at many times and allow ourselves to be influenced by in many ways God spoke to our a constantly changing world that fathers by the prophets, but in expects us to reinvent ourselves to these last days he has spoken adapt to it at the expense of the to us by his Son, whom he truths we know from God’s word. appointed the heir to all things, “God is the center and focal point through whom he also created of all reality . . .” (Wells 2008, the world.” Scripture is witness 117, 133). to his will to be known and his intentional communication of As Christians, we have been called to himself. In the New Testament be God’s own, a treasured possession we see clearly what a master (Deut. 7:6, 1 Peter 2:9, Titus 2:14). We communicator Jesus was, should look to God for our identity tailoring his communication and accept that we will behave and methods to fit his audience. He function in a way different from communicated in a way that the world. How will the language reached all who were willing communities among the nations, to listen. Literacy and Orality Working Together 67

Listening is the way most people word may find expression have received God’s word over the as written word, it is, more centuries. Holly Hearon points often than not, written out the close relationship between word that is perceived, written and spoken words in the encountered, or employed New Testament: as an extension of spoken Written texts “speak”: “Now word. Additional examples we know that whatever of this complex relationship the law says [λεγω] . . . it between written and spoken speaks [λαλεω] so that every word are found in Luke- mouth might be silenced” Acts: for example, writing (Rom 3:19). Reading is on a tablet (πινακιδιον) is not a silent activity, but a substituted for the voice re-oralization of written (Luke 1:63) while letters words: “Philip, running up are written in the absence [to the chariot] heard him of physical presence reading . . .” (Acts 8:30; see (επιστελλω; επιστολη) [Acts also Rev 1:3). Spoken word 15:20, 30; 21:25; 23:25, 33]) is employed to corroborate (2010, 58-59). written word: “Therefore The loss of the fundamental we have sent Judas and Silas orality of the written word who themselves by word of has also resulted in an mouth will announce the overemphasis on the same things [written in this document itself rather than letter]” (Acts 8:17). In these the author of the document. examples, the boundary between written and spoken It is possible that our bias as a words is porous. The written print culture has diminished our word is perceived as having understanding of scripture as an voice, a voice that is vocalized active, vocal presence in the lives in the act of reading. Yet it of communities and individuals. It is a voice that is dependent was the word read or spoken aloud on living voices in order that moved people’s hearts. The to assume agency . . . This oral reading and recitation that suggests that written word is was once the primary means for perceived as being, more or reflection on the written word, by less, an extension of spoken the educated and the non-educated, word . . . While spoken has become a silent activity, 68 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Margaret Doll particularly in modern Western record them on a tape recorder. culture. The loss of the fundamental The recordings would be given orality of the written word has also to a local storyteller who would resulted in an overemphasis on the then learn and retell the stories for document itself rather than the radio broadcasts and recordings for author of the document. Those distribution. Naldo started with 25 who encounter the word of God Old Testament stories. through hearing it read, sung, or through visual stories are not less After a couple of weeks, Naldo was spiritual than those who read it for asked how the project was going. themselves, silently (Graham1987, He said, “Wow, I am getting a lot 8, 123, 155, 163). out of it! I’ll read the story into the tape recorder then I’ll listen back to This is not to diminish the the story, and for the first time in my value of the written word, but life, I’m understanding it.” Naldo to remind us that literacy was had helped translate the Bible and never a requirement for salvation. had read it, but it wasn’t until he However, there needs to be more heard it that it seemed as if God emphasis on making scripture was speaking to him in ways he’d available in an aural media so that never thought of before (Lassiter its power might be released in a 2008). Literate people from an oral familiar communication context. culture may still learn best orally. Even for many who have become literate, it is hearing the word aloud It is possible that a sense of that moves their heart. Such was ownership could take place the case with Naldo: very early in a language project if a familiar communication Naldo was a young man from a method was being used. For primarily oral language group in instance, stories pass on values, South America who had helped norms, and practices (de Regt translate the Bible in his language. 2013, 17). Stories can include He was very bright, had become much more context, therefore educated, and spoke six languages. preparing those hearing the He was asked to help with a project stories to eventually be able to to record 40 Bible stories from the read translated scripture for Old and New Testaments he had meaning since a context will have helped translate. His part was to been established (Weber 2005, 66-67). read the stories in his language and In fact, according to relevance theory, Literacy and Orality Working Together 69

One of the critical practice. It is notably the conditions on which criterion for making certain successful communication parts of the message-and depends is that there must particularly metaphorical be adequate contextual speech-more explicit than effects. If the context which in the original. What do we the receptors bring to the mean by making the message translated text is so different 'fully understandable'? I that there are few or even no am afraid our Western contextual effects, not only education has led us to will they have no assurance equate understandability that they have understood with explicitness in terms the text, but they are also of Aristotelian logic. While very likely to terminate the understandability of this communication process kind is highly desirable in the (Kerr 2011, 11). translation of many passages- for example, most of the Stories help create a biblical argumentative discourses worldview context. As a in the Pauline epistles-in communication theory, relevance other passages it enters into theory confirms the need that conflict with patterns of sufficient information be supplied to communication less favored enlarge the contextual environment by our Western education but of the receptor, thereby enabling which are privileged means of successful communication (Weber communicating truth by both 2005). Once context has been the Biblical writers (including established through stories, there Jesus himself) and some of is a better chance that a translation the communities for whom can communicate well without we translate. One of these overly explicating passages. means consists of presenting According to relevance theory, an truth by analogy, without, in overly explicated translation can many cases, explicating the be burdensome and detract from analogy. Peoples who favor understandability. Translator the teaching of important Thomas Bearth says, concepts by analogy are much Understandability is the more used to interpreting ultimate primary goal of analogies. It is this exercise our current translation which traditionally seems 70 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Margaret Doll

to determine the intellectual of the biblical world in order to climate of many African mediate the translation process societies. It is a mark of the without the influence of Western dignity of the adult member personnel. He says that the of such a society that he is culture to be targeted needs to first able to interpret analogies receive biblically-based materials, for himself without having to not translation in the traditional have them explained to him sense (except for draft materials by someone else (1979, 3). or limited publications), until such

“. . . culture to be targeted needs to first receive biblically-based materials, not translation in the traditional sense, until such time that that culture is able to be engaged in the translation process itself, without a dominant western influence.”

And as translator/linguist David time that that culture is able to be Weber says, “. . . the most powerful engaged in the translation process way to communicate is not to itself, without a dominant western beat people over the head with influence (2011, 17). an explicit message but to get them engaged and get them to Another translator has said, construct the message from subtle “After 25 years here, I think I’m clues” (2005, 71). But the biblically more motivated to translate Bible- correct subtle clues still depend based videos that people will on familiarity with the biblical actually watch, rather that Bible background context. books that nobody will read. And it seems to me that in every Translation consultant Glenn project, these should be done first, Kerr wrestles with the reality of and then if they are popular, then the three cultures engaged in Bible we could consider translating the translation: “The ancient biblical actual Bible text to be distributed culture, the modern target culture, in easily-usable formats (MP3, and the mediating Western culture posters, booklets), and the last of those who advise and guide step would be printed scriptures the mother-tongue translators.” in book form.” He understands that the mother- tongue translator must come to Local ownership, an important an understanding of the culture element of successful language Literacy and Orality Working Together 71 programs, scripture use, and societies have a desire for literacy sustainability, is more likely to even though their communication happen when the community preference is oral. They value is involved in the processes of literacy even though they practice translation from the very beginning orality. We do a disservice when of a language project. we assume that oral preference learners can learn well from By affirming the value of oral literate methods. Many of them communication and inviting struggle to understand a literate participation through the use teaching style. In fact, a survey of media, all members of a done in South Asia indicated community can contribute to the that the “literate” pastors who outcome. Introducing stories and were trained by a literate method using media in the early stages of a displayed an alarming level of translation project, and as a vehicle synchronized doctrinal positions, for distribution, can establish while those trained orally context at an early stage. maintained correct doctrine.

Ownership of a language program Some language groups who have need not be a problem when we translated scripture may not fully acknowledge the value of the engage with God’s word simply dominant communication method because they only have access to it in of oral societies and invite their written form. Instead of continuing participation without literacy to push literacy, we should affirm being a requirement. God’s word the value of hearing scripture read has been listened to by many more and make God’s word available to people throughout history than it them in audio media. We should has been read. Our first priority communicate a higher value for should be to communicate his word their oral communication style in a culturally acceptable method. and acknowledge to them that hearing the word was at one time Literate and Oral Methods the primary means for most people. Working Together Communicating by using oral As scripture engagement methods does not mean eliminating coordinator Katherine O’Donnell literacy. It may mean putting it off says in her thesis on scripture use for a while or it may mean using in Tanzania, “The Bible can be both methods together. Many engaged with effectively through 72 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Margaret Doll listening as well as reading” (2013, she studied confirmed that 14). O’Donnell remarks that in the many of the people are just not history of Tanzania, becoming a interested in reading scripture. Oral Christian was closely associated strategies need to be employed. with being literate. However, Bible translation and scripture literacy proficiency is still poor engagement are handicapped by in Tanzania and the communal a literacy bias. O’Donnell quotes culture relies heavily on learning scholars and practitioners from the about God from others. field of orality who conclude that: A Bible translation program In the culture, the authority of the that begins with the oral pastor is given a divine legitimacy, presentation of the Bible regardless of whether or not his through storytelling and teachings are theologically sound. continues with a translation For many Tanzanians, as well as and literacy program is the many other African cultures, “truth comprehensive strategy for is measured by the authority of the communicating the Word of giver, not by truth itself” (2013, 16). God in the heart language. It offers viable possibility According to O’Donnell, although of making disciples of oral pastors refer often to Bible verses learners while at the same in their sermons, they also spend time providing the whole much time sharing their own counsel of God (LCWE & reflections, which may not be ION 2005) (2013, 44). closely tied to the texts: “[T]he issue is exacerbated by the quality She concludes her own study, of theological training that is recommending that scripture available, which various scholars engagement happen in an identify as Eurocentric, poorly integrated way. Scripture use taught, or failing to communicate should happen at the oral level deep truths clearly by being taught through the use of storying, song, in Western languages rather than drama, or whatever is culturally in the mother-tongues of students” appropriate, and scripture use (2013, 16). She points out that all workers should take advantage of this converges to hinder spiritual of audio scriptures for group growth in the African churches. listening and downloading on In addition, the oral preference mobile devices, among other ways of the Tanzanian communities of using audio scripture. Literacy and Orality Working Together 73

There should also be a better He didn’t give this man a story partnership between scripture use or parable; he engaged him at workers and literacy the appropriate workers in order to Oral methodologies level for a teacher of facilitate reading at should be used much the Law. The man a level that enables more extensively in answered correctly, critical engagement language programs and reciting what he with the literature. scripture engagement. knew was written in Oral communication Deuteronomy and in should be encouraged Leviticus; “You shall within church life and more should love the Lord your God with all be invested in training pastors, your heart and with all your soul lay leaders, and others who will and with all your strength and with teach their congregations orally all your mind, and your neighbor as (2013, 58). yourself.” But the man, unsatisfied, asked a more specific question, Oral methodologies should be “Who is my neighbor?” And Jesus used much more extensively in told a story to put it in context, the language programs and scripture story of the Good Samaritan. engagement. This will help facilitate the work of pastoral The principles that the lawyer training and discipleship later knew in his head were now given on and is the best entry method context at the heart level. As Billy into a language group for says, “Jesus knew his audience building interest and mitigating and used a combination of literate the plight of those who are and oral methodologies to engage without Bible. the man’s heart. Jesus’ example gives the pattern for integrating Back to the Case literate and oral methodologies.” So what strategy can be used For Billy, it is not about replacing to integrate literate and oral one communication method for methodologies? Billy looked at another, but engaging people’s Luke 10, where a teacher of the hearts by integrating the strengths Law (a literate person) asked Jesus, of both. “Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?” Jesus answered, The pilot program that World “What is written in the Law? How Gospel Mission, in partnership with do you read it?” Africa Gospel Church, used was 74 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Margaret Doll initiated using Bible stories with Since the pastoral training program the methodology called Simply is a three-year program the first the Story. Concerns did arise, but year focus is on knowing Jesus and overall feedback was positive. developing a biblical worldview. During the second and third years, The success necessitated redesigning pastors address pastoral issues and the pastoral training program so theological topics, with a focus on that it would be story-based, but equipping the pastors with the tools would also introduce literate they need for finding the answers in aspects over time. There were scripture. According to Coppedge, three primary complications that the program is more of an all- warranted using this integrated empowering curriculum than an all- model. The first was society’s encompassing one (Coppedge 2013). literate bias. The reason for introducing literate aspects is Impact—Biblical Worldview because although many people In looking at the complex problem are oral preference, they want of language program ownership, to be literate preferenced. They language development in oral believe that oral methods are “of societies, and global impact, a previous generation.” So, in it would be important for consideration of the educational literate para-church and mission expectations of the students, organizations to acknowledge some printed materials will be the value of oral communication handed out. and the reality that oral preference communicators learn best through The second complication was hearing. It is also important to how to evaluate the learners’ be familiar with the history proficiencies if only oral methods of the way scripture has been were used. An effective method engaged and the value of the has been to set aside a literate spoken word and to follow Jesus’ model of exact measurements, communication pattern and know and evaluate the newly trained- the audience. Jesus’ teaching pastor, as well as someone he or methods built relationships— she has discipled through personal language program ownership face-to-face time. comes out of a foundation of relationships and a respect for The third complication is resources. a community’s communication Non-written resources are limited. preference. Isaiah 55:10-11 says, Literacy and Orality Working Together 75

For as the rain and the snow will soon have the first of a series come down from heaven and of biblical background resources do not return there but water tools, based on the UBS Bible the earth, making it bring Lands as Classroom DVD, for oral forth and sprout, giving seed preference communicators. to the sower and bread to the eater, so shall my word For some ideas on strategy for be that goes out from my using media tools in the translation mouth; it shall not return process at various stages, read Bible to me empty, but it shall Story Media Tools: A Media Tool accomplish that which I for Translation and Beyond, which purpose, and shall succeed in can be found at www.scripture- the thing for which I sent it. engagement.org/content/bible- story-media-tools. Recommendations for Media Tools Resources (and demos) for SIL’s Vernacular Media Production media options for translation division offers media tools that can and scripture engagement teams be used at all stages of a translation can be found at the VMS online project. They now offer Kande’s catalog at vmscat.sparkdev.org. Story, an HIV/AIDS resource, for Inquiries can be directed to VMS- oral preference learners. They [email protected]. 76 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Margaret Doll

References Bearth, Thomas. 1979. “Should We Tell the Solution Together with the Riddle?” Notes on Translation 77: 3.

Coppedge, Billy. 2012. “A Missionary Responds to Mark Snowden.” Lausanne Global Conversation. Accessed January 23, 2015, from http://conversation. lausanne.org/en/resources/detail/12313#

Graham, William A. 1987. Beyond the Written Word. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hearon, Holly. 2010. “The Interplay Between Written and Spoken Word in the Second Testament as Background to the Emergence of Written Gospels.” Oral Tradition Journal 25(1): 58-59.

Kerr, Glenn. 2011. “Dynamic Equivalence and Its Daughters: Placing Bible Translation Theories in Their Historical Context.” Journal of Translation 7(1): 11.

Klem, Herbert. 1995. “Dependence on Literacy Strategy: Taking a Hard Second Look,” International Journal of Frontier Missions 12(2): 59-60.

Lassiter, Terry. 2008. “Orality.” Presentation made in Orlando, Florida, at the ALTECO Conference in March.

Lovejoy, Grant. 2010. “That All May Hear.” Cape Town Advance Paper.

O’Donnell, Katherine. 2013. “An Investigation into how Tanzanian Christians Perceive and Engage with God’s Word.” MA dissertation, Redcliffe College. Accessed January 23, 2015, from www.scripture-engagement.org/content/ umuhimu-wa-biblia de Regt, Lenart J. 2013. “Bible Translation and Orality.” Journal of Translation 9(1): 17.

Weber, David J. “A Tale of Two Translation Theories,” Journal of Translation 1(2): 66-67.

Wells, David F. 2008. The Courage to be Protestant: Truth lovers, Marketers, and Emergents in the Postmodern World. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. The Importance of Repetition for Oral Communicators 77 The Importance of Repetition for Oral Communicators Annette Hall

Annette Hall, who retired with 38 years of service with the International Mission Board, has used Bible stories as her principle outreach method since 1994 and has taught others how to craft and tell Bible stories. She is still involved in story trainings both in the US and in other countries.

first learned about Chronological is my own hesitation to “impose” IBible Storying in 1994, and I was on my listener and repeat the an instant adopter of the process. story. In addition, my own literate One of the things I background whispers was told in that first that once is enough. workshop was that I often struggle to oral communicators keep teaching out of I often struggle to learn by repetition. the way and allow the keep teaching out of I’ve heard this fact at oral communicator the way and allow the nearly every workshop discover the teaching oral communicator I’ve attended. I teach from the story itself. discover the teaching it when I do trainings. I want to explain the from the story itself. Oral communicators meaning of the story. I want to explain the learn by repetition. meaning of the story. I have learned that However, I’ve also learned through this does no harm, but it also personal experience that my own does no good. Explanations just literate background frequently go over the head of the listener, takes control, and I want the who sits politely while I move into oral communicator to learn from my explanation mode. I don’t hearing the story once or twice. I explain as a rule, but it is a constant try to tell a story every time I visit struggle in my head to keep this out with someone, but usually that is of the story time. a one-time telling. Seldom do I get to repeat the story in that home I had an amazing experience in visit setting. Yet, I know that oral 2011 that helped illustrate this communicators need to hear the for me. I was part of a training story more than once. I believe team that went to one country that a large part of the problem to train several groups of oral 78 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Annette Hall communicators on how to craft other men. Jesus arrived and tell good Bible stories. Then, and they all reclined at the I returned for a follow-up training. table with their feet away During that training, we had four from the table. There was teams of women, most of whom a woman who lived in that were primary oral communicators. town, and she had a really We used multiple sources to teach bad reputation. She came to them the Bible stories and they the house and came into the then crafted these stories in their room where Jesus was eating own dialects. with the others. She carried with her an expensive vase They went home each night to full of precious perfume. test the stories. I was able to visit a home each afternoon and She went to Jesus’ feet and observe the various women telling knelt down and began to cry. and testing their stories. We set Her tears flowed and fell on the expectation that each woman Jesus’ feet. So she washed his would tell the story at home and feet with her tears and then generally most of them did. used her hair to dry them. She kissed his feet and then The stories for that week of opened the vase and poured training were stories of people the perfume on his feet. She who met Jesus and had their sins kept on kissing his feet. forgiven through believing in him. The religion of these women was Now the religious leader works-based. Through many saw this and thought, If activities, including acting out the Jesus was really from God, story, they learned and processed he would know what kind the story. We learned a new story of women this is and he’s each day. The last story we worked letting her touch him! Well, on that week was the story of the Jesus knew what the man Woman with the Alabaster Vase. was thinking, so he looked Here is the story as it was told to at the man and asked, “Do the women as a model and as one you see this woman?” of the sources for their crafting: A religious leader invited Then, Jesus said, “When I Jesus to come to his house for came, you didn’t give me any dinner. He also invited some water to wash my feet, but The Importance of Repetition for Oral Communicators 79 80 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Annette Hall

she has washed my feet with resisted and said to the women, her tears. You didn’t even “Let me repeat the end of the greet me with a kiss on the story.” So I repeated, cheek, but she hasn’t stopped “Then, Jesus said, ‘She is kissing my feet.” And Jesus doing this to show her love continued by saying, “You for me because her sins have didn’t do me the honor of already been forgiven.” giving me olive oil for my Then, Jesus looked at the hair, but she has poured woman and said, “Because perfumed oil on my feet.” you believe in me, your sins have been …Now my great temptation Then, Jesus forgiven. You have was to go into teaching said, “She is a relationship mode. But I resisted… doing this with God. Go in to show her peace.’” love for me because her sins have already been forgiven.” I asked again, “How did this Then, Jesus looked at the woman get her sins forgiven?” woman and said, “Because This time, they all said that you believe in me, your sins she must have done something have been forgiven. You have before she came to the house. She a relationship with God. Go had to have done something to in peace.” get her sins forgiven. The story didn’t tell us what it was, but it The women learned the story and must have been before she came discussed it. They crafted it in their to the house. So I said, “Let me teams and retold the story in their repeat the end of the story.” So own dialects. At the end of the day, I repeated, before they left to go home, we were “Then, Jesus said, ‘She is meeting again as a large group. I doing this to show her love asked them a question about the for me because her sins have story: “How did this woman get already been forgiven.” her sins forgiven?” They replied Then, Jesus looked at the that she was forgiven because she woman and said, “Because washed Jesus’ feet. you believe in me, your sins have been forgiven. You Now my great temptation was have a relationship with to go into teaching mode. But I God. Go in peace.’” The Importance of Repetition for Oral Communicators 81

I asked a third time, “How did this the story. We wanted reproduction woman get her sins forgiven?” This and we saw it take place! time, they shouted, “It was because she believed. Because she believed On the last day of the training, we in Jesus, her sins were forgiven!” gave the women the opportunity to They got really excited and started talk about what they had learned talking at once. I also asked them from the week. Nearly every woman what other stories we had studied said that the most important thing during the week in which the she had learned was that sins were person was forgiven by believing in forgiven by believing in Jesus and Jesus and nothing else. They were only by believing. They could not able to list the other stories. They earn the forgiveness by works. repeated many times that it was her belief in Jesus that Sins were I returned to my home allowed her to be forgiven. forgiven by in a large European city believing where I normally work That afternoon, I visited a in Jesus with immigrants from a believing woman from the and only by different religion, but one group. She told the story believing. that uses works to try to to her husband, who isn’t earn salvation. I visited a believer. As a part of the with a friend who has heard testing, she asked him the same many Bible stories, but still remains question about how the woman’s attached to her religion and works. I sins were forgiven. He replied told her the story of this experience that she was forgiven because she by telling her the story and telling washed Jesus’ feet. her the response of the women including repeating the end of the The wife then said, “Let me story twice. My friend listened repeat the story for you.” And she intently and was so into the story repeated the end of the story and that she said, “It was her belief” then asked the question again. This before I got to that point. time her husband gave the correct answer. This woman had learned Later I was visiting another friend, a the story, had learned to repeat the woman who has lived in this city for story correctly in her home setting, over 40 years, never been to school and had also learned how to keep and considers herself a religious retelling the story until the other leader. She is a strict practitioner person learned the major point of of her religion. She wears the 82 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Annette Hall

“required” clothes and tries to told my friend about a personal keep all the tenets of the religion. experience that involved telling She has even made a pilgrimage. the story to someone else and She also has heard many stories of my friend listened to several Jesus. When I tell her a story, she repetitions. It also led us into a turns towards me, folds her hands discussion of how this woman’s and listens intently. She tells me belief gave her forgiveness of her that she loves my stories. I told her sins. Each of my friends discovered about this experience including all this from the story and then was the repetitions of the story. She was willing to talk about it. This nearly shouting at me, “It was her experience taught me again the faith. Don’t they know? It was her two essential truths of storying faith! That’s why she was forgiven. with oral communicators. It was her faith.” My friend has not become a follower of Jesus but she 1. Repeat the story several times. has discovered for herself that she They learn from repetition. needs to believe and only believe to have forgiveness. 2. Allow them to discover the meaning. If they don’t get the Through this experience I found meaning, repeat the story again a simple way to repeat the story. I and again. My Journey in Bible Storytelling 83 My Journey in Bible Storytelling Paul Trinh Paul Trinh served as missionary, church planter, and pastor for 30 years, both in the States and overseas. For over 10 years, he has applied situational Bible storying and chronological Bible storying in his daily life and at church. He is currently pursuing a Doctoral of Missiology at Malaysia Baptist Theological Seminary focusing on Bible storytelling.

or years, I had been struggling unbeliever. To my surprise, he Fin witnessing, although I listened attentively; thus, I initiated could tell people the Bible, many my journey in Bible storytelling. concerns pulled me back. These concerns included: (1) people might In the mission field, I told Bible not be interested in my witness, stories in various settings. First, I (2) repeating the same gospel told Bible stories in shop-to-shop presentation to the same person, visitation. During business hours, and (3) the available witnessing I spoke Bible stories to workers as time was so short. they were working. They listened. While we returned to the same Seventeen years ago, I learned shops, we were often asked, “What about the Chronological Bible story are you going to tell me Storying during my missionary today?” It opened the door for career orientation. Nevertheless, us to keep telling different Bible its requirement to complete a stories. On a few occasions, shop worldview study of non-believers owners were even listening to the before telling Bible stories hindered Bible story instead of responding my storytelling. Then throughout to their customers. my first term, my mission agency kept promoting and training Second, I engaged in telling missionaries—including my wife Bible stories during the break and me—to storying the Bible. time of language classes for new immigrants. Since the new In my second term missionary Cantonese immigrants encountered career, my wife and I began difficulty in learning Spanish, planting new churches among our new Chinese church started the Cantonese in the Dominican Spanish classes for them. At break Republic. One day, I told an time, my wife taught them gospel individual Bible story to an songs, and I told them a series of 84 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Paul Trinh stories about Abraham. Sometimes be told. I am also not concerned they were listening, but other times about not having enough time to they made small talk. At the end witness, because telling a Bible of the semester, I reviewed the life story usually only takes two of Abraham by asking these new minutes. Consequently, I am eager immigrants questions. Amazingly, to employ Bible storying as my they could answer every question. witnessing strategy to lead people to follow Jesus Christ. Third, my wife and I employed Bible stories at the new church in Returning to the United States, my Dominican Republic. I told Bible wife and I began teaching believers stories as my “sermons” and people to tell Bible stories. I met many paid attention. Once I trained two believers who sat on the pews new leaders to tell Bible stories. for years but were unable to tell One of them spoke eloquently and a Bible story. Many misconceive had no problem to retell the stories. that story is for children only. Thus, Another leader spoke stutteringly we are making efforts to overcome and hesitated at the beginning. He these hindrances. As a result, some could tell stories as well after our believers have become excited resilient encouragement and his about telling Bible stories. They repeated effort. After we left the are actually telling people the Bible. field, they kept leading the church. Today, I tell Bible stories to both Therefore, my reluctance to non-believers and believers. witnessing disappeared. Now Following the examples of I am not concerned about the storytellers in the Bible, I recount interest of people, for I am sure Bible stories wherever I go. At that every person loves story. I am the same time, I train my church not concerned about repeating the members and other believers in same gospel presentation to the the States and overseas to tell Bible same person. I know that more stories. I know that I am actually than five hundred Bible stories can telling people the Bible. Theories of Human Communication 85 Theories of Human Communication Stephen W. Littlejohn & Karen A. Foss, Long Grove, IL: Waveland, 2011. ISBN 978-1-57766-706-3. Original Edition 1983, tenth edition 2011. Pb., pp 487, bibliog., index. $55 Reviewed by Susangeline Y. Patrick who is currently working on a PhD in Intercultural Studies. Her cross-cultural mission experiences are in Central Asia and the historical theologies of the visual arts on a global scale.

tephen Littlejohn and Karen is a true delight to discover the SFoss' Theories of Human complexity of communication. Communication provides foundational theories with extensive The thesis of the book is to describe details and applications for a broad and explain communication theory, audience who are theorizing the offer useful tools, and develop process of communication. The new possibilities for the study of book was originally birthed in communication. The authors have 1974, when communication theory done an excellent job in guiding was largely borrowed from other the readers to explore the world fields of information theory and of communication. social psychology. Now it has become a well-developed collection The authors lay out the foundations of theories and perspectives. of communication theory in the first three chapters, discussing Specializing in communication, multiple flexible definitions, as Littlejohn has invested in the well as allocating communication field for four decades, and Foss theory and scholarship within makes valuable contributions in their historical context and rhetoric theory and critical theory. development. The authors do Although their book primarily not confine communication to addresses professors and students a singular paradigm; instead, in the communication discipline, they note the differences and it can enrich the conversations of similarities of communication orality and indicate significant theories in a complex of cultural, implications for practitioners racial, and regional backgrounds. of various traditions of They discuss seven traditions of communication theories. The communication theory: semiotic, authors have made the book phenomenological, cybernetic, accessible to diverse readers. It socio-psychological, socio-cultural, 86 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Susangeline Y. Patrick critical, and rhetorical. Each consists great analytical skills in interpreting of a set of key ideas, values, and diverse sources and aspects of variations of meanings. communication theory.

The authors expand the contexts for A major limitation of the book communication from chapter four is that it does not implicitly to chapter eleven. They give detailed address how the role of religion attention to the communicators, and communication theory can message, conversation, relationships, inform and form each other. groups, organizations, media, The area of the arts can also culture, and society. be studied and add value to the study of communication theory, The strength of the book is that so it would be helpful if the the authors bring in diverse authors were to construct the perspectives from scholars such as contributions of religions and the Richard Weaver, Judith Butler, and arts in communication. Kenneth Burke. The examples they provide for explaining different Overall, the book provides in-depth theories are highly practical and studies which can benefit mission applicable in diverse cultural practitioners and educators in contexts. For instance, in defining orality. It covers the disciplines of identity negotiation theory, the culture, language, literacy, networks, authors address the issues of and media in orality. Insightful ethnic identity and intercultural principles of understanding competence. These are important communication theory and and current social interaction discourse can be drawn out from discussions. They also adopt the book, and Littlejohn and Foss anthropologists' ethnographical encourage and inspire readers to approach in comprehending the theorize their specific situation and role of communication in culture context. I highly recommend this and society. Another strong point book for people who are interested is that the authors evaluate each in intercultural communication in theory critically. They demonstrate theories and in practices. Theorizing Communication: Readings Across Traditions 87 Theorizing Communication: Readings Across Traditions Edited by Robert T. Craig and Heidi L. Muller, 2007. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-1-4129-5237-8. Pb., pp 525, bibliog., index. $82.

Reviewed by Susangeline Y. Patrick who is currently working on a PhD in Intercultural Studies. Her cross-cultural mission experiences are in Central Asia and the historical theologies of the visual arts on a global scale.

obert Craig and Heidi Muller Their evaluations of each of Rare both excellent university the seven traditions are helpful educators who have specialized in reexamining and critiquing in the field of communication. communication theory. In each In Theorizing Communication: of the discussions, they guide Reading Across Traditions, readers to reflect on the potential they advocate the integrative problems and major findings of model of communication theory. communication theory. They The purpose of the book is to also offer additional readings provide a deeper understanding and contemporary critical of communication theory evaluations which provide through exposing the readers to opportunities for readers to apply a collection of primary source communication concepts in their readings. They propose the own sociohistorical context. formulation of communication theory, which is deeply connected Craig argues that communication with everyday life. The book offers theory can and should exist as both a philosophical approach and a field. He states, “I argue that an empirical studies and analysis all communication theories approach. Craig and Muller are relevant to a common categorize different readings practical life-world in which under seven interrelated Western communication is already traditions: rhetorical, semiotic, a richly meaningful term. phenomenological, cybernetic, Communication theory, in sociopsychological, sociocultural, this view, is a coherent field of and critical. metadiscursive practice, a field of discourse about discourse The structure and framework with implications for the practice of Craig and Muller are clear. of communication” (64). 88 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Susangeline Y. Patrick

He engages major principles— This book demonstrates the the constitutive model of interdisciplinary nature of communication as metamodel communication studies as a and communication theory as field. The authors are aware metadiscourse—to achieve his goal of the non-Western traditions of recreating dialogical-dialectical in theorizing communication, coherence. Craig's practical and this is a foundational book concern is insightful for students in for students and educators in communication studies. His thesis communication theory; however, is comprehensible. they are not experts in the historical development of communication in From Plato to German non-Western contexts. Thus, other ideologists, the authors draw books are needed for education on primary resources from a understanding oral cultures and oral historical line of important learners’ communication processes. communication theorists. The authors’ analysis of the seven Practitioners and leaders of church traditions of communication and mission may benefit from reading theory supports the purpose the book in forming theoretical of their book. It is a significant frameworks in communicating the strength that the book opens up gospel. However, they will have opportunities for social practical to examine their specific social- projects in helping students and cultural contexts with critical eyes practitioners to further develop because the book does not primarily key concepts. Another main address the major disciplines approach is that the authors of orality. Without a doubt, view communication theory further development of orality as an ongoing process and will challenge and encourage the therefore leave space for emerging foundational paradigms of Western traditions and new dialogues. communication theory. Orality: The Power of the Spoken Word 89 Orality: The Power of the Spoken Word Graham Furniss, 2004. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN: 978-1-4039-3404-8. References, Index, Hb. 204, $110

Reviewed by Irene Maonei Kabete who is a Doctoral candidate at Asbury Theological Seminary in the School of World Missions and Evangelism. She is a pastor with the United Methodist Church.

raham Furniss is a professor To give the reader the opportunity for Gof African Languages imagination the author organizes the and Literature at the School of book in a way that captures the reader’s Oriental and African Studies at attention and desire to hear more. the University of London, UK. The introductory chapter describes The author takes advantage of the central theme of the power of the his cross-cultural experience spoken word, and thus the central and understanding of different theme of the book: “the nature and cultures, including oral genres, to significance of the oral communicative express the power of the spoken moment and the situation in which such word. In this book Furniss seeks moments occur.” (1) He concentrates to explore orality from a cross- on what he calls the “magic of the cultural perspective as he states, moment” and the potentialities that . . . the centrality of orality in the lie in the necessary simultaneity of ideological processes that dominate articulation and perception that is public discourse, providing a peculiar to all oral communication counterbalance to the debates that experience unrecorded and unfilmed. foreground literacy and the power In line with the themes of the book, of written communication” (170). the chapter includes a very moving Furniss intends to avoid the oral/ story of Chief Standing Bear, a native literate dichotomy (131), hence the American Chief of the Ponca people, mention of providing a counter- who appeared before a US district balance. In the preface the author Judge of Omaha, Nebraska, Judge points out that the book is all Dundy in 1897, to claim what was once about speaker and recipient, and their territory. His speech moved the encourages the readers not to be Judge who wrote, “. . . I have never taken away by the written words been called to hear or decide a case that but to allow the text to encapsulate appealed so strongly to my sympathy the self to the space and time of the as the one now under consideration.” events in this book. (5) Judge Dundy's emotional decision 90 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Irene Maonei Kabete to grant the Indian claims to the appropriate styles in the execution rights enshrined in the United States of the speech act” (91). The oral constitution substantiates the impact communicative moment offers the of Standing Bear's moving appeal; opportunity for a transition from thus, a written statement might not private to public, therefore, making have moved the Judge. Furniss uses private knowledge public, allowing different stories to illustrate the power the audience a chance to respond. of the spoken word, most of them post-colonial speeches; these include Chapters four and five look at Hubert Humphrey, Geoffrey Howe, the relation between orality and Hausa performers, as well as, Martin ideology and Academic approaches Luther King and Gandhi. to Orality. Furniss raises the concepts of plausibility, credibility, and truth The next five chapters explore the and values alluding to the centrality of Oral Communicative Moment, the truth in the communicative process cultural parameters of speech, the through an interview with the insertion into the social domain, moving renowned Hausa writer and editor from the private to public, ideology Abubakar Imam. and orality and academic approaches to orality. In chapter one (Oral To those who seek to study orality Communicative Moment), Furniss, and want to understand some of the attends to the co-presence of the speaker academic debates, Furniss does a good and listeners as well as the simultaneity job of bringing interdisciplinary debate of expression and perception in a form from sociology to social anthropology, which is inescapably transient. He to psychology etc. He exhibits views writes that features of orality surround on orality versus literacy by scholars in humanity daily and therefore impact the likes of Walter Ong, Bauman and society. Chapters two and three (Cultural Sherzer and Finnegan to name just a Parameters of Speech & Insertion into few. It is amazing to read the debate after the social domain) explore speech genres, listening to the moving stories, to see how performance, and audience, how cultures the academic world perceives orality and differ in the expectations of what is to be literacy. On the other hand, the cross- said and how it is expressed depending on cultural perspective is a significant the norms and values of the society. aspect to understanding what Thus, “different cultures will orality is all about in different display different audience cultures cultures and even ethnic in a sense that expectations and groups. This is a good book conventions will vary about for all readers with an interest. The King Jesus Gospel: The Original Good News Revisited 91 The King Jesus Gospel: The Original Good News Revisited Scot. McKnight, 2011. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House. ISBN: 978-0-310-49298-6. Pb. 186. $16.

Reviewed by Irene Maonei Kabete who is a Doctoral candidate at Asbury Theological Seminary in the School of World Missions and Evangelism. She is a pastor with the United Methodist Church.

cot McKnight is a professor stresses that “the gospel is not Sof religious studies at North a call to imitate Jesus,” “not a Park University in Chicago. public announcement that Jesus McKnight’s book has accused the is Lord and King,” “not an evangelicals of making the Gospel invitation into the church,” and “the plan of salvation.” Just by the “does not involve a promise of the title one can see where the author second coming” ( 33). The pastor is headed: McKnight is set to open maintains that the gospel is good up a debate on what the “gospel” news through which people are is—to reveal and correct the saved from sin by the death and church's distorted understanding resurrection of Jesus Christ (32- of what the Good News is. The 33). In the eyes of McKnight, author points out that by putting Pastor Eric’s intentions are to emphasis on only conversion, teach his congregation a robust many evangelicals may better be faith that leads to discipleship, called soterians (“the saved ones”) but at the same time his worry is and not evangelicals (29). that “if he presses discipleship too hard, salvation by grace and by In Chapter 1 (The Big Question) faith alone will be compromised.” McKnight lays out exhibits to “He claims that his gospel is a illustrate his reasoning as to ‘salvation culture’ gospel instead why he thinks there is need for of a ‘gospel culture’ gospel” (33). Christians to revisit the Bible and ask the question “What is After discussing Pastor Eric’s the gospel.” The author uses distorted doctrine of theology an illustration of one “Pastor the author stresses his need Eric” (chapter 2) whom he says to correct this perception and had a misunderstanding of makes a strong statement about what the gospel is. The Pastor the thesis of the book: “in this 92 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Irene Maonei Kabete book we want to show that off the story that identifies us the gospel of Jesus and that and tells our past and tells our of the apostles, both of which future. We separate ourselves from created a gospel culture and not Jesus and turn the Christian faith simply a salvation culture, was into a System of Salvation” (62). a gospel that carried with it McKnight stresses that the early the power, the capacity, and the church preached the full gospel, requirement to summon people sighting the Nicene Creed and who wanted to be “in” to be The Paul’s letter to the Corinthian Discipled” (33). church in 1 Corinthians 15 as the Gospel, adding that “the According to the author’s gospel story formed and framed understanding of the Bible, the the culture of the of the earliest gospel must be understood within Christians” (68-69). what he called the Bible’s Story because “without that story Furthermore, McKnight stated there is no gospel” (36). From that the shift from a Gospel culture McKnight’s perspective “the story to a Plan of salvation culture was of Jesus . . . is a resolution-of- a result of the “Reformation’s Israel story and because the story reframing of the apostolic gospel- of Jesus completes Israel’s story, it become-creed” (71). The author saves” (37). Thus, within the Jesus lifts up two works that he thought Story there is the cross and the contributed to this perception resurrection from where proceeds of the plan of salvation culture, the plan of salvation. McKnight namely the Augsburg Confession contends that we are forcing the and the Geneva Confession, which plan of salvation to be what it is he says emphasize a theology of not: discipleship, obedience, or personal salvation (70-72). justice (40); meanwhile the gospel is about discipleship, obedience and It is interesting how he titles his justice. To strengthen his point the chapter 9 “Gospeling Today.” In author points out that, “when the this chapter, McKnight addresses plan gets separated from the story, evangelization methodologies the plan almost always becomes calling the task of evangelism abstract, propositional, logical, “gospeling” and suggests four rational, and philosophical and, ways that lead to an apostolic most importantly, de-storified and gospeling [the Apostles preaching] unbiblical . . . we cut ourselves that is filled with the Holy Spirit as The King Jesus Gospel: The Original Good News Revisited 93 revealed in the book of Acts. Thus, great resource for students; as (1) The “gospel is first of all framed a student of evangelism, the by Israel’s Story: the narration of reviewer has gained a lot from the saving Story of Jesus—his reading this book. However, life, his death, his resurrection, the author seems to betray an his exaltation, and his coming anger and frustration palpable again-as the completion of the to anyone who reads the book. Story of Israel” (132). It seems as though he is standing in front of a group of people (2) The gospel centers on the delivering an angry sermon. It lordship of Jesus: he is viewed as bears wondering what McKnight the suffering, saving and ruling thinks about all the stories within and judging because he is the the Story of Israel -- for example, Davidic Messiah, Lord, and God. the stories of Noah (Gen 6; Abraham (Gen. 12), Moses (3) Gospeling beckons people (Exodus 3) -- were they not part to respond; apostolic gospeling of God’s plan to save his people? cannot be complete unless it calls The author’s four categories (34) people to repentance, faith in Jesus would offer greater value if both Christ, and to baptism (133). the Story of Israel Story of Bible and the Story of Jesus are seen as (4) “The gospel saves and God’s plan of salvation. I would redeems. The apostolic gospel assume that from the time of promises forgiveness, the gift the fall of Adam and Eve, God of God’s Holy Spirit, and never rested, as his intention was justification” (133). For the to save the world. John 1:1; 14 author, gospeling in Acts and says, “In the beginning was the the Plan of Salvation approach Word, and the Word was with differ in that “the gospeling God, and the Word was God . of Acts, summons listeners to . . The Word became flesh and confess Jesus as the Messiah and made his dwelling among us.” Lord, while our gospeling seeks The story of Israel is completed to persuade sinners to admit in the story of Jesus; thus, the their sin and find Jesus as their theme of salvation runs through savior” (133). the story of Israel to the Jesus Story. The diagram (34) portrays I appreciate McKnight’s passion a hierarchical approach to God’s for the Gospel. This book is a plan to save his people. 94 Orality Journal, Volume 4, Number 1, 2015 Irene Maonei Kabete

The King Jesus Gospel as people. McKnight writes with noted above is a great guide for passion for the gospel and the preachers to avoid reductionism church’s mission to the world. and preach a Holistic, Apostolic Theological schools may benefit gospel that reveals the Triune their students by making this a God at work in the lives of required reading. 95 96

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