What is ?

Social sciences are a group of Sociological Perspectives subjects which focus on and Definition of Sociology. how it functions as well as how the Outline Key Thinkers individuals within that society function and behave. They include sociology, Structural consensus approach to society. Believe Durkheim Psychology and Politics. The systematic study of that the of society work together in order Parsons society and its institutions to maintain social cohesion and social order. They Merton Social Institutions are the structures believe that society is similar to the human body – Organic Analogy. in society which influence how society is structured and manage. Functionalism They include Family, Media, A structural conflict approach that that Marx Education and the . society is in conflict between the classes. They Engels believe that the Bourgeoisie oppress the Proletariat Althusser through various social institutions without their full Gramsci

Sociological Imagination means the Marxism knowledge. ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each A of structural conflict approaches which see Oakley other. To have a sociological Social Groups society as a conflict between men and women. They Firestone imagination, a person must be able to look at ways that women are pull away from the situation and think oppressed/disadvantaged by various social from an alternative point of view. C Class Feminism institutions and the means by which equality can be achieved. Values are the goals that society tells us we should be aiming for in A Age A micro set of approaches which look at how the Goffman order to be considered a success. individual influences their society through their Cooley D Disability interactions with others and the social institutions. Weber Interactionism includes Phenomenology, Norms are the unwritten rules of Ethnomethodology, Social Action theory and behaviour within a society. The rules

Interactionism Symbolic interactionism which tells the difference between G Gender right and wrong as well as rude and A broad approach which sees society in a more Lyotard polite. E Ethnicity diverse and less structured way. They believe that Baudrillard people have much more choice which means that Foucault Socialisation means the process of they shape their and culture to their own Giddens learning the norms and values of S Sexuality needs. society. It happens in 2 stages:

Primary socialisation occurs n the Postmodernism family or through the primary care givers. Secondary Socialisation reinforces Who is ? primary socialisation through social August Comte is the father of modern sociology. He gave the science of institutions such as education and sociology its name and applied the methods of the natural science to the media. the study of society. Functionalism

Internal Criticisms of Functionalism External Criticisms of A consensus theory is one which What is the Organic Analogy and who used it? Functionalism believes that the institutions of Key Thinker society are working together to • The theory is Society acts in a similar way to the human maintain social cohesion and Robert K. Merton teleological – a thing body through the way that social institutions stability. exists because of its interact in the same way as human organs. Three Main Criticisms of Parson’s Assumptions function or effect. Three similarities between society and • Contradictory – how A structural theory is one which biological organisms. Indispensability – not all social can something be both looks at how the social institutions are functionally functional and institutions influence the running System: Society and humans are systems of indispensable and that there are dysfunctional of society and individuals interconnected and inter-dependent parts which function functional alternatives. For example 1 1 Criticisms Logical • Unscientific – impossible behaviours. for the good of the whole. the family are not the only to falsify or verify the that can perform primary theory. System needs: Organisms like the human body have socialisation. Consensus means that a needs that need to be met and so does society. Social 2 • Unable to explain majority of society agree with institutions have evolved to meet society’s needs. Functional Unity – Not all social conflict and change in the goals that society sets to institutions are a tightly linked as Functions: Just as the organs of the body function for the society. show success. Parsons suggests. Some institutions 3 good of the whole so do social institutions, which have 2 are quite far removed form each • It is a conservative evolved functions which benefit society as a whole. other. For example the rules of that tries to Anomie means a feeling of banking and Education. maintain the status quo. Two means of maintaining value consensus and social order normalessness where a person • Legitimises the position doesn’t know what it means to Formal Social Control – Official groups who enforce Universal Functionalism – Not all the of the powerful. be normal within society. institutions of society perform a , such as CJS and the Police. Perspective Conflict 1 positive function for society, instead 3 for some people they are What are Social Facts and who is • Wrong (1961) – Informal Social Control – Other social groups such dysfunctional, for example the key thinker? domestic abuse makes the family Functionalism is 2 as family and peers who keep us in line through dysfunctional for its members. deterministic Durkheim punishment and ostracization. • Functionalism reifies Social facts are things such as institutions, A Manifest Function is the intended society – treating it as a norms and values which exist external to the The Four Basic needs of society function of a social institution. individual and constrain the individual. distinct ‘thing’ Goal Attainment (Political Function) – Societies set goals An example of a manifest function is Durkheim’s Ideas of Society G and decisions about how power and economic resources Perspective Action are allocated. the rain dance performed by the Hopi Indians with the intention of Society shapes the Individual Adaption (Economic Function) – every society has to making it rain. • Unable to explain It is a top down theory where the provide for the needs of its members in order of the diversity and instability 1 institutions of society influence the A society survive. in society. behaviour of the individual. A Latent Function is the unintended • Functionalism is Integration (Social Harmony) – specialist institutions function of a social institution. Social solidarity socialisation and outdated due to I develop to reduce conflict in society. For example anomie. Social solidarity and being a meta- education and media create sense of belonging. cohesion is achieved and An example of a latent function is narrative. 2 maintained through socialisation Latency: The unstated consequences of actions – there also shown by the Hopi Indians, the process and learning of norms and are 2 types of latency: Pattern Maintenance: Maintaining ran dance also helps to maintain values. Without this society can fall L value consensus through socialisation and Tension social solidarity

into anomie (Normallessness) Management. Opportunities to release tension in a safe Perspective Postmodern way. Marxism

A conflict theory is a theory that suggest that society is in conflict Marxist Structure of a Capitalist society. Evaluation of Marxism between certain groups. In the case of Marxism the conflict is between social Marx focuses solely on class divisions within society but Weber classes. suggest that inequality can be caused by power and status Superstructure: independently of class structures. Feminists would also argue Bourgeoisie means the owners of the that there is more inequality between genders then there is means of production and the ruling and structures of transfer between classes. class. The two class system is also over simplistic – it is currently Proletariat means the workers who are suggested that there are 7 different classes within British the relations of production and are Simplified Over oppressed by the bourgeoise. Means of Production: society. Natural Resources, Land, Alienation means the process whereby Technology Marx’s whole system is based on economics, and the view the worker is made to feel foreign to the products of his/her own labor. that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, from inequality to . False Class Consciousness means the Relations of productions way that the proletariat a led to Weber argues that Marxism completely ignores the role of believe their oppression by the The people (workers v ideas in social change – e.g. Calvinism’s role in the rise of bourgeoise is normal and that if they owners) capitalism. work hard they can become the

bourgeoisie. Economic Determinism Economic The features of Capitalist The features of Communist Five Stages of society Society . Society . The biggest criticism of Marxism is that the that he according to Marx said would cause the development to a communist society has yet to occur and Marx was very vague on the conditions The proletariat are Primitive ownership that would eventually lead to this revolution. 1 legally free and – Classless society 1 of the means of separated from the 1 production and Marx also suggested that revolution would occur in the most Feudal Society – Landowners V means of production abolish of production 2 advance capitalist societies and yet it has been the most Peasants for profit. backward countries (Russia and Cuba) that have seen

Lack of Revolutionof Lack Marxist . Capitalist Society – Bourgeoisie V Competition 3 Proletariat between capitalists lead to the means of Stateless and 2 2 Capitalism has become es exploitative then it was during the – Government Owners production Classless society - 4 industrial revolution. Keynesian Economics has led to more V Workers becoming concentrated. government oversight of businesses and the development of Communism – Classless Society welfare states. 5 The proletariat do not Reclaiming control receive the value of over the workers A number of social institutions have become autonomous their goods that their 3 labour and products from the bourgeoisie – e.g. the media have become critical

3 dateof Out labour produces, but they create (end of the elite. only the cost of alienation) subsistence. Neo Marxism

Humanistic Neo-Marxism Structural Neo-Marxism Evaluation of Neo-Marxism

Gramsci’s concept of State Apparatus Under - emphasizing the role of coercive hegemony means the political and economic forces in holding dominance in society of the Repressive State Apparatus: back the formation of a counter- ruling class ideology and the 1 Armies of Men: Police, CJS, hegemonic bloc – for example workers acceptance of and to military. Coercion may be unable to form revolutionary by the rest society. vanguards because of the threat of state- Ideological State Apparatus: violence. 2 Media, education, family etc Voluntarism means that the working class choose Marxism manipulation - to accept the ruling class ideology.

3 Levels of Structural Determinism

Economic Level – All activities which Ruling Class dominance is maintained by…. 1 produce something to meet a need.

Dominates capitalism. Humanistic Neo Humanistic Coercion – the use of the army, police and Political Level – All forms of organisation in 1 other government agencies to force other 2 including the RSA’s which coerce workers classes to accept ruling class ideology. into the false class consciousness. Consent – uses ideas and values to persuade Ideological Level – The ways people see 2 the other classes that ruling class ideology is themselves and the world. Including ISA’s 3 legitimate. which socialise and manipulate people into • Replaces economic determinism is FCC replaced by a more complex system. Reasons why Ruling Class hegemony is never complete Relative Autonomy means partial autonomy • Discourages political activism by from the economic level. This means that the Ruling class are the minority – to maintain their suggesting that individuals can do little political and ideological levels are more than a rule they must create a power bloc (alliances) to change society. 1 reflection of the economic level but there is in with other groups such as the middle class. fact 2 way causality. Economic level dominates

Marxism • Ignores examples of working class in capitalism but the political and ideological - Duel consciousness – Working class can see functions a indispensable as well. struggles changing society. through the dominant ideology to a certain 2 extent. They are influenced by the bourgeoise Requirements for socialism to come about • Thompson – Althusser is elitist and ideas but also by their material conditions. suggests people follow communist party Humanistic Neo-Marxism Structural Neo-Marxism blindly. Organic Intellectuals are class conscious workers who organise themselves into a revolutionary Counter Hegemony Neo Structural political party who will help to create the created by the working counter hegemony class to over thrown the cultural hegemony of the ruling class. Feminisms

Feminism in general means he 6 Structures of Patriarchy - Walby Typ Outline Thinkers Evaluation in the social, economic, e and political equality of the The state: govt run by men so sexes. 1 policies and laws tend to favour Believes that equality should Anne Oakley Overly Optimistic about the men's interests. be brought about through Sue Sharpe amount of that has Malestream means viewing education and policy been made. Violence: Men are able to use changes. They try to change social phenomena mainstream their physicality to intimidate 2 Liberal the system from within. Deals with the effects of and usual, from the point of view women. Feminism of the man, without regard to patriarchy not the causes. gender. Domestic Labour: Women still Believe equality can only be Germaine Gives other forms of feminism 3 complete the majority of domestic Patriarchy means male labour even though there is no achieved through gender Greer a bad reputation. reason for this. dominance over women. separation and political Paid Work: Women earn less then lesbianism. Change is brought In this theory gender equality

Radical about through protest and is never full achieved. 4 men and they are overwhelmingly Feminism in low paid and part time work. violence. Three Waves of Feminism Sexuality: The difference in how Believe that capitalism is the Michelé Revolution is required for men and women’s sexuality is cause of women's oppression Bartlett equality and it hasn’t 5 perceived. Women are Sluts, men and that this oppression helps happened yet. Early 1900’s are players. to reinforce capitalism. This is Suffragettes striving for done in three ways: Patriarchy exists in non- women's votes. Culture: portrayal of women n 1 culture and the media is often in a Women as reserve work force capitalist societies. Emmeline Pankhurst 6 sexual way or in a way that Creation of the next gen of reinforces women's lower status. workers. It is men not capitalism that

Cushioning Effect – Zaretsky benefit from women's Marxist Feminism Feminism Marxist 1960’s General Features of Feminism oppression. “Private made Political” – There are inequalities between Gloria Steinem Believes that other feminisms men and women based on Focuses on the minutia of Binging women’s issues into 1 create a false universality of power and status. oppression which lessens the 2 the public sphere such as women's oppression, based on impact and power in the experiences of western, feminism as a whole. abortion, contraception and Inequalities create conflict middle class white women. domestic violence. 2 between men and women. Different groups of women will

Feminism experience oppression differently

Intersectional and each of these experiences Gender roles and inequalities needs to be are generally socially 1990’s 3 constructed. Combines the ideas of the Hiedi Patriarchy is not at system in #HeforShe, #Metoo radical and Marxist feminists, Hartman the same way as capitalism Focus on issues such as The importance of the concept and suggests that women are instead it is a descriptive term 3 gender representations in the of patriarchy: A system of social oppressed by two different Sylvia Walby for practices such as male media and sexual systems: violence and control of 4 structures and practices which Capitalism and Patriarchy women's labour. harassment. men dominate, oppress and Feminism

exploit women. systems Duel Social Action Theory

5 Features of Social Action 4 Types of Action

Max Weber Key Key

Thinker Instrumental Rational Action: Social actors works out the most efficient way Social structures area to achieve a goal. social construction 1 E.g. the most efficient way to make profit is to pay low wages. created by individuals. Micro Approach means that the sociologists are Not a separate entity 1 looking at the individuals in society and how they Value Rational Action: Action towards a goal that seen as desirable for its above them. shape the world around them 2 own sake. E.G. Believing in God and completing rituals in order to reach salvation.

Traditional Action: Routine, customary or habitual actions that are done Verstehen means empathy. To fully understand 3 Voluntarism, free will without thought or choice; more like “we have always don this” and choice of people social groups you have to be able to ‘walk in to do things and form their shoes’ Affectual Action: Action that expresses emotion. Weber saw this as important in religious and political movements with charismatic leaders 2 their own identities 4 rather than being who attract followers based on emotional appeal. dictated by social E.g. weeping with grief or violence caused by anger. Summary of Social Action Theory institutions. Weber believed that in order to fully understand Evaluation of Weber Micro Approach, focus society you need to use a combination of both on individual or small structural and action approaches. Weber's view of action is to individualistic and doesn’t explained groups rather than shared nature of meanings. For example a student raising their Example: The Protestant Work Ethic 3 large scale trends. hand in class, THEY mean they have a question or answer, but Structural cause: Protestant reformation, introduced Weber doesn’t explain how the teacher and other students also an new belief system – Calvinism. This changed know what is meant by this gesture. peoples and therefore their behaviour. Schutz Alfred Behaviours is driven by It is difficult to apply these ideas as meaning can be misinterpreted Subjective Meaning: work took on a religious beliefs, meanings and or reinterpreted by different individuals. meaning, glorifying God through labour and feelings people give to aestheticism. Making them the first modern E.g. The Trobriand Islanders exchange gifts called ‘Kula’ with the situation they are in, 4 capitalists. neighbouring islands. This could be seen as either a traditional or the way they see action as it has been done for generations or it could be seen as things. Application an instrumental rational action because it cements

2 levels of sociological explanation IT is never possible to truly put yourself into the shoes of another The use of interpretivist in order Cause: explaining the structural factors that person, therefore we cannot really know or understand their to uncover the 1 shape peoples behaviour. motives. 5 meanings and definitions individuals give to their behaviour. Meaning: Understanding the subjective Verstehen 2 meanings that individuals attach to their actions. Symbolic Interactionism

Key Thinkers Taking on the role of the other Labelling Theory Dramaturgical Model

Thinker: GH Mead WI Thomas – the definition of Thinker: Goffman G.H. Mead something is its label therefore Taking on the role of others people label situations, events and Front Stage Self – The act we put on means putting oneself in the people which can have real world for other people. The front stage is consequences. where we spend most of our lives. Herbert place of the other person and For example a teacher labels a Blumer seeing ourselves as they see situation student as troublesome and will Back Stage – The private place

us. theof Definition therefore act differently towards where we can truly be ourselves that student. and prepare to return to the front Charles stage. How do we take on the role of the selfof Presentation Cooley – the way that we develop Cooley other? our self-concept. The use of language, gestures, body Through the process of social “I am not who I think I am, I am not language and props to help us pass interaction. Firstly as young Erving who you think I am, I am who I think for the type of person that we want children through imitative play you think I am.” the audience to see. This process Goffman where we start to see ourselves as Self Fulfilling Prophesy – we become requires us to constantly read the our significant others see us. Then audiences responses to us and adjust

what others see us as. Impression Looking Glass Self Glass Looking

we start to see ourselves as the Management Symbol Versus Instinct our performance accordingly. wider community do – Generalised Other Becker and Lemert – the process of Instinct means responding to labelling, from identification, to the There is a gap between who we really are and the roles we play - stimulus in an automatic, pre- Key Principals of Symbolic Interactionism label being attached, acceptance programmed way. or rejection of the label by the ‘role distance’.

labelled, to the creation of a master Roles are loosely scripted by society Roles Thinker: Career status. so we have the freedom to choose Each stage has its own set of how we play them. Symbol means the words, Our actions are based on the problems and issues. objects, expressions and meanings we give to the gestures that an individual 1 situations, events and people. Evaluation attaches meaning to. For example: the shaking of a 1 2 3 4 5 fist can mean many things. These meanings are based on the Ethnomethodology Not all action Fails to explain It is more a Dramaturgical argues that is meaningful, the origin of loose group of analogy has its Interpretive Phase means the interactions we have although it is limitation as process between experienced and are not fixed correct to focus on especially labels or the descriptive 2 everyone plays experiencing the stimulus and but are negotiable and fluid to interactions, Weber’s idea consistent concepts than Symbolic both roles of reacting to it, where the some extent. of traditional patterns that an Interactionism fails actor and situation is interpreted in order actions which we see in explanatory to explain who the audience and actors create the may hold little peoples theory. to choose the appropriate The meanings we give to interactions are meanings. meaning for behaviour. response. situations are the result of often the actor. 3 interpretive procedures we use improvised and such as taking on the role of unrehearsed. others. Phenomenology & Ethnomethodology

Phenomenology Ethnomethodology

Edmund Husserl: The world only makes sense because we impose Harold Garfinkel – is interested in how social order is maintained. meaning and order on it. We construct mental categories to classify and Unlike interactionists who are interested in the effects of the file that we experience through our senses. Therefore the meanings; he is interested in how people construct the common world as we know it is a product of the individual mind. sense knowledge and the rules and processes we use to produce the meanings in the first place.

Social order is created from…. The Ethnomethodology studies…. The Alfred Schutz: developed Husserls ideas and applied it to the social members of society creating and process of creating the meanings world. He states that the categories and concepts we use to construct applying common sense knowledge by which we make sense of the our mental categories are not unique to ourselves but we in fact share to their everyday lives. world and the rules and methods these with other people which is how we are able to live in community used to create the meanings. and social groups. Indexicality means.. Nothing has a Reflexicality means the use of Typificiations means… The shared categories that that help us to organise the fixed meaning; everything is common sense knowledge to experiences and world around us. Typificiations help to stabilise and clarify dependent on context. interpret everyday situations to construct a sense of meaning meanings by ensuring that we are all speaking the same language and agree and order. on the meaning of things. Breaching Experiments Life World means… the stock of shared typificiations or what many consider common sense knowledge. It includes common assumptions about the way What are they What is their purpose? What did Garfinkel things are and what certain situations mean. conclude? Garfinkle got his students Experiments which aim By challenging the taken to either act as lodgers to disrupt peoples sense for granted assumptions in their own home of order and challenge he was able to show Recipe Knowledge means… the ability to interpret a situation, action or (overly polite, avoiding their reflexivity by that the orderliness of motivation without really thinking about it. For example we know that a red getting personal) or the undermining everyday situations is not light means stop and this knowledge means that we are able to drive safely. haggled over the price assumptions about a fixed but an of groceries at the situation. accomplishment of checkout of a those who took part. Natural Attitude means… the belief that society is a real objective thing that supermarket. Social order is exists outside of use. However Schutz suggests that this is a false belief as it “participant produced” merely demonstrates how people have the same shared meanings which allow us to cooperate and achieve mutual goals. EVALUATION: Carib Findings of the breaching experiments were trivial as Ethnomethodologists spend a lot of time uncovering “taken for grated rules” which are of no surprise to EVALUATION: Berger and Luckman anyone. EM denies the existence of wider society suggesting instead that it is a Agree that it is right to focus on the common sense knowledge they disagree with “shared Fiction” but functionalists would argue that norms and values are not the idea that reality is an inter-subjective reality but instead that once the shared fiction but a social fact. meanings have been created, society becomes an external reality that reflects Marxists would argue that the “shred common sense knowledge” is in fact the back on us . For example starts as a set of ideas but becomes powerful ruling class ideology and the order that it creates serves the interests of capitalism structures of society which can constrain us. not the individual. Structuration Theory

Two ways that action reproduce existing structures. Evaluation

Key Key Anthony Giddens Thinker The rules contain the stock of knowledge about Giddens underestimates the power of how we live our lives. For example earning and the structures to resist change. For Duality of Structure living and shopping etc involve applying this example Slaves may wish to abolish 1 knowledge. We use resources as we go about but lack the power to do so everyday activities which reproduces the Structure and action are two sides of the same coin structures. For example using money to buy through their own agency. and neither can exist without the other. It is through shopping Protestants were persecuted by the our actions that we produce and reproduce catholic church for changing their structures and it is these structures which allow our Through actions be which reinforce the existing beliefs.

actions to take place. structures because we have the need to ensure Archer Margret the status quo How does language illustrate the duality of structure 2

Language is a structure with rules of grammar which Structuration isn’t really a theory at all determine meanings. We must follow these rules in but describes the kid of things that order to be understood by others. This shows how our sociologist find when they study society. actions (communication) are dependent on structure Ontological Security means the need to feel that world Giddens fails to explain how his theory (grammar). However without action structure around us is as it appears to be, orderly and stable. This applies to large scale structures such as wouldn’t exists. For example grammar would exist if encourages actions that maintain the structures rather than changing them. the economy or the state.

people did not use language. Also shows how actions Craib can change over time with words taking on new meanings (Gay) and new words being developed (To Google) Two ways that the structure of society, action or agency changes society. Two elements of structure Reflexive monitoring - we constantly reflect on our own actions and their consequences Rules - the norms , customs and laws which so that we can adjust our actions as needed. govern action. 1 1

Unintended Consequences – we may Resources – Economic resources such as raw change the world around us but not always materials, technology etc and power over in the way we intended. For example the 2 others. 2 Calvinists adopted the protestant work ethic to glorify God but also started the development of the modern capitalist state. Postmodernism

4 Characteristics of a Modern Society. Postmodernism Late Modernity

Postmodernism is characterised by instability and fragmentation Argue that we are not entering a new era of postmodernism but Nation State – The key political unit of within a global village where image an d reality are instead are seeing a continuation modernity. They recognise that 1 modern society. A geographical area indistinguishable. We are defined by what we consume. It is a something important is happening but the elements of modernity ruled by a powerful central state. completely new era of society and new theory are still present. They believe that we can use the enlightenment project to improve society. Capitalism – Private ownership of the Giddens: Key Features of Late Modernity 2 means of production and the use of Meta Narrative means… Relativist Position means… All wage labourers. the big picture, a views are true for the people singular truth which who hold them. No one has a Disembedding – we no longer need face to face Rationality – Science and technology explains the world monopoly on the truth. contact in order to interact. There is a break down around us. 1 3 are the dominate way of thinking. The of geographical boarders thus making interaction move away from religious Baudrillard and Simulacra more impersonal. explanations.

Individualism – greater personal Lyotard and language Society is no longer based on Reflexivity – we are continually re-evaluating our Games production of goods but on ideas and theories, nothing is fixed or permanent 4 freedom and the break from tradition 2 and ascribed status. Athough buying and selling of knowledge and everything is up to challenge. structural inequalities still remain. Knowledge is not about which bares no relation to reality. He calls the signs that stand for truth it is a but a way of nothing Simulacra. Globalisation means… the increased seeing the world. This is He also talks about hyper-reality Ulrich Beck: Risk Society interconnectedness of people across preferable as it allows where there is a blurring of reality marginalised groups to national boundaries. and image. For example reality TV Manufactured Risk: The risks that we face today have been be heard. which is partially scripted so bears no relation to actual reality. created by human activity rather than by nature. 4 Changes of Globalisation Individualisation: we are no longer governed by tradition in terms of how we act, instead we think for ourselves and Technological Changes – New Evaluation reflect on the possible consequences of our actions. technologies have created a time- 1 space compression but also created Risk Consciousness: we have become much more aware and Miller Best and Kellner Enlightenment greater risk such as global warming. of risks to ourselves then we ever used to be and work to Project avoid and minimise them. Economic Changes – economic activity now takes place on a global It ignores power Weak theory as it Postmodernism is a 2 scale and includes the electronic and inequality explains how pessimistic about Evaluation economy. Money never sleeps. society is but fails to the entitlements Overlooks the role explain how they project, suggesting Rustin Hirst Risk & the Poor Political Changes – globalisation has of poverty in came about. that their view of undermined the power of the nation restricting objective Capitalism not Movements such as Not everyone has 3 state. We now live in a borderless opportunities. knowledge is technology is the environmentalism the option to world – Ohmae. TNC have more impossible and cause of risk in are unable to bring minimise the risk power than government. Wrong to assume nothing can be modern society. about the change that they are faced people cannot done to change or that Beck suggests with, the poor don’t Changes in culture and identity – we differentiate improve society. are the yare too always have the live in a global culture created by between reality and fragmented. means to do this. 4 mass media that has led to the image. westernisation of the world. Research Design

Hypothesis means a supposition or Correlation means the relationships Ethnographies means the scientific Pilot Study is a small proposed explanation made on the between two variables. It could be a description of peoples and cultures scale preliminary basis of limited evidence as a starting positive or negative relationship. with their customs, habits, and mutual study conducted in point for further investigation. differences. order to evaluate feasibility of the key steps in a future, full- Qualitative data is virtually any type of Longitudinal Study means a study that Case Study means a detailed and in- scale project. information that can be observed and takes place over a long period of time. depth study of a single case, involving recorded that is not numerical in It can include a number of other an event, group, individual, or nature and can be in the form of research methods. organization. written or verbal communication. The Hypothetico-Deductive Model Factors when choosing a topic Quantitative data is data that can be quantified and verified, and is The personal interests and values of amenable to statistical manipulation. 1 the researchers themselves Generally comes in the form of numbers and figures. Identify the Gather Identify an Theoretical perspective/ political issue or 2 background hypothesis or beliefs. Reliability means the extent to which a problem you information question study can be replicated in the same wish to research Opportunity / Access to research way. You do not need to get the same 3 results but the process should be the population same.

Choose a 4 Funding Validity means how well a piece of Conduct your Conduct a pilot research research actually measures what it sets research study method and sampling frame Society and what is currently “In out to, or how well it reflects the reality 5 it claims to represent. Vogue”

Triangulation means using more than 6 Ethical Considerations one research method to improve the validity of the study. Analyse the Draw data collected conclusions Factors Influencing Method Choice

Practical Factors Ethical and Moral Factors

Access to the Participants Type of data required Informed Consent Confidentiality The ability to gain access to the Different methods will provide All participants have to give informed Any and all identifying features group you wish to study will either qualitative or quantitative consent. This would mean that the about the participants should not be determine which type of method data, so the type of data required sociologist would have to explain to released to the public or published you are able to use. For example is will influence the method used. participants what the research was in the report on the study. your participant are working class about, what taking part would involve parents they may not have the time and how the data will be used. to complete interviews but could do Time Available a questionnaire. Different methods require Covert Research & Consent Privacy Personal Characteristics of the different amount of time to When conducting covert research it The researcher should not ask or Researcher complete and this may influence a researchers choice and they may be necessary for the researcher involve themselves in the private The personal characteristics of the may have a deadline to meet. to gain informed consent after the lives of their participants which do researcher will influence their choice For example unstructured data had bee collected, the can not pertain to the research they are of method as different researchers interviews and observations can also gain pre-emptive consent from conducting. will have different skill sets making take a lot more time to complete a similar group. some methods easier to use than than a web based questionnaire. others. For example a researcher Harm would need good communication Pre-emptive Consent means Cost / Funding speaking to a similar group to your The participants and researcher skills in order to use a interview and should not be put in any harms way good memory and powers of Research funding can influence sample to see if they would give consent to the researcher and if so during the research, wither physical, observation f using an observation. the research method used not just psychological or emotional harm. due to the requirements of the the researcher can assume the Subject Matter funding body but also the amount sample will as well. it could cost as the researcher will The subject you are studying may lend need to stay within budget. Deception means deliberately lying Legality itself more to one research method to the participants about the The researcher cannot break the than another. For example it may be purpose of the research or how the difficult for a male researchers to Research Opportunity during their research or take data will be used. This can interview victims of domestic violence part in illegal activities. There are times when a research sometimes be necessary if the and questionnaires may not be opportunity can occur suddenly appropriate for participants who have nature of the research could lead to English as a second language. meaning that the research will not researcher effects and invalidate have the time to prepare the data. Size of the sample structured interviews or questionnaires. Gate keepers are the people that The sample size can influence the choice you need to gain permission from in in methods as if you have access to a order to gain access to your large sample a interview would take too participants. long to complete but if you have a very small sample a in depth interview might be required to get enough information. Primary Research Methods

Practical Ethical Theoretical Method Description + - + - + -

A self complete form with questions Open Detailed data (Open) which allow the respondent to answer Participants may lie Questionnaire Easy Low response rate in as much detail as they want. Reliable Someone other than Cheap Misunderstand the Informed consent the intended A self complete form with questions question Large Sample Closed given by completing Questions may be participant may which give a set of responses that the Lack of researcher Questionnaire sensitive. answer respondent can choose from. effects Answer may not fit Easy to quantify and Anonymous those given (closed) analyse (Closed) Right answerism A self complete form which is sent out Quick to analyses and Web based via the internet or by using a site such reach conclusions Leading Questions Detachment and Questionnaire Lack of rapport as survey monkey.. objectivity

A conversation between the Allows researcher to Unstructured researcher and the participant where build rapport with the Interview the questions are based on the participants. Demand responses given. Characteristics In depth detailed (US) Flexibility Time (US) Good for sensitive data A conversation between the Questions could (US) Unreliable Structured topics researcher and the participant where Allows for clarification Cost & Training of cause harm if of a Interview (S) Reliable the questions are set in advance. of the questions. Interviewers sensitive nature. Small Sample Hard to Quantify (G) Peer Group Where the interview can be structured Influence Group Interview or unstructured but involves more than one participant.

Where a researcher tells the Overt participants that they are being Observation observed and what they are being Time observed for. Cost Where the researcher doesn’t tell the Flexible [C] lacks informed Hawthorne Effect Covert participants that they are being Researcher effect In depth detailed consent. Observation observed until after the study is data [O] Researcher can Hard to Quantify complete. Requires a certain skill ask questions Privacy can be set not all researchers Allows for Verstehen breached. Small Sample Where the researcher becomes a will have. Participant Only option with some member of the group they are Observation groups. [P] Going Native Unreliable researching. [C] Relies on memory

Some groups can be Non- Where the researcher watches the hard to access Participation group from the outside without taking Observation part.

A study that takes place in a label Experiments - where the researcher is able to Validity – not normal Time Lab manipulate and control all the Highly reliable setting Deception in order to variables. Variables are Harm to participants – Cost deal with researcher controlled. Stress Causation can be Researcher Effects effects Field Experiments take place in real-life determined Experiments – settings such as a classroom, the work Small Sample Field place or even the high street. Secondary Research Methods

Practical Ethical Theoretical Method Description + - + - + -

Large sample Cheap May not ask the Official Numerical data that is produced by No ethical considerations in using official questions specific to Valid Statistics government of government agencies. statistics. Easily accessible the research Reliable

Large Sample May not ask the Cheap No ethical considerations in using unofficial Could be biased to Unofficial Numerical data that is collected by questions specific to statistics. Valid the views of the Statistics charities and other organisations. the research Easily accessible organisation. Reliable

Open to Invasion of privacy interpretation Documents such as personal diaries, Personal Can be hard to letters and other personal Cheap Informed Consent In depth and detailed Documents access Personal view correspondence. Confidentiality Unreliable

Unreliable Some can be easy to In depth data Public Government documents that have access. Can take time to gain Open to No ethical considerations Documents been released such as OFSTED reports access under FOI Act interpretation Cheap Biased

Open to Cheap interpretation Original documents that contain May not be specific Confidentiality Historical Time important historical information about to the research being In depth data Unreliable Documents a person, place, or event. conducted Invasion of Privacy Can be easy to Personal View access

Cheap May not be exactly Research that has been carried out in Prior Research Easy to access the same in terms of No ethical considerations the same area or on the same topic. research aims. Time

Formal Content Analysis is a quantitative approach to analysing Open to Cheap Content mass media content and involves interpretation Time No ethical considerations Reliable Analysis developing a system of classification Easy to access to analyse the key features of media sources Sampling Methods

A population is the people who Random Stratified Snowball live within a society. Description Description Description An example of random sampling Where the sample reflects the With this method, researchers would be picking names out of a proportions of different groups in might find a few participants, and hat. In random sampling everyone the research population. For then ask them to find participants in the population has the same example if 33% of the RP are themselves and so on. A research population is the chance of getting chosen. female then 33% of the sample should be female. + - group of people that you wish to + - study. Useful to use Sample can be Easy to create Can lead to + - when unrepresentative and can be unrepresentative researching created by sample Provides a Can be had to computer representative complicated A sample is those who are access sample to create the taking part in your study. groups. sample. Systematic Quota Opportunity Description Picking every Nth person from all Description Description Representative means the possible participants. N = the In this method researchers will be Uses people from target extent to which a sample mirrors number of people in the research told to ensure the sample fits with population available at the time a researcher's target population population / the number of people certain quotas, for example they and willing to take part. It is and reflects its characteristics. needed for the sample. might be told to find 90 based on convenience. participants, with 30 of them being unemployed. + - + - Generalisability means the + - Quick and Can lead to an extent to which their findings Relatively easy Can lead to an easy unrepresentative can be applied to the larger to create unrepresentative Representative Can be difficult sample. population of which their sample Sample to find enough sample was a part. people to fill the quota. Theoretical Factors in Research

Reliability means the extent to Validity means how well a Representative means the Generalisability means the which a study can be piece of research actually extent to which a sample mirrors extent to which their findings replicated in the same way. measures what it sets out to, or a researcher's target population can be applied to the larger You do not need to get the how well it reflects the reality it and reflects its characteristics. population of which their same results but the process claims to represent. sample was a part. should be the same.

Factors impacting Reliability Factors impacting Validity Factors impacting Representativeness and Research Method Hawthorne Effect Group Dynamics Generalisability

Some research methods such as The idea that participants will Peer group pressure can Sample Size structured interviews and consciously or unconsciously change a participants questionnaires are more reliable change their behaviour when behaviour or answers to appear The smaller the sample size the as they can be repeated in the they know they are being more acceptable to the group less likely it can be generalised same way multiple times. watched – only applies to or to gain symbolic capital to the wider research observations. amongst the groups. population and is unlikely to be fully representative of the groups. Data type Social Desirability Demand Characteristics Quantitative data is more Social desirability refers to the When the participants change Research Method reliable than qualitative as it is conscious or unconscious their answers or behaviour to quantifiable and not open to changes people make to their what they think they researcher Some research methods will interpretation. answers or behaviours so that wants to see or hear. mean that the sample will need they appear more socially to be small (interviews and acceptable / normal. Observations) which can limit both representativeness and generalisability. Participants Data Type It is unlikely that a researcher Qualitative data is open to will be able to get participants interpretation which can lower who match exactly when the validity as one researcher repeating research, so may interpret it differently to participants will lower the another . reliability of a study. Interpretivism Vs Positivism

Interpretivism Positivism

Verstehen means empathic Social Construction means Social facts are things such as Induction involves accumulating data understanding of human phenomena that is created by society institutions, norms and values about the world through careful behaviour. Walking in and not naturally occurring. It will vary which exist external to the observation and measurement someone else's shoes. from culture to culture. individual and constrain the individual. Causality means the relationships Approach to sociological Natural Science V Sociology between cause and effect. How one research stimuli can lead to a certain action. • Causation • Meanings and Approach to sociological To understand the world you interpretations research need to be empathetic in • Observable order to understand the phenomena • Unobservable Sociology should approach Objective Quantitative Research meanings attached to research in the same way as • External Stimuli • Conscious action. the natural sciences. It should beings / Free Positivists prefer quantitative data and Will be objective and logical. as far as possible should follow the Preferred data type and experimental method of the natural sciences. This will allow them to methods Types of Interpretivism uncover and measure patterns of Preferred data type and behaviour which will lead them to Qualitative data methods Interactionism: create social facts which govern Methods such as: society. Also by using quantitative There can be causal explanation in Quantitative Data • Unstructured Interviews sociology but there is no need for a data the positivists believe that they • Observations hypothesis before starting research. By Methods such as: are able to uncover cause and effect • Open Questionnaires stating an hypothesis at the start of the • Closed Questions that determine human behaviour. study Glaser and Strauss argue that • Structured Interviews 1 researchers run the risk of imposing their • Experiments Positivists believe that research should Sociological Perspectives own views on the data rather than be detached from subjective feelings those of the actors being researched. and interpretations it is claimed that a Instead there should be a grounded Social Action theories such scientists beliefs and values have no as Symbolic Interactionism, theory which means allowing ideas to Sociological Perspectives emerge as the data is collected which impact on their findings and Phenomenology, can later be used to produce a sociologists should be the same . ethnomethodology. Structural Approaches such as testable hypothesis. Functionalism, Marxism and Phenomenology & Feminism Sociologists Ethnomethodology Weber Rejects the idea that here can be Garfinkle cause explanations for human Sociologists behaviour and that society is not out Bulmer 2 Goffman there determining our actions. Instead Durkheim they argue that society is a shared set Comte Cooley of meanings and knowledge. They are Mead interested in finding out what these Husserl shared meanings are and where they originate from. Sociology and Science

5 Components of a Falsification Realists science Thinkers: Popper Thinkers: Keat and Urry Empirical – Count and Position on Sociology as a science. 1 measure information Position on Sociology as a science. Sociology is not a science but it could be Sociology could be a science depending on definition of science Testable – scientific Explanation 2 knowledge can be tested and retested. Popper believes that instead of verification, what makes science Explanation Theoretical – seeks causal unique is the idea of Falsification. Falsification is the idea that a Realists recognise there are some similarities between Sociology and the relationships and doesn’t statements can in principal be falsified by evidence. So a good natural science depending on the amount of control the researcher has over 3 seek to simply describe but theory is one that stands up to any attempts to disprove it. Popper their variables. They identify 2 types of system within science. to explain. states that sociology at present is not a science because its theories and statements are not able to be put to the test with the possibility Closed systems – researchers are able to control and measure all the Cumulative – Builds on of being falsified. For example Marxism states that there will be a relevant variables and therefor can make predictions, similar to chemistry 4 previous knowledge. revolution to overthrow capitalism but this revolution has not yet and physics. occurred due to false class consciousness. This means that Marxism Open systems – The researcher is not able to control and measure all the cannot be falsified as if there is a revolution then Marxism is correct variables so cannot make precise predictions due to the complex nature of Objective – Personal the subject area, for example meteorology. Keat and Urry argue then that feelings m prejudices etc and even if there is not a revolution Marxism is still correct. 5 But Popper said the sociology could be a science because it is sociology is an open system as there are often complex systems and multiple have not place in science. variables which the researcher cannot control. It should be unbiased. capable of producing testable hypotheses

Positivists Interpretivists Thinkers: Durkheim and Comte Thinkers: Thinkers: Kuhn Position on Sociology as a science. Position on Sociology as a science. Sociology is and should be considered a science. Position on Sociology as a science. Sociology is not a science but it could be Sociology cannot and should not be a science.

Explanation Explanation Explanation Reality exists outside and independently of the mind A is a basic framework of assumptions, principals Sociology and science differ on two major areas. and there for it can be studied objectively and as a real and methods from which the members of the community thing. They believe that there are social facts which work. It is a set of norms which tell a scientists how to think and 1) Observable v Unobservable – Sociology is concerned make up the rules of society which are separate and behave and although in science there are rival schools of with unobservable internal meanings behind action independent of individuals. Due to this belief Positivists thought there is still a single paradigm that all scientists and not external causes so is unobservable where as believe that society can be studied in the same way as accept uncritically. the natural sciences deal mostly with the observable the natural world and that patterns can be observed At present Sociology doesn’t have a single paradigm, there cause and effect. and analysed to create the social facts which rule are rival schools of thought and no fundamental agreement 2) Consciousness – The natural sciences studies matter society. This method is called inductive reasoning, which on what or how to study society. Kuhn refers to this as being which doesn’t have consciousness and therefore involves accumulating data about the world through pre-paradigmatic. Stating that Sociology could become a behaviour can be explained as a reaction to external careful observation and measurement. From this data a science if it is able to develop this single fundamental beliefs stimulus. Where as sociology is dealing with conscious theory can be formed and verified through further study. system. beings who make sense of the world by attaching Positivists believe that sociology should follow the However postmodernists do not think a single paradigm is meaning to action. These meanings are internal and objective experimental methods that the natural desirable in sociology as it is too close ot being a meta based on experiences so not directly linked to external sciences follow so that the research remains value free narrative. and patterns and causation can be established. stimulus. Value Freedom

Values refer to beliefs, opinion Positivists and Value Freedom Committed Sociology prejudices that everyone holds and are influenced by Thinkers: Durkheim, Comte, Marx Explanation: Sociologists shouldn’t just spell out their values in their research but should our class, gender, ethnicity also take sides and espouse the values and interests of certain groups. Explanation: and experiences. Gouldner Becker Believe that the study of society should not Relativism means that there is be the a matter of subjective values or Value free sociology is both impossible Becker argues that it is inevitable that no independent way to judge personal opinions about what is best. and undesirable. It is impossible because sociologists take sides and that they if one view is more true than Instead it should focus on uncovering the a sociologists own values or those of their should take the side of the Under dog any other. truth about how society works and pay masters are inevitably going to be rather than that of the powerful. Partly uncovering the laws governing its proper reflecting in their research. Undesirable because less is known about these function. In order to do this sociologists since without values to guide research groups but also because their stories should stay objective and value free so that sociologists are simply selling their services need to be told in order to redress the they could say with scientific certainty what to the highest bidder. balance. is best for society and they would be able Feminists to prescribe how things should be. Feminists conduct their research entirely Value Laden Sociology based on their values and political opinions. They argue that sociology Explanation: Gomm argues that ‘a value free should be driven by the desire to make Sociology is impossible… the very idea is society better and should be used to unsociological’. He argues that Sociologists react to expose the injustice of patriarchy. political, economic and social events – and what is seen as a political or social ‘issue’, a social ‘problem’ is dependent on the power of different groups to define and shape reality – to define what is worthy of research. Consequently, it is just as Weber important to look at what sociologists do not investigate as what they do – Sociologists are not Explanation: necessarily immune to ideological hegemony. Sociology cannot be completely value free but there are elements which can be. He makes a distinction between facts and value judgements. A fact can be proven or disproven by evidence where as value Three areas where sociology cannot be value free. judgements cannot be proven or disproven. Choice of Subject or Topic – This can be Areas where Sociology can be Value Free Areas where sociology cannot be Value Free subject not only to the values of the 1 researcher themselves but also by those in • Data collection – Weber argues that the • Choice of topic – Values play an important role in political power. collection of data should be objective and selecting the area of research as it is a reflection on what they feel is important and worthy of study. Funding – the source of the funding to unbiased. The questions asked should not be complete the research may come with leading and researchers should not aim to get 2 • Interpretation of Data – facts need to have a ideological ties to the how the data is the respondents to answer in away that reflects theoretical framework so that it is possible to see the interpreted. their ideas. He states that an hypothesis must significance of the data and draw conclusions. This stand or fall solely on whether or not it fits the framework will be based around individual values and Methodology – The choice of the method can observed facts. beliefs. 3 be influenced by the perspective stance that a research takes. Sociology and Social Policy

SOCIAL POLICIES refer to Functionalist View Marxist View Feminist View laws made by the government which aim to Functionalists believe that the state acts in Marxists believe that the state represents Feminists believe that the state and society is improve society or deal the best interests of society and see social the interests of the ruling class and patriarchal and therefore social policies are with a social policy. policy as being good for all. Social policies therefore social policies will reflect the designed to maintain this patriarchy. For help to help society to run more smoothly interests of the ruling class as well. example family policies which benefit married and efficiently. They promote equal Social policies: couples and maternity policies are aimed at SOCIAL PROBLEMS refers to opportunity and social cohesion. • Provide ideological legitimation to keeping women at home. social behaviour that Functionalists often favour social policies mask capitalist exploitation. For Feminist research has had an impact in a causes public friction and which are referred to as piecemeal social example the welfare state provides number of policy areas including equal misery, and requires a engineering, meaning they favour a capitalism with a human face, opportunities and gender neutrality. However collective response. cautious approach tackling one issue at a Examples include Poverty, making it look like the state cares these policies are often seen as reflecting the time. juvenile delinquency and for the sick and poor. Liberal Feminist view not radical or Marxist divorce. Sociologists should investigate social • Maintain the labour force for feminist view. problems scientifically and provide example the NHS keeps workers fit explanations as well as solutions to social for labour. Postmodernist View SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS problems. • Means of preventing revolution by according to Worsley are placating the working class and any pattern of relationships Postmodernists aren’t really interested in social New Right View making it seem as if the state is that calls for an policy however do support policies that looking after the working class. explanation. In other words The New Right believe that people should diversity and choices. Policies such as the maximum any social behaviour or be self reliant. Therefore they believe that Late modernists believe that social policies phenomena which requires working hours. the state should not interfere too much in explanation. need to adapt constantly to globalisation. the private lives of the citizen. They are Sociologists should therefor reveal the particularly against the welfare state which For example why poor unpleasant truth about capitalist policies they see as undermining peoples sense of people are more likely to rather than solve the problems. This will all commit crime. responsibility. They believe that social class consciousness to occur and policy should aim to restore peoples sense revolution to start. of responsibility.

Factors affecting the influence of sociology on social policy.

Electoral Popularity Ideological and Policy Cost / Funding Globalisation Critical Sociology preferences Research findings may be If a researchers values or may not have Social policy isn’t just made by Sociologists such a the Marxists unpopular with voters so perspectives is in line with the the budget to implement a a nation in isolation. are critical of the state and governments may decide not governments then it is more sociologists recommendations. International organisations therefore unlikely to influence to follow those likely to have a chance at such as the IMF and EU may policy. recommendations. influencing policy. For example Whoever is funding the influence social policy within the New Right had research may influence the individual nations. considerable influence in the recommendations and Conservative government of findings that the study the 1970’s and 1980’s. publishes.