BSC Degree in Textile Design 1st Year

352-6 Traditional Indian &

Design Form

1 Page

INDEX

Unit – I ...... 3

Lesson 1: History of Indian Textiles ...... 4

Lesson 2: History and Function of Motifs, Shamanism ...... 9

Unit - II ...... 14

Lesson 3: Central Asian Motifs and their Significance ...... 15

Unit - III ...... 37

Lesson 4: Traditional Indian Motifs and their Significance ...... 38

Unit – IV ...... 82

Lesson 5: Contemporary Art ...... 83

Unit – V ...... 89

Lesson 6: Practical Exercises ...... 90

Books for Further References ...... 94

2 Page

Unit – I

Lesson 1: Brief History of Indian Textiles

3 Page

Lesson 1: History of Indian Textiles

Objective: “To know the depth of Indian textiles.”

Introduction The production of sophisticated textiles within the Indian-subcontinent has prehistoric origins. The alternate wet and dry climate of the Indian sub- continent has ensured that only a few fragments of woven plant and animal fibres remain. The archaeological finds and literary references suggest delightful myths and legends, mystical and religious qualities still associated with traditional Indian textiles. For two thousand years, the Indian have had supremacy in textiles. The earliest textile finds were made at Mohen-Jo- Daro, an archaeological site of the third millennium BC (3000 years before Christ) on the Indus River. Madder (red) dyed cotton fragments have been found wrapped around a silver pot. It is the metallic salts of silver that are instrumental in preserving the fabric.

The use of madder dye made fast with a mordant and the presence of dye vats suggests advanced understanding of the process of colour fixing on

fabric.

4

Spindles and bronze needles have been recovered. Page

Carved stone sculpture with patterned cloth.

Some fabrics found in the tombs of central Asia, Cairo and Babylon may be of Indian origin and suggest trade in the 6C BC with this region.

Our epics and Vedas talk of rich textiles of silk, cotton and linen between 15-2 BC. The silk is thought to be Chinese and thus suggests a long established trade route over the Himalayas.

In the 6C BC the Persian Empire was a link between the Indus basin and the Mediterranean by overland and coastal trade. Indian cloth became famous with the Persians and Greeks because of brilliant colours. The quality of Indian dyeing was praised in the Roman world – as a reference made in the latin translation of bible says “wisdom is even more enduring than the dyed colours of Indian”.

Between the 5 to 8 C BC, the famous Ajanta wall paintings depict loin cloth and blouses patterned by resist techniques of ikat and bandhini. There is also a reference made by two noted Chinese piligrims, Yuang Chwang and T Sing in the 7th C, which says that “The everyday costume of the people was draped, not tailored and was mostly white. This distinguished between the wealthy, poor and the priestly class.”

In the 3rd C BC, the empire of Alexander, the greek conquorer extended to the foot hills of Hindukush mountains. This encouraged and strengthened trading and cultural links between Mediterranean to 5

Indian through Persia and Afganisthan. During this Page

time a famous Greek scholar Magasthenes came to the court of Chandragupta Maurya and studied the trading and textile networks.

In the 2nd C, BC, the Romans used a Sanskrit word for cotton i.e. „carbasina‟ in latin from karpasa in Sanskrit. During this time, as stated by Pliny, a Roman Scholar, the Indian merchants became both middlemen and suppliers to the trade. They travelled to to get silk and Java and Sumatra for spices and jewels and supplied it to the Romans. Also famous during this time were the Indian which were described as “Venti” – (fine as the wind) and „nebula‟ (misty in nature).

From 1st C AD onwards, the Afgans led by Muhammad of Gazni conducted his annual raids in and by the 12th C AD they had established themselves in North and Central India and created the Delhi sultanate. A Delhi Royal silk karkhana is recorded as having employed over 4000 weavers to supply silk for the trade with Central Asia. This was the time when Mongols, Turks, Persians, Arabs were all drawn to the magnificent city and court of Delhi as craftsmen, soldiers and scholars.

In the 15th C AD Babar founded the magnificent Mughal dynasty in North India. Also during this time, Vasco-da-Gama discovered the cape of good hope and founded the first European Coastal colonies in India. This was a very significant turn for the traditional Indian textiles as they were now being influenced by two totally different empires.

During the 16th C the Indians had the ability to 6

cater for the export market. For Europeans they Page

produced printed and embroidered textiles with animal and flower designs. For muslims of Africa and Arabia more simple printed and striped cotton was produced. For Indonesia, double ikat silk cloth was produced for the nobility.

By the 17th C the English had gained control and established the East India Company. Chinese designs mingled with the Mughal, Persian and Hindu designs. Floral and bud life was intertwined to produce charming effect. The Portuguese called it „PINTATHOE‟ meaning painted and the English called it „CHINTZ‟ from the hindi word „Chint‟ meaning variegated.

In the 18th C Kashmiri woven and embroidered shawls became a fashion wrap for the women of England and France.

In the early 19th C, the Indian textile industry suffered from the influx of cheap English cloth. Mahatma Gandhi seized upon the idea of using the domestic weaving industry as a symbol to bring home to the people, the reality and implications of commercial domination by foreign rulers. „‟ – handspun and handwoven cotton was a symbol of independence and self-sufficiency. This khadi programme has reinvigorated the handloom industry of India, directly inspiring highly successful commercial developments such as co-operatives of production and marketing throughout the traditional weaving, printing and painted textile centre and states of India.

It is seen that for ages the Indian textile has ruled 7

the world market. Certain textile terms which India Page

has exported along with her textiles, over all the years are Calico, Cummerbund, Chintz, bandanna, dimity, dungree, gingham, khaki and pyjama. Till today, India remains the most original, creative and prolific source of textile production in the world.

Fig.1: Scorpion Motifs seen in

Embroidery 8 Page

Lesson 2: History and Function of Motifs, Shamanism

The establishment of trade routes to and from the Indian subcontinent brought many non-indigenous motifs to be integrated with the traditional Indian motifs. The stylization and blending of various motifs have been influenced over the centuries by different emperors who have ruled India. Lot of intermingling of Islamic, Buddhist, Persian and European art is seen today in the Indian motifs.

A motif‟s past meanings and history are usually discovered from sources that have nothing to do directly with textiles. Natural surroundings, religion, achievements of an individual, are usually the driving force behind the human psyche that leads to the development of particular motifs. Motifs made on textiles with printing, painting, dyeing, weaving and embroidering may serve as protective function i.e. gaurding the wearer against the evil eye and other misfortunes; For example, hunters use animals and harmful insect motifs such as scorpion, to protect the wearer from the live creature, (Fig.1). Another function the motifs may relate to is fertility – the ability to produce off springs and thus survival. In agricultural communities, fertility and wealth are closely linked, as the harvest is directly responsible for the communities well being. Pomegranate (Annar) with its abdunance of seeds is featured on marriage bed-covers in central Asia and is also used in the 9

Phulkari of Punjab. Pineapple motifs Page

are used in island nation of Phillipines to devote fertility. Cowrie shells, woven, embroidered or used otherwise also denote fertility.

Many motifs have religious commutations like the kalash motifs, lotus, swastik motifs, rudraksh, Islamic motifs of mihrab (arch) and the moon and star.

Motifs take a variety of forms according to the craft-technique employed. The motifs following the weave of the fabric are reflected in stylized geometric forms eg. embroidery or embroidery. The free flowing forms of embroidery achieved in kashmiri embroidery gives rise to a naturalistic form. A star may appear as a solid five or six or eight pointed figure when embroidered; but appears as an arrangement of triangles if woven.

Shamanism The prime example of decoration endowing the wearer with the magical force of the creature it symbolizes is the shaman. Originating in the hunting societies of the palaeolithic era, shamanism lingers in the Arctic north, Korea, pockets of South- East Asia, Aboriginal Australia, Africa, among the Ainu and American Indian tribes and in South America.

The shaman is identified by his costume and its decoration. The wearing of antlers to associate him with the animal world and invest him with its 10

powers and spirits is common, as is the hanging on Page

his vestments of all manner of symbolic accoutrements: amulets which in Islamic countries contain Koranic verses, bells to arouse the soul, trophies of the hunt, towels, with stylized antler motifs embroidered in red. The embroidered decoration on his clothing is in sacred white reindeer thread and is often of skeletal patterning – ribs and bones – symbolizing his figurative death and subsequent rebirth. Mystical animals found in archaic embroidery are those linked with shamanism such as the jaguar, an animal who hunts at night and who in the Americas was the shaman‟s familiar. The bear in many northern cultures was believed to be a human ancestor and guardian. It was revered by the Ainu, whose appliqué patterns portray the bear, and by the Giliak of Siberia. For their festival, when the men of one clan about to marry into another are invited to kill the bear, clothing is worn with embroidered spiral patterns that symbolize the animal. Stags, like birds, were believed to transport souls between earth and heaven: most shamanistic ritual is accompanied by the use of hallucinogenics, especially magic mushrooms, and a state of transcendence, or trance, was linked to the stag. Creatures believed by some people to be incarnations of the soul, such as lizards or toads or

bees and particularly birds, were also mystical.

11 Page

Map of Central Asia

12 Page

Review Questions: 1. Explain briefly the history of Indian textiles. 2. What are the functions of motifs? Give examples to support your answer.

3. What is Shamanism?

13 Page

Unit - II

Lesson 3: Central Asian Motifs and their Significance

14 Page

Lesson 3: Central Asian Motifs and their Significance

The majorities of textiles are and always have been made by women. Natural forms such as flowers, stars, or an article from everyday home – life may suggest the wish of a weaver or embroidered to put into the work some meaningful element of her environment. Over centuries, many central Asian motifs have been incorporated in the Indian art. Persian motifs of , tree of life and rounded containing birds or beasts is commonly used on various Indian textiles.

Buddhist motifs such as the endless thread of fortune and the lotus are the favourite among weavers and embroiders.

Islamic patterns incorporates free-flowing floral and calligraphy into disciplined, mathematically inspired, geometric self-generating designs – a language of order and unity. Symbolic shapes connected with Muslim beliefs such as mihrab (arch), and the hand of Fatima have caved a niche in the Indian art. While interpretation of motifs in textile decoration must always be speculative, since meanings change with the cultural context, a variety of motifs have broadly similar symbolic connotations wherever

they are applied. 15

Page

Symbolism of common Central Asian motifs has been discussed, along with their appearance on Indian textiles. 1. The bird: The bird, a common motif is understood to mediate between this world and the world of spirits. The cock, usually stylized as a head and comb, represents the beginning of the day and dispels the spirits of darkness. The cock and other bird motifs are seen in the phulkari embroidery of Punjab. Double headed birds of prey e.g. eagle signify power and mobility amongst the Turkish tribes (Fig.2). Parrot, Peacock and Geese motifs are commonly used on Indian textiles and are discussed later.

Bird motifs of Pigeon, Peacock and Cock as seen in the Phulkari embroidery of Punjab

(Fig. 2) 16 Page

17 Page

2. The tree of life: The „axis mundi‟, ascends through the three spheres, the roots springing from the underworld, the trunk rising through the terrestrial world and the branches piercing the heavens, The tree‟s seasonal cycle is associated symbolically with the universal cycle of birth, maturity, death and rebirth. The tree of life is a Persian motif and depicts the all nourishing date-palm tree. Teardrop, cone or the paisley motifs depict the growing shoot of the tree of life and symbolizes growth. The tree of life is commonly seen in the kutch, phulkari and Kashmir and also in kalamkari painting and sanganer block painting (fig. 3).

Tree of Life: Another common motif is a stylised tree to symbolise the afterlife. On Turkish kilims

this is often a thin, pointed cypress tree.

18 Page

Tree of life seen in Gujarat embroidery

Tree of life motif in kalamkari

19 Page

Fig. 3 – Tree of life

The tree of life motif (right), embroidered on a Hazara girl’s dress bodice, and (far right) in the warp-face patterning of a Turkmen tent- band.

3. Sun motif: The ancient cult of worship of the sun and fire as life giving forces was widespread in the region and gave rise to a variety of motifs such as solar discs and swastikas. Such motifs appear on phulkari and

the ikat sarees of Orissa, Gujarat and

embroideries

20 Page

FIG. 4: VARIOUS DEPICTIONS OF THE SUN MOTIF

Sun motif in Kantha embroidery of Bengal

21 Page

Sun motif in Gujarat embroidery

4. Pomegranate, cowrie shells and tulip flowers: In Central Asia, Pomegranate, cowrie‟s shells and tulip flowers are used as a symbol of fertility. Cowrie shells are commonly used in the Gujarat and Rajasthan embroideries and are also seen embroidered on . Pomegranate flowers are seen in phulkari embroideries. Tulips are not seen in Indian art.

Pomegranate-flowers suspended from ram’s horns, motifs signifying strength and abundance, woven into a man’s ikat-dyed

coat, chapan. (fig. 7). 22

Page

Enlarged section of a Cowrie Bagh of Punjab which is identical to the borders of the Tadjik covering above (fig. 5C). 5. Tulip: A flower of particular significance in Central Asia is a sign of coming of spring – the season known as eulnek meaning the blossoming of the fields. The tulips bloom abundantly when the snow melts. Babur, the ousted chieftain of Central Asia, who became the first Mughal emperor of India, was a lover of nature, who kept or meticulous dairy of his observations. In this he identifies sixteen different varieties of tulip in the hills around Kabul. As a decorative motif tulip is symbolic of abundance,

spring and fertility, and is commonly embroidered on the Turkmen women‟s gown or chyrpy and on

i.e. the wall banging (5a, b, c). 23

- Page

Cover for the nuptial bed, ruidigo, stitched for a dowry in the Bokhara area. Carnations and pomegranate-flowers are symbols of

fruitfulness, beautifully worked in silk-thread

tambour (5a).

- 24

Page

Stylized Tulip Flower (Fig. 5b)

The tulip, of all Central Asian flowers the one most vividly evoking springtime and blossoming, embroidered on a Take

tribeswoman’s gown, chyrpy. The colour – yellow – denotes the woman’s married status.

(Fig. 5b). 25

Page

6. Mihrab the ‘arch’: Mihrab the „arch‟ is commonly woven or embroidered on the Islamic prayer mats called namazlyk. It signifies the door way to the almighty. This is also seen on the Darshan Dwar which are the religious phulkaris (fig. 6).

Motif of the mihrab (arch) with a stylized version of the older, Buddhist-derived trailing lotus motif, embroidered on a cotton djoina- moz, a cloth for use as a prayer mat or wallhanging.

The Islamic Motif of an arch similar to mihrab is seen on the darshan dwar (religious

phulkari) 26 Page

The mihrab motif (below), flanked by the stylized hands of a legendary local figure, combined with the tree of life and stars,

embroidered on a cotton cloth to wrap the mohr, a holy stone used in Muslim worship,

from Hazarajat. 27 Page

7. Horn and antler motif: Horned and antlered animals were of vital importance to the lives of the primitive hunters who became the nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia. The dangers of the hunt and its successful conclusion were assured by rituals involving a head of antlers or horns which magically endowed the shaman with the spirit of the hunted nature. Many stylized textile motifs are based on curved horns or branched antlers. For example the horns of the ram.

(Fig. 7) Horn or antler motif, woven in weft- face patterning on a balouch grain-sack.

Rams' Horn : Stylised rams' horns are woven into kilims as a symbol of masculinity, virility and power. 8. Gol motif: As tribal identities developed in the Central Asia a particular motifs would be adopted as the tribal emblem called gol (fig. 8). Gols are usually octagonal or diamond shaped medallious with complex infilling of symmetrical patterns. A conquered tribe would be obliged to incorporate the gol of the tribe which was defeated. Sixty or so 28

different motifs would be woven into one tent band; Page

these included the gols along with the horn motifs, the arrow point motif, and the star motif.

GOL or the Emblem of the Turkmen Tribe (Fig. 8).

The ram’s horn motif, an ancient emblem of success and strength in the hunt, outlined in bold

yellow on a lakai woman’s mirror-bag (fig. 7).

29 Page

9. Amulat: People of all faiths, Muslims, Buddhists or Nestorian Christians have deep rooted animistic beliefs and share the concept of the amulet (tabiz) which safeguards the wearer or the household.

Protecting house compound: amulet

Turkish bracelet evil eye amulet

30 Page

Antique Indian Silver Goddess Amulet

10. Triangle: Charms take many different forms, but the triangle is the most common made of felt, it is hung over the doorway of the hut. Thus can be compared to the toran of Gujarat. Woven embroidered or knotted, it makes the twin flank trapping of the wedding camel. Small embroidered or bead work triangles are also stitched on to the clothing. The triangle signifies trinity – the three fold nature of

the universe in terms of mind, body and spirit.

31 Page

32

Page

Star : The common star motif symbolises happiness

Stars are arrangement of Triangles. (fig. 9) Triangles seen in the animal trappings of Gujarat (Fig 9). 11. Decorative embroidery: Decorative embroidery is also used as a protective element in itself often forming symbolic patterns, it is worked around the edges and openings of the garment i.e. the hems, pockets, necklines, through which the harmful forces attack the body. Vulnerable areas like the front bodies, head and nape of the neck are dressed in heavy embroidery. Shiny objects such as coins, metal disk, mirrors (shisha), (Fig. 10) incorporated in the embroidery are believed to avert the evil eye or reflect and hold

its image thus absorbing the destructive powers. Blue beads are embroidered, woven or braided into

fabric as a protective device. Heavily embroidered 33 Page

bodies with mirror work are seen in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Fig. 10 –I – Peron, ‘dress flowers’, small embroidered felt disc designed to be stitched to clothing bags and animal – trappings. Emblems of good fortune such as beads, cowrie-shells and metal discs are all incorporated and metal thread is often used to work the pattern. The discs are widely used and have a long history examples have been found in burials dated before 400 BC.

34 Page

Most of the Central Asian motifs have been incorporated in the textile arts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab and Kashmir. It is the paisley which has travelled across India and is seen even in the Baluchar saree of Bengal. As political and economic pressures have resulted in ever larger areas of steppe being turned from grazing land to agriculture, so more and more nomadic tribes have been drawn to adopt an urban way of life. In such a setting many of the traditional textiles have become redundant. There is no use in a high-rise apartment for tent-bands. Likewise the traditional motifs are in danger of losing their significance for the people who weave and embroider them, becoming no more than decorative patterns, unrelated to belief. Just as a region closed to travelers since the fifteenth century is opening its gates more widely to the world, the traditional ways of life are rapidly disappearing, and the collection and recording of information about the use of textiles in the live

traditions has taken on new urgency.

35 Page

Review Questions: 1. Which all motifs have been incorporated in the Indian art, inspired by Persian, Buddhist and Islamic art? 2. Write short notes on the following Central Asian motifs also mentioning as to where they appear in the Indian art:- Tree of life Cowrie Shells Triangles Mihrab 3. What is a Gol? Why are the embroideries worked on edges of a garment, like necklines, openings, hems and pockets? What is the significant of

mirror?

36 Page

Unit - III

Lesson 4: Traditional Indian Motifs and their Significance

37 Page

Lesson 4: Traditional Indian Motifs and their Significance

In traditional rural India almost every aspect of life has a special significance and this is translated into symbolic expression in clothing and other forms of personal adornment. Some traditional motifs of India and their significance is discussed in this chapter. The names of these motifs have also been mentioned in various languages where Hindi is H; Tamil is Ta, Telgu is Te; Kannad is Ka, Marathi is M, Oriya is O and Gujarati is G.

1. The temple motif The temple motif consists of rows of large triangles found along ethnic and tribal borders, as well as in the end pieces of Dravidian and some central

Deccan . They are usually woven into the

38 Page

ground fabric of the sari in the interlocked-weft technique, so making the triangles point in the weft direction of the fabric, never the warp. The temple motif has different tranditional names in different parts of India, none of which translate into „temple‟. In the north-east, West Bengal and Bangladesh it was commonly called daant (teeth). In West Bengal and eastern Deccan, especially Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh, it is called a kumbb (B), Kumbba (O) or kumbbam (Te), a reference to the round clay storage pot and its contents (usually rice or water). Although the daant, like the kungri of Gujarat, may have originally been added for protection against the evil eye, the kumbba is a fertility symbol. The round

clay pot is explicitly involved in this capacity in

A kumbha border on an 39

Orissan landscape sari Page

weddings, religious rituals involving female goddesses (especially Lakshmi and Durga), and on domestic wall-paintings that welcome Lakshmi into the house or keep our evil influence. In Dravidian India this border design usually refers to flower buds (nottu or mokku in Tamil), However, flowers themselves are fertility symbols, a fact which reinforces the relation of this design with fecundity. In northern Karnataka five pointed spikes are embroidered and woven into local saris in an effort to keep away the evil eye. Kanchipuram weavers who speak the northern Tamil/Telugu dialect use the term karavai (saw) for serrated borders, which suggests a protective association. Current evidence indicates that the temple motif is of pre-Islamic, possibly tribal, origin adopted by caste .

A kumbha design on a Gond sari from Koraput, Orissa

2. The Creeping Vine

Today, the creeping vine motif is primarily 40

associated with expensive figured textiles that have Page

Islamic connections (Pl. 13). Muslim religious rules against depicting animals encouraged such a motif in the textiles of Mughal and other Muslim elite. Yet although it became an „establishment‟ design on expensive fabrics from at least Mughal times, the creeping vine has a longer and more psychologically subtle history.

It first appears in Shunga-period stone railings at the Stupa of the Saints at Sanchi as a stylized and somewhat angular representation of a lotus rhizome. From then on it becomes an important Hindu architectural and sculptural device to be known as „the vine of wish fulfilment‟ (Sk, kalapalata, lata, or kalpavalli), which is said to denote the life force that is shared by all living things – so linking the gods with men, animals and plants. It was believed to grant the wishes of all those who revere it, which makes it a highly suspicious symbol. Linguistically, this close

connection between the vine and the life force is seen in the fact that the Indo-Aryan world lata means both „creeper‟ (the plant) and 41

„entanglement‟ (the action or resulting situation). Page

The alternative name for this motif, bel, refers to both a floral vine in general and a fruit-bearing tree (Aegle marmelos).

Right: The creeping vine (kapalata) is depicted twice in this temple door pillar (Orissa, C.AD 800), as a foliate and as an undulating vine upon which people climb. The latter is a graphic symbol of the vine representing the interconnectedness of all life.

42 Page

Below: The that this figure (Vrikshaka, Gyaraspur, Madhya Pradesh, C. AD 900) is wearing is believed by many scholars to represent a brocaded fabric. Note the floral buti in a style suggestive of a woven design, in addition to the vine-like pattern in the borders.

Below: Bel patterning from a Rajasthani block-printed sari, Sanganer, 1990. The creeping vine was commonly carved around the doorways of temples and other important buildings throughout the first millennium AD. The gateway, or threshold, is still a significant Indian symbol, as temporary gateways are often made to welcome visiting dignitaries to a town or even a

household, and many rural women still paint their 43

thresholds and doorframes with designs aimed at Page

welcoming auspicious elements (such as Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and good luck) and keeping out the inauspicious (such as malignant spirits and the evil eye). The fact that vines often graced the gateways of ancient, classical and medieval Hindu temples, symbolically leading the worshipper to the spiritual realm, is an indication of their iconographic importance. Even as late as the nineteenth century, objects made as wedding gifts often depicted the vine design as a symbol for health and prosperity. Vines are depicted on the clothing of medieval north Indian sculptures from about AD 1000, such as on the border of the lungi worn by a tree goddess (Vrikshaka) from the Deccan. Vines were also printed onto fabrics excavated at al-Fustat, Egypt. So much time has elapsed since the rise of this motif around classical temple doorways that its symbolic significance in traditional north Indian saris has probably been lost. Yet in Central Asia and Eastern Europe, people traditionally embroidered red vegetal and floral designs onto the cuffs and collars of their shirts and blouses to keep out evil spirits, and the Ancient Greeks are known to have woven roses into their garments for the same reason. Could a similar motivation have been behind the introduction of this design into India‟s garments? And was the vine in the edges of the tenth-century Vrikshaka‟s lungi more than just a pretty embellishment?

3. Flowers Various types of floral forms abound in Indian saris.

Flowers have played a major role in Hindu and 44

early Buddhist iconography, and many designs Page

were then used by the Muslims. Although the Islamic depictions seem to have been purely decorative, various Hindu representations were often symbolic of good luck, health and prosperity. It is in this aspect that, even today, garlands of flowers are still so extensively used in , being given to honour guests and deities (during puja and festivals), as well as to the bride and groom during the marriage ceremony.

Hindi-Urdu flower As a group, flowers also represent the female principle. In some Indo-Aryan languages, the usual name for flower, phool, additionally refers to aspects of female anatomy, so their common depiction in saris is probably no coincidence. According to some students of Indian iconography, they are also explicitly used in rural domestic art as fertility symbols, especially the chrysanthemum, lotus, jasmine and plantain. The jasmine flower (ta, malli, H, chameli, jai) has long been a popular floral motif, known to have embellished textiles given to the seventh-century north-Indian king Harsha, as

well as being commonly found on traditional Tamil 45 Page

and north-Indian jewellery datable to the nineteenth century. But flowers are not always linked with the feminine. The Tamil warrior-god Maruka is associated with a large number of different flowers, most of which are red. Vishnu is also often depicted with a garland of five rows of flowers, each row representing one of the five senses. In the domestic art of Dravidian India, the lemon flowers is used as protection from the evil eye, as is the pointed-petalled pumpkin flower, which is a symbol of protection and good luck during harvest time

(mid-January).

46

Page

Above: A stupa railing with a yakshi (an auspicious tree deity relating to fertility) standing on an elephant, with lotus rondels carved on the side rallings. Bharhut, Madhya

Pradesh, C. 150 BC. 47

Page

Pottery sherds with six-petalled flowers painted on them, from Kot Diji (southern Pakistan), period I, c2750-2600 BC (left), and from Surkotada (Lothal), Gujarat, period IA C. 3000-2200 BC.

Apart from the lotus, which is considered separately (see below), flowers are not as commonly depicted in the historical and archaeological record as might be expected. Early Indus Valley pottery from Kot Diji and Kalibangan explicity depicts large six- petalled floral forms, but few other representations are found until Shunga times, when six-petalled flowers appear in the headdresses of women portrayed in terracotta plaques. Flowers are infrequently painted in the Ajanta murals; there, most textile motifs are geometric. When they do appear in classical Indian art, such as on the north gate at Sanchi (Andhra, late first century BC) or in Gupta-period sculpture, they appear to be purely decorative.

Various types of flowers are depicted in traditional saris. In many Deccan saris, narrow bands of 48

repeat supplementary-warp figuring are generically Page

called phool(a), even if the design is not strictly floral. The patterns in these bands tend to range from small circular geometric motifs (0.3 to one centimeter) called jai-phoola (jasmine flower) in Orissa, to large (1.5 to 2.5 centimetre) four- to eight-petalled flowers often called rui phool (cotton flower). Although these supplementary-warp bands appear never to have been depicted in India‟s art, some of their geometric shapes are found in seals as early as the Indus Valley period.”

Related to the phool design is the rudraksha, a circular geometric motif consisting of V-shaped radiating lines from an unmarked centre. Typical of south-eastern Deccan and Orissa saris, this motif is believed to have Shaivite associations because the wrinkled Rudraksha seed is made into rosaries for counting and repeating mantras by Shaivite devotees, in particular the Shaiva Sidhanta school. The name rudraksha literally means „eye of shiva‟. Larger versions of this design in Tamil Nadu saris

are called pavun (Ta/Te, the sun).

49 Page

4. The Lotus

One of the most complex and enduring symbols of both Buddhism and has been the lotus. The lotus flower is used in religious iconography as the seat upon which members of the Hindu and Buddhist pantheons rest, representing their spiritual power and authority. It also symbolizes the material world in all of its many forms, with its multi-petalled depiction in mandalas representing the multiplicity of the universe.

Bowl with carved lotus petal motif, 10th century

Lotus motif on a ceiling 50

Page

The lotus flower is another natural symbol and represents earth. Tibetan Buddhist mystics imagined the earth floating like a lotus flower on the oceans of the universe. The heart of the flower is the cosmic mountain, the axis of the universe. The generally acknowledged meaning of the lotus flower is purity of mind or divine creation. From the muck of a pond, where the roots of the lotus reside, an immaculate white flower emerges to rest on the surface of the water as a metaphor for the harmonious unfolding of spirituality. The lotus is an important Buddhist motif. Images of the Buddha and other important persons often are shown seated on a lotus throne. The growth of the lotus, with its roots in mud, growing through water, and emerging as a wonderful plant above the water's surface, is seen as an analogy of the soul‟s path from the mud of materialism to the purity of enlightenment. The 3 stages of the lotus, bud, utpala (mid-blossom) and the full blossoming throne represent the past present and future

respectively.

51 Page

A kolam design called the ‘lotus pattern’. The kolam is a floor painting traditional to Tamil Nadu that is created by using rice powder. It is auspicious diagram consisting of interconnecting lines based on a gridwork or ‘points’.

Right: A bronze Balarama, Kurkihar, Gaya district, Bihar, C. AD 800. Bronze and s tone statues from about the eighth and ninth

centuries begin to show deities and their attendants wearing and containing buti (small patterns scattered 52

throughout the field of the fabric). Some Page

patterns have the appearance of being printed or dyed, while others look more like the designs seen in woven buti, such as single floral or vegetal motifs.

Gupta-period and later sculptures of Vishnu asleep upon the serpent Ananta drifting on the eternal sea of milk, where he dreams the universe into existence, feature a lotus blossom issuing from Vishnu‟s navel, upon which Brahma sits. This is a symbol of the creation of the material universe, with Brahma as the creator and the universe represented by the lotus flower. Leading on from such symbolism are concepts of fertility and fecundity. The concept is emphasized by both the multi-petalled flowers and depictions of the lotus pod, which contains hundreds of seeds that scatter to the wind. Consequently, the lotus symbolizes prosperity and material wealth, which is why it is so intimately associated with the goddess Sri Lakshmi, who is often just called Padma or Kamala (both meaning „lotus‟).

It is likely that the fecund aspect of the lotus, the spiritual, is emphasized when it is depicted on traditional saris, in particular wedding saris. For instance, some of the ethnic printed saris in the western region feature stylized lotus pods; the chhaabi bhat pottern in patola are, according to one source, depiction of an eight-petalled lotus flower with tendrils spreading out to from a basket as well as the Orissan kbandua wedding saris.

The lotus symbol appears to be of Indo-Aryan

origin, for although many water-related motifs are 53 found in Indus Valley artifacts, the lotus is

conspicuous by its absence. Sri Lakshmi , with Page

whom the lotus is so intimately connected, is believed to have early proto-Indo-European beginnings ( that is, to come from the tribes from which the Indo-Aryans descend). A goddess (Sri) associated with regal power and wealth was worshipped by these pre-Indo-Aryan (and, later, Indo-Aryan) tribes. This association with royalty and wealth is later seen in many Gupta-period coins that feature Lakshmi with a lotus flower on one side and the reigning monarch on the other.

Today most rural domestic art created throughout the subcontinent is expressly made in order to welcome Lakshmi into the house. Whether it is a Tamil kolam, Orissan kumbha or Bengali alpona, the fundamental message is the same: let good fortune enter; and both the kolam and alpona can be depicted as multi-petalled lotus blossoms.

5. Buta and Buti Another group of floral motifs found in saris is the small buti and large buta, which are depicted as flowers, sprigs or bushes. As with the phool, however, these names are also given to geometric and zoo-morphic motifs. They are always created as floating design elements placed against a plain background. The smaller buti are usually woven in repeated rows across the sari field while the buta are usually created in rows along the endpiece. Floral buti first appear in the artistic record in the lungis worn by figures depicted in classical north- and east- Indian bronzes dating from the seventh to the ninth centuries. The rows of geese (bansa) depicted on the textile worn by a fifth-century

Ajanta figure could also be classified as buti, but 54

that design was probably printed, not woven. The Page

appearance of the floral patterns depicted on the bronzes, however, suggests that the buti of these early medieval textiles may have been woven in discontinuous supplementary-weft, for such woven buti have remained a common element in eastern, north-eastern and south-eastern Indian saris ever since. The depictions of free-floating textile design elements at Ajanta suggest block-printing and dyeing techniques rather than weaving.

Although it is highly likely that buti and buta are indigenous north-Indian designs, the words used to describe them are of Persian origin. In fact, the Persian/Turkish carpet motif similar to the Indian kalga is called a boteh or bota. Many large kalga depicted in Indian saris have been called buta in northern India. The use of a Persian rather than Indian name for this motif may reflect the fact that built were commonly created on expensive figured textiles worn by the old Muslim elites. (Persian was the court language of the early Mughals, which developed into Urdu, a Perso-Arabic language.)

Above A block-printed kalga buta motif in the 55

border of a Kashmiri silk sari. Page

6. The kalga or the mango

The evolution of the kalga motif. (from left to right) a poppy design in a Mughal shawl, kashmiri, c. 1680; an early kalga pattern in a Mughal shawl, Kashmir, c. 1700; and kalga patterns in kashmiri shawls, c. 1770 and c. 1850.

It evolved from seventeenth-century floral and tree-of- life designs that were created in expensive, tapestry-woven Mughal textiles, primarily patkas (sashes) made for the Mughal court. The early designs depicted single plants with large flowers and thin wavy stems, small leaves and roots. In the course of time the design became denser, with more flowers and leaves, giving rise to tree-of-life and mixed floral patterns issuing from vases or a pair of leaves. By the late eighteenth century the archetypal curved point at the top of an elliptical outline had evolved. The kalgas created on Kashmir shawls, which became a fashion item in Europe for over a century, were certainly the most imaginative and intricate; and it was from the imitations of these shawls woven in factories at Paisley, Scotland, that the name „paisley‟ was

derived, still commonly used in Europe and the 56

United States. Page

During the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the kalga became an important motif in a wide range of Indian textile, Perhaps because it was associated with the Mughal court. A double- suded block-printed cotton created in 1795 contains large kalga at either end, while many nineteenth-century saris in museums carry this motif, especially saris from the north. It rarely appears in nineteenth-century south-Indian textiles, and is only found on traditional tribal and low–caste textiles in the western region, which

suggests it has a longer history in the west than elsewhere, indicating a possible western Indian, if

not Persian, origin. 57

Page

In addition, the name kalga appears to come from the Urdu. The word qalb literally means „hook‟, and this word and its variants describe a range of curvilinear objects with hook-like ends, such as a goad, fishhook, or a hood covering a hawk‟s head. Another, possibly ancillary meaning may also be related to a series of Urdu words relating to Turkish and Persian carpets, such as qalika (small rug), which presumably carried buteh designs.

The motif probably caught the attention of poorer

and non-Muslim Indians because of its similarity in shape to the mango fruit, and even today the kalga

is often called a mango (Haam) by many rural 58

Indians. The mango was a potent fertility symbol. Page

7. The Peepal leaf

Above, left to right A painted pottery sherd, Lewan, Pakistan, c. 3000-2500 BC; painted pottery, Mundigak, , period IV,c. 2500-2000BC, Depiction of the peepal tree and its leaves appear in early Indus Valley art, indicating that the importance of the this tree was well established at the a very early date. Peepal-leaf designs have been commonly found in many traditional saris, including those worn for puja (worship) and wedding.

Below A paan bhat or peepal patra bhat motif on a nine-teenth-century Gujarati patolu.

59 Page

Depictions of the heart-shaped leaves of the peepal tree (Ficus religiosa) are one of the earliest and most common motifs found in Early and Mature Indus Valley pottery and seals, usually portrayed as if issuing from the heads of horned cows or bulls. This association with cattle is probably significant because within historical times orthodox Hindus have venerated the peepal tree as much as the cow. It is constantly grown near Hindu temples and villages for shade, and planting such a tree is regarded as auspicious. Lord Buddha attained enlightenment under this tree (it is also known as the bo tree), which suggests this event had symbolic associations with older beliefs of the time that incorporated this tree.

Yet, subsequent to the Indus Valley period, few depictions of the peepal or its leaves have survived in Indian art. Most ancient and classical Indian art does not contain this motif, and it is absent from the majority of the artwork of the second millennium AD. It mainly appears in traditional textiles worn by high-caste Hindus, in particular Gujarati patola made for Nagar Brahmin and Jain communities and in Dravidian unbleached cotton and muslins (kosara pudava). In the patola the design traditionally called peepal patra bhat, although today it is increasingly called paan bhat, the paan bush also having heart-shaped leaves. Paan leaves are used as part of the betelnut concoction that is passed around and chewed by participants in wedding and other social events; and this name change indicates that the past, longstanding religious significance of the peepal

tree may be fading from popular memory.

60 Page

8. Tree of life motif Throughout rural India the tree has been a symbol of fertility and protection for both tribals and caste Hindus. Both groups traditionally have rituals that revere and protect trees, which were (and still are) a significant source of livelihood for the community, although this is now being lost because of the severe shortage of wood in India caused by drastic deforestation. Trees in general, as opposed to specific species like the peepal, are depicted in some Mature Indus Valley seals, although they are not so commonly found in pottery artwork. The concept of the tree of life, which is used as a symbol for the interconnectedness of all life, appears to have been in existence by the Gupta period. Cave 17 at Ajanta uses a tree and its branches to link different scenes from the Buddhist Mabakapi Jataka painted on the walls, with the branches interconnecting smaller, collateral scenes.

Above A woven kadam motif found in some east Deccan ethnic saris in Raigarh district, 61

eastern Madhya Pradesh. The Page kadam tree is a local fertility symbol.

The tree of life is a metaphysical extrapolation of the basic concepts of fertility and protection. Specific trees supplied pre-industrial India with food, medicines, timber, utensils and even cloth. Many of the rural rituals (and concepts) still being practiced reflect this heritage.

Sanskrit literature talks about the mythical Forest of Bliss (Anandavana) from which Varanasi developed, while the depiction of yaksbis and yaksbas (female and male tree spirits) was common in much sculpture from Shunga times onward. Even today, many orissan tribal groups still protect specific areas of forest for important religious and social ritual occasions, and the trees in these areas are not allowed to be destroyed. Different tribal groups living in the same geographical area often revere different species of trees. For instance, in Koraput (Orissa) the Hill Sora regard the sahanda (Tropis aspera) as most sacred, as its products saved the tribe from starvation after the Deluge, while the Gonds regard the bel (Aegele marmalos) and other plants as sacred elements that helped create the original tribe. Species-specific focus in local religious life is also found in caste Hindu society. For instance, temples in Tamil Nadu are often associated with specific trees: the punnai tree (Calopbyllum inopbyllum) is the sacred tree at the main temple of Mylapore; the kadamba (Adina cordifolia) at Madurai; the mango (Manifera indica) at Kanchipuram; and the bamboo (Bambusa spp., Dendrocalamus spp.) at Tirunelvelli.

The tree of life motif appears in kashmiri carpets

and kalampari paintings. 62

Page

9. The sun-tree motif The Assamese sun-tree motif is now such an archetypal pattern of the north-eastern region that many Assamese textiles are recognized as such just on the basis of this design. It depicts two birds, animals or flowers, facing each other on either side of a tree whose branches spread above them. The motif is rigidly symmetrical, highly stylized and angular, with a pointed roof-like top to the tree,

and its sides are often straight.

63

Page

China and northern South-East Asia create sun- tree-like motifs in their traditional textiles. Among the Thailand Thi, the motif is known as a bong or swan design, after the birds portrayed at either side of the tree. All of the Austro-Tai-speaking peoples are known to have migrated from central China (the Tarim basin) about two thousands years ago. It may be significant that several Han dynasty (c, 200 BC-AD 200) silks also neither contain versions of this design, although it is not depicted in later Chinese textiles. The Chinese sun-tree is an important feature of several early Chinese cosmological myths, and it is depicted in much Han-dynasty art in addition to textiles.

Right: A supplementary-weft woven Assamese sun-tree design from an Assamese mekhla, C.1950. Although Ahom, the Tai language, is no longer spoken in Assam, the fact that motifs of the sun-tree type are found exclusively in traditional textiles created by

Austro Tai-speaking peoples suggests that the Assamese sun-tree design is of Tai (Shan

Ahom) origin. 64

Page

Left: The Assamese sun-tree motif in a cotton sari from Nuagong, Assam, 1952.

10. The Peacock

Above: This sculpture depicts Karttikeya, the god of war, astride his mount, the peacock, which reinforces the older Mature Indus Valley associations linking the peacock with death and immortality. AD 700-800, provenance unknown.

Above (Right): right painted pottery, from Harappa, Pakistan, C.2000-1700 BC (left), and from Rangpur, Gujarat, period II B, C. 2100 65

BC. From many of the funerary pottery Page

paintings found in Harappa, it can be surmised that peacocks were believed to carry souls into the afterlife (note the tiny human bodies depicted inside the peacock).

Right: A peacock embroidered on a kantha sari from West Bengal.

Peacock motif in appliqué wall-panel

66 Page

The peacock has had several associations that at first glance appear to be unrelated: immortality, love, courtship, fertility, regal pomp, war and protection. Its traditional significance is probably lost, but nevertheless its depiction and symbolism has a long and complex history.

Peacocks were painted on Mature and Post-Indus Valley burial pottery dated about 2000-1500 BC. That some of these birds have horns and vegetation issuing from their bodies suggests that they might signify fertility or rebirth, while others carrying tiny human beings inside their stomachs suggest that they are the bearers of the spirits of the dead to the other world. (In fact, the peacock‟s association with death and rebirth appears throughout Sanskrit literature). Peacocks reappeared in Buddhist architecture and by the first century AD were incorporated into the developing Brahmanic Hindu pantheon. Shiva‟s son, Kartikeya (Kumara), was the god of war and lord of immortality and was depicted riding a peacock mount, suggesting that its associations of death and rebirth were still viable at that date.

By the late first millennium AD, Karttikeya and his peacock were associated with the worship of Maha Devi, the Great Goddess, and the group of violent goddesses known as the Matrikas. Like Shiva, these goddesses were part of the pre-Aryan religion which became incorporated into Hinduism, and their attributes became concerned with life, death,

rebirth and fertility.

The peacock‟s association with fertility may also partly derive simply from the fact that it has a 67

reputation for producing many young, and that it Page

heralds the coming of the rains by dancing to attract a mate. The sudden regeneration of plant life brought on by the monsoon must seem like rebirth to farmers who go through the „death‟ of the summer drought. It is probably the bird‟s courtship and fertility-related attributes that made it a symbol for courtship and love in both classical and folk literature. The peacock‟s association with royalty and regal pomp is almost equally old, however. It had regal associations in western Asia in about 1000 BC, as it is referred to in the Bible‟s Old Testament (the Hebrew name thukkiyyum is believed to have been derived from the Tamil word tukai). Today the peacock is still an important symbol; it is India‟s national bird, and is a protected species.

11. The Goose and other water birds Depictions of the goose in Indian art prior to the Mughal period were common, but since then it has virtually disappeared. It was often found in Hindu sculpture, painting and textiles, having connotations that were completely opposite to Western Europe‟s negative associations. The earliest depictions of these and other water-related birds appear in Mature Indus Valley pottery, and over a millennium later they became an important symbol in Buddhist inconography, representing not only spiritual purity, but also the travelling monks who spread Buddha‟s teachings; the image of the goose flying from the water to the sky made it an apt symbol for spiritual knowledge and dissemination, as well as for intellectual learning,

knowledge in general and creativity. In Vedic literature it was associated with the sun and the

male principle of fertility and divine knowledge. 68 Page

A character in the crowd watching a procession, in a mural of the Mahajanaka Jataka, Part 1, Ajanta, left corridor, Cave One, C. ad 475-500. He wears a tailored top decorated with rows of geese. Although it is impossible to say how the geese were created on this garment, they have the appearance of a block-printed design. As most of the textiles depicted in Ajanta seem to be of western India origin, it is likely that the technique used to make

this pattern also came from this region. 69

Page

A painted pot from Lothal, Gujarat, C. 2300- 1750 BC, is depicting water birds.

It commonly appeared in Gandharan and Kushan sculpture, and later became incorporated into Brahmanic Hindu iconography (it can often be seen in temple sculpture). Sarasvati, the goddess representing learning, culture and the arts, as well as sound – literally, „the word‟, language – has the goose as her vehicle.

A repeat design of geese is painted on the clothes 70 of one of the Ajanta Cave figures, while some

resist-printed medieval cotton fragments from Page

western India excavated at al-Fustat also show them.

With so much evidence of this motif‟s popularity in the past, it may seem strange that it virtually disappeared after Muslim rule solidified throughout India. Presumably this was because most elite groups adopted Islamic styles in their decorative arts, which avoid zoomorphic representations. In the early years of the twentieth century the only evidence of geese and water birds in traditional textiles is found in some Tamil saris and ethnic Orissan ikats.

12. The Parrot Representations of the parrot do not have the historical and iconographic depth of those of the goose. It has not depicted in ancient, classical or even medieval India architecture, or does it appears in the illustrations found in Jain manuscripts. This dearth of historical representation suggests that it is a relatively recent addition to the traditional Indian textile repertoire, although it appears to be common in north-Indian folk songs and art – for instance, the eastern- region Madhubani wall-paintings that William Archer „discovered‟ in the Maithili-speaking areas of north Bihar, which he photographed in 1939-40, feature parrots in nuptial-chamber wall-paintings. This location has a direct link with the parrot‟s symbolic function as a messenger for lovers and its associations with courtship, love and passion.

These functions are often mentioned in west-and north-Indian folk art and literature. They are also seen in some later east-Indian temple sculptures, 71

such as a five-towered Bengali temple with Page

terracotta reliefs built in 1643. There, parrots are depicted with Krishna and Radha, Hinduism‟s most famous pair of lovers. Despite its iconographic spread across north India, depictions of the parrot in Indian textiles are almost exclusively western (mostly Gujarati). Over the part two hundred years it has been depicted in elaborate coloured-silk embroideries created for Rajput courts, for nomadic ethnic groups such as the Rabari, and in the more expensive types of Gujarati wedding sari both the patolu and the gharcbolu often often depict parrots, as occasionally do other fabrics.

Parrot motif in gujrat embroidery

72 Page

13. The Fish

Right: A block- printed fish motif from a West Bengal sari.

Right below: A fish pattern in the endpiece of a Bangalore Sari, Karanataka.

Fish are potent fertility symbols throughout tribal and caste Hindu India, indicating abundance of food, wealth, and children, as well as the generative powers of the supernatural. The fish is also an avtaar of Vishnu who, as the Preserver, is associated with prosperity and material comforts. Matsya, the fish, is regarded as his first incarnation. Matsya was saved by Manu (the first man) when a tiny fish, and because he cared for it until it became large enough to return safely to the sea,

Matsya warned him of the coming Deluge, advising 73

him to build a boat in which to house many Page

different plants and animals. Matsya is also one of the eight inconographic symbols of good luck found in Hindu iconography.

The pair of golden fish Having complete freedom in water, fish represent happiness, fertility, and abundance. On a spiritual level, they represent the boundless abundance of the Buddha‟s energy , which never diminishes, no matter how much is given away. The fish appears early in the archaeological record, and is painted onto Early Indus Valley pottery at Kalibagan as well as carved into Mohenjo-daro seals and pleaques of the Mature Indus Valley civilization. It is also one of India‟s earliest numismatic motifs, and is found on punch-marked coins (karbapana) from both western and eastern India dating from at least 550-350 BC. Yet is was rarely depicted in the sculptures and architecture of later historical periods and was never a vehicle for any deity. Nevertheless, its relationship with India folk and tribal art remains strong, and it is often depicted in textiles where fish form a major part of the diet, as in Orissa, or where Vaishnavism is

important. 74

Page

14. The Elephant

An ikat elephant from an Orissan landscape sari.

A seal from Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, C. 2500- 2000 BC. Elephants are consistently depicted in Indian art from the Indus Valley period.

75 Page

A sculpture of Ganesh on Mundesvari Hill, Shahabad district, Bihar, C. AD 400-500. The symbol of the elephant has appeared throughout Indian history since Mature Indus Valley times when it was depicted on seals and as terracotta figurines excavated from Mohenjo-daro. Since then it has appeared on early Indian coins and on Buddhist and Hindu architecture through to the present day. During the classical and medieval periods its head was part of a mythical beast called a Makara, which had a fish‟s body and elephant‟s trunk and was commonly found in depictions of

river goddesses, especially Ganga.

Today terracotta elephants are created in rural India as gifts to local-community deities in return 76

for such things as a blessing, the recovery of an ill Page

child, a good harvest, or for a happy union when the bride and groom are going through the marriage ceremony. The elephant is considered an auspicious animal, traditionally associated with water and fertility, and with royalty and regal power. In addition to their temporal power, the kings of ancient India were linked with the natural fecundity of the earth, and they had to perform various spring rituals in order to ensure the success of the following year‟s crops. An aspect of these rituals associated elephants with rain and fertility, and even today they are often depicted with Lakshmi, shown standing between two elephants who are showering her with water. In addition, the sheer physical power of elephants has traditionally been harnessed during war, natural disasters and for major construction projects, all of which, again, have regal (central government) associations. The elephant is also one of the few animals that is actually a god within the Hindu pantheon, namely the elephant-headed Ganesha, the remover of obstacles and maker of good beginnings. Another of Ganesha‟s attributes is perspicacity, learning and memory, traits traditionally valued by traders and merchants. He is also regarded as a protector, which is why his form is often found over or by doorways. Elephants have been depicted on the more expensive traditional saris of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Banaras, such as the Tamil mubbhagam, Gujarati gbarchola and patola, and Banaras kincabs as well as elephant-headed beasts (gajasinha) being depicted in the clothes of women painted in

late medieval Gujarati Jain manuscripts. 77

Page

15. The Tortoise

A kachhua (turtle) design on a painted sari from Madhu-bani, Bihar, 1992. The tortoise (Koorma) is the second incarnation of Vishnu, who was both the Cosmic Tortoise upon which the universe rests, and the foundation of the churning stick with which Vishnu stirred the Cosmic Ocean that created the universe. Koorma‟s association with the birth of the universe and Vishnu lead to Lakshmi, who issued out of the churning waters and became Vishnu‟s consort. Consequently, the tortoise has associations with prosperity and the creation of wealth. Tortoises are known to have been part of the late, Upper Palaeolithic diet, and they were depicted on Early Indus Valley pottery from Kalibagan, which suggests they were already a noticeable part of local life. During the Gupta period, when Vaishnavism began to take recognizable shape, tortoise amulets were made in the north-west.

Today, tortoises are traditionally woven in the

supplementary-warp bands of east Deccan saris. 78

Page

16. The Conch The conch shell is both a symbol of Vishnu and of Nada Brahma, god in the form of sound. It is one of the eight auspicious symbols, representing temporal power, and as such was used in ancient India as a war bugle. One of its first known depictions is in the Vaishnavite caves at Udayagiri near Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh, C. 13 401), and has been found in Vaishnavite art from then on. In terms of textiles, the conch only appears to have been depicted on twentieth-century saris, primarily on ikat-patterned Orissan ethnic saris made in the last fifty years.

The conch shell. The right spiraling (echoing the celestial movement of the sun, moon and stars) conch shell is one of the oldest icons in Buddhism. It is made by nature and not man. A conch horn sounds in all directions, as do the teachings of the Buddha. Consequently, the conch is seen as a vehicle fearlessly proclaiming the truth of the dharma in all directions. It is also seen as an emblem of power and authority and is thought to banish evil. The white conch shell was presented to Sakyamuni by the great sky god

Indra. 79

Page

17. The Hunting Scene The hunting scene usually features men, horses, elephants, tigers, rabbits, deer, peacocks, parrots, and other animals, cavorting between entangling branches and leaves. This might seem an unusual design for a sari or any other textile made for personal use, but it was found in eighteenth and nineteenth-century Banaras brocades and Gujarati bandhani, late sixteenth and early seventeenth- century Bengali embroidered quilts made for the Portuguese marker, and in some fifteenth-century resist prints excavatged at al-Fustat.

The origins of the hunting-scene design are obscure. It is easy to assume that these textiles were inspired by the elaborately figured seventeeth-century Safavid lampas textiles whose designs are conceptually similar because they also depict hunts and war, but the style of representation is completely different. The hunting scene prints excavated at al-Fustat suggest that the roots of this design are much older. For instance, a print dated to the early fifteenth century depicts a horsewoman, dog and mythological beast (gajasinba or elephant-lion) in conflict with a boar and are believed to represent a Gujarati myth concerning the mother-goddess Khodiar, a warrior- goddess similar in type to Durga.

80

Page

Review Questions: 1. What is the significance of:-

Temple motif Creeping vines Lotus Mango or the Kalga Peepal leaf Peacock Elephant

2. Explain in detail the evolution and history of the

"parrot" motif in Indian art.

81 Page

Unit – IV

Lesson 5: Contemporary Art

82 Page

Lesson 5: Contemporary Art

Today more and more rural people are adopting the urban lifestyle. The traditional motifs have become mere decorative patterns used for embellishment and have lost their related belief. It is difficult to ascribe the same symbolism to a motif (eg. peacock) appearing on pottery from Indus Valley and on a roller printed modern fabric.

Modern machinery used today for printing and embroidery fabric has led to the development of floral and geometric abstract patterns. Most of the domestic embroiders like Phulkari and Kasuti have been commercialized, bring about a change in their techniques of execution, symbolism of colours and above all the significance of motifs.

Satellite communications have brought endless information and the human mind is constantly restless to absorb and grasp everything around. Unfortunately many traditional motifs have become redundant, because of the new lifestyles adopted by men and women.

How many of us have even thought of the significance of triangles or paisleys before executing them? Or have even thought about the

origin and significance of the pomegranate motif?

83 Page

CONTEMPORARY ART

84 Page

85 Page

86 Page

87 Page

Review Questions: 1. What factors have led to the art today, that is contemporary art?

2. Draw a design depicting "leaves" in contemporary art in a square of 4"x4".

88 Page

Unit – V

Lesson 6: Practical Exercises - motif development

89 Page

Lesson 6: Practical Exercises

Motif Development

Exercise – 1

1. Each student is required to pick up surface impressions from various surfaces in the surroundings. These will be picked up on bond sheets using pencils only.

2. These impressions will then be painted on cartridge sheets in 3 colour ways. The size of each colour way should be 4” x 4”.

3. The surface impression, size 4” x 4” and its colour ways, each 4"x4" should be pasted neatly on an A3 size cartridge sheet, as shown.

Exercise – 2

1. Each student is required to collect atleast ten

traditional motifs. The teacher will select the

two best motifs. These motifs have to be

treated in various shapes of triangle, circle, 90

square, rectangle and oval. The motif and all Page

its shapes have to be placed on one cartridge sheet of A-3 size. All the work will be done in black microtip pen, as shown.

EXERCISE - 1

PRINTS DEVELOPMENT FROM SURFACE IMPRESSIONS

91

Page

92

Page

EXERCISE - 1

93

Page

Books for Further References

1. Desai Chelna, 1987, Ikat Textiles of India, chronicle books, San Francisco.

2. Gillow Jhon and Bennard N, 1991; Traditional Textiles of India, Thomas & Hudson Ltd. London.

3. Harvey Janet, 1996; Traditional Textiles of Central Asia; Thomas & Hudson Ltd., London.

4. Lynton Linda, 1995; „The Sari, Thomas & Hudson Ltd., London.

5. Rene-Alain Hardy, 2003, „Art Deco Textiles‟, Thomas & Hudson Ltd., London.

6. Pannu Gurpreet, 1995, Phulkari – An Expression of Art in Embroidery, Dept. of Textiles and clothing, lady Irwin College Delhi University.

7. Paine Sheila 1990, Embroidered Textiles Traditional patterns from five continents, Thomas and Hudson Ltd., London.

94 Page