Not to be confused with Paleoart. In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced

Gold shoe plaques from the Iron Age Hochdorf Chieftain’s Grave, , c. 530 BC.

for the older literate cultures. The end-date for what is covered by the term thus varies greatly between different parts of the world.[1] The very earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the subject of some debate; it is clear that such workmanship existed Ceramic Moche stirrup spout vessel representing a crustacean. by 40,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic era, how- ever there is evidence of artistic activity dating as far back as 500,000 years ago performed by Homo erectus.[2] From the Upper Palaeolithic through the Mesolithic, paintings and portable art such as figurines and beads pre- dominated, with decorative figured workings also seen on some utilitarian objects. In the Neolithic evidence of early pottery appeared, as did sculpture and the construc- tion of . Early also first appeared in the Neolithic. The advent of metalworking in the Bronze Age brought additional media available for use in mak- ing art, an increase in stylistic diversity, and the creation of objects that did not have any obvious function other than art. It also saw the development in some areas of artisans, a class of people specializing in the production of art, as well as early writing systems. By the Iron Age, A petroglyphic Saharan rock carving from southern de- civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient picting an antelope or gazelle. to Ancient . in preliterate, prehistorical cultures beginning somewhere Many indigenous peoples from around the world con- in very late geological history, and generally continuing tinued to produce artistic works distinctive to their geo- until that culture either develops writing or other meth- graphic area and culture, until exploration and commerce ods of record-keeping, or makes significant contact with brought record-keeping methods to them. Some cultures, another culture that has, and that makes some record of notably the , independently developed major historical events. At this point ancient art begins, writing during the time they flourished, which was then

1 2 1 PALEOLITHIC ERA

later lost. These cultures may be classified as prehistoric, especially if their writing systems have not been deci- phered.

1 Paleolithic era

1.1 Lower and Middle Paleolithic

Main article: Art of the Middle Paleolithic

The earliest undisputed art originated with the Aurignacian archaeological culture in the Upper Paleolithic. However, there is some evidence that the on a in , preference for the aesthetic emerged in the Middle Paleolithic, from 100,000 to 50,000 years ago. Some ar- chaeologists have interpreted certain Middle Paleolithic artifacts as early examples of artistic expression.[3][4] The symmetry of artifacts, evidence of attention to the detail of tool shape, has led some investigators to conceive of Acheulean hand axes and especially laurel points as having been produced with a degree of artistic expression. Similarly, a zig-zag etching made with a shark tooth on a freshwater clam-shell around 500,000 years ago (i.e. well into the Lower Paleolithic), associated with Homo erectus, was proposed as the earliest evidence of artistic activity in 2014.[5] The Mask of La Roche-Cotard has been taken as evi- dence of Neanderthal figurative art, although in a period post-dating their contact with Homo sapiens. There are other claims of Middle Paleolithic sculpture, dubbed the "Venus of Tan-Tan" (before 300 kya)[6] and the "Venus of Berekhat Ram" (250 kya). In 2002 in , situated in South , stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This suggested to some researchers that early Homo sapiens were capable of abstraction and production of abstract art or symbolic art. Several archaeologists in- cluding Richard Klein of Stanford are hesitant to accept the Blombos as the first example of actual art.

1.2 Upper Paleolithic Venus of Willendorf Main article: Art of the Upper Paleolithic The oldest undisputed works of figurative art were found in the Schwäbische Alb, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Swimming Reindeer, Wolverine pendant of Les Eyzies, The earliest of these, the Venus figurine known as the and several of the objects known as bâtons de comman- Venus of and the Löwenmensch figurine date dement. to some 40,000 years ago. Cave paintings from the Indonesian island of Sulawesi Further depictional art from the Upper Palaeolithic pe- were in 2014 found to be 40,000 years old, a similar date to the oldest European cave art, which suggests a much riod (broadly 40,000 to 10,000 years ago) includes cave [7] painting (e.g., those at Chauvet, Altamira, , older origin for this type of art, perhaps in Africa. and Lascaux) and portable art: Venus figurines like the Monumental open air art in Europe from this period in- Venus of Willendorf, as well as animal carvings like the clude Côa Valley and Mazouco in , Domingo 2.1 3

García and in , and Fornols-Haut in France. A cave at Turobong in South Korea containing human remains has been found to contain carved deer bones and depictions of deer that may be as much as 40,000 years old.[8] Petroglyphs of deer or reindeer found at Sokchang- ri may also date to the Upper Paleolithic. Pot shards in a style reminiscent of early Japanese work have been found at Kosan-ri on Jeju island, which, due to lower sea levels at the time, would have been accessible from .[9] The oldest petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Mesolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. The earliest undisputed African rock art dates back about 10,000 years. The first naturalistic paintings of humans found in Africa date back about 8,000 years apparently originating in the Nile River valley, spread as far west as Mali about 10,000 years ago. Noted sites containing early art include Tassili n'Ajjer in southern Algeria, Tadrart Acacus in (A Unesco World Heritage site), and the Tibesti Mountains in north- ern Chad.[10] Rock carvings at the in have been dated to this age.[11] Contentious dates as far back as 29,000 years have been obtained at a site in . A site at the complex in has been dated to 27,000 years.

2 Asia

See also: Eastern art history and History of Chinese art The “dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro", Indus Valley civilization Asia was the cradle for several significant civilizations, most notably those of China and South Asia. The prehis- tory of eastern Asia is especially interesting, as the rela- tively early introduction of writing and historical record- keeping in China has a notable impact on the immediately surrounding cultures and geographic areas. Little of the very rich traditions of the art of Mesopotamia counts as prehistoric, as writing was introduced so early there, but neighbouring cultures such as Urartu, Luristan and Persia had significant and complex artistic traditions.

2.1 Russia

The Shigir Idol (Russian: Шигирский идол), is the most ancient wooden sculpture in the world. It was made dur- ing the Mesolithic Era,around 7500 BC. The idol was discovered in 1894, in the peat bog of Shigir, on the eastern slope of the Middle Urals (to approximately 100 [12] A possible representation of a "yogi" or “proto-Shiva", 2600– km of Yekaterinburg). Western Russia participated in 1900 BCE several phases of European prehistoric art, and southern Russia and Ukraine are key areas where nomadic Steppes art is found, for which see below. 4 2 ASIA

2.2 Indian sub-continent

The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are older than 5500 BC. The Indus Valley civilization pro- duced fine small cylinder seals and sculptures, and may have been literate, but after its collapse there are relatively few artistic remains until the literate period, probably as perishable materials were used.

2.3 China

A Jōmon statue

Bronze head from Sanxingdui 2.5 Korea Main article: Korean art Prehistoric artwork such as painted pottery in Neolithic See also: Prehistoric Korea and List of archaeological pe- China can be traced back to the Yangshao culture and riods (Korea) Longshan culture of the Yellow River valley. During The earliest examples of Korean art consist of stone age China’s Bronze Age, Chinese of the ancient Shang Dy- nasty and Zhou Dynasty produced multitudes of Chinese ritual bronzes, which are elaborate versions of ordinary vessels and other objects used in rituals of ancestor ven- eration, decorated with taotie motifs and by the late Shang Chinese bronze inscriptions. Discoveries in 1987 in Sanxingdui in central China revealed a previously un- known pre-literate Bronze Age culture whose artefacts included spectacular very large bronze figures (example left), and which appeared culturally very different from the contemporary late Shang, which has always formed part of the account of the continuous tradition of Chi- nese culture.

A Korean Neolithic pot found in Busan, 3500 BCE 2.4 Japan works dating from 3000 BCE. These mainly consist of Main article: Jōmon period votive sculptures, although petroglyphs have also been re- According to archeological evidence, the Jōmon people cently rediscovered. Rock arts, elaborate stone tools, and in ancient Japan were among the first to develop pottery potteries were also prevalent. that dated from the 11th millennium BC. With growing This early period was followed by the art styles of various sophistication, the Jōmon created patterns by impressing Korean kingdoms and dynasties. In these periods, artists the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks. often adopted Chinese style in their artworks. However, 2.6 Steppes Art 5

Koreans not only adopted but also modified Chinese cul- tive undecorated style. Many of these changes in style ture with a native preference for simple elegance, purity may have occurred due to immigration of new peoples of and spontaneity. This filtering of Chinese styles from the north, although this is a subject of debate.[14] later influenced Japanese artistic traditions, due to cul- At a number of sites in southern Korea there are rock art tural and geographical circumstances. panels that are thought to date from this period, mainly [15] The prehistory of Korean ends with the founding of the for stylistic reasons. Three Kingdoms of Korea, which are documented in the While the exact date of the introduction of bronzework Samguk Sagi, a 12th-century CE text written in Classical into Korea is also a matter of debate, it is clear that bronze Chinese (the written language of the literati in traditional was being worked by about 700 BCE. Finds include Korea), as beginning in the 1st century BCE; some men- stylistically distinctive daggers, mirrors, and belt buckles, tion of earlier history is also made in Chinese texts, like with evidence by the 1st century BCE of a widespread, the 3rd-century CE Sanguo Zhi. locally distinctive, bronzeworking culture.[16]

2.5.1 Jeulmun period 2.5.3 Protohistoric Korea

Further information: Jeulmun pottery period

Clearer evidence of culture emerges in the late Neolithic, known in Korea as the Jeulmun pottery period, with pot- tery similar to that found in the adjacent regions of China, decorated with Z-shaped patterns. The earliest Neolithic sites with pottery remains, for example Osan-ri, date to 6000–4500 BCE.[9] This pottery is characterized by comb patterning, with the pot frequently having a pointed base. Ornaments from this time include masks made of shell, with notable finds at Tongsam-dong, Osan-ri, and Goguryeo tomb mural Sinam-ri. Hand-shaped clay figurines have been found at Nongpo-dong.[13] The time between 300 BCE and the founding and stabi- lization of the Three Kingdoms around 300 CE is char- acterized artistically and archaeologically by increasing 2.5.2 Mumun period trade with China and Japan, something that Chinese his- tories of the time corroborate. The expansionist Chinese Further information: Mumun pottery period invaded and established commanderies in northern Ko- During the Mumun pottery period, roughly between rea as early as the 1st century BCE; they were driven out by the 4th century CE.[17] The remains of some of these, especially that of Lelang, near modern Pyongyang, have yielded many artifacts in a typical Han style.[18] Chinese histories also record the beginnings of iron works in Korea in the 1st century BCE. Stoneware and kiln- fired pottery also appears to date from this time, although there is controversy over the dates.[19] Pottery of dis- tinctly Japanese origin is found in Korea, and metalwork of Korean origin is found in northeastern China.[20]

2.6 Steppes Art

Main article: Scythian art Large Middle Mumun (c. 800 BCE) storage vessel unearthed from a pit-house in or near Daepyeong Superb samples of Steppes art - mostly golden jewellery and trappings for horse - are found over a vast expanse of 1500 BCE and 300 BCE, agriculture expanded, and ev- land stretching from to . Dating from idence of larger-scale political structures became appar- the period between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC, the ob- ent, as villages became larger and some burials more elab- jects are usually diminutive, as may be expected from no- orate. Megalithic tombs and dolmens throughout Korea madic people always on the move. Art of the steppes is date to this time. The pottery of the time is in a distinc- primarily an animal art, i.e., combat scenes involving sev- 6 3 EUROPE

male (rarely male) and animal statues that can be called art, and elaborate pottery decoration in, for example, the Želiesovce and painted Lengyel style. Megalithic (i.e., large stone) monuments are found in the Neolithic Era from to Portugal, through France, and across southern to most of Wales and Ireland They are also found in northern Germany and , as well as in Egypt in the Sahara desert (at Nabta Playa and other sites). The best preserved of all temples and the Late 7th-century Scythian plaque of a leopard oldest free standing structures on Earth are the Megalithic Temples of Malta. They start in the 5th millennium BC, though some authors speculate on Mesolithic roots. Be- eral animals (real or imaginary) or single animal figures cause of frequent re-use, this is difficult to prove. There (such as golden stags) predominate. The best known of are many sites for rock and cave art of engraved animal the various peoples involved are the Scythians, at the Eu- and human scenes in the Saharan area. While the best- ropean end of the steppe, who were especially likely to known of these is , where the main structures bury gold items. date from the early Bronze Age, such monuments have Among the most famous finds was made in 1947, when been found throughout most of Western and Northern the Soviet archaeologist Sergei Rudenko discovered a Europe, notably at Carnac, France, at Skara Brae in the royal burial at Pazyryk, Altay Mountains, which featured Orkney Islands, in Portugal, and in Wiltshire, England, - among many other important objects - the most ancient the area of Stonehenge, the Avebury circle, the tombs at extant pile rug, probably made in Persia. Unusually for West Kennet, and Woodhenge. prehistoric burials, those in the northern parts of the area may preserve organic materials such as wood and tex- tiles that normally would decay. Steppes people both gave and took influences from neighbouring cultures from Eu- rope to China, and later Scythian pieces are heavily influ- enced by ancient Greek style, and probably often made by Greeks in Scythia.

3 Europe

3.1 Stone Age

The Art of the Upper Paleolithic includes carvings on Entrance stone with megalithic art at antler and bone, especially of animals, as well as the so-called Venus figurines and cave paintings, discussed The large mound tomb at Newgrange, Ireland, has its en- above. Despite a warmer climate, the Mesolithic pe- trance marked with a massive stone carved with a com- riod undoubtedly shows a falling-off from the heights plex design of spirals. The mound at nearby Knowth has of the preceding period. Rock art is found in Scan- large flat rocks with rock engravings on their vertical faces dinavia and northern Russia, and around the Mediter- all around its circumference, for which various meanings ranean in eastern Spain and the earliest of the Rock Draw- have been suggested, including depictions of the local val- ings in Valcamonica in northern , but not in between ley, and the oldest known image of the Moon. Many [21] these areas. Examples of portable art include painted of these monuments were megalithic tombs, and archae- pebbles from the Azilian culture which succeeded the ologists speculate that most have religious significance. Magdalenian, and patterns on utilitarian objects, like the Knowth is reputed to have approximately one third of all paddles from Tybrind Vig, Denmark. The Mesolithic megalithic art in Western Europe. statues of Lepenski Vir at the Iron Gate, date to the 7th millennium BCE and represent either humans or In the central Alps, the Camunni made some 350,000 pet- mixtures of humans and fish. Simple pottery began to de- roglyphs: see Rock Drawings in Valcamonica. velop in various places, even in the absence of farming. 3.2 Bronze Age 3.1.1 Neolithic During the 3rd millennium BCE, however, the Bronze In Central Europe, many Neolithic cultures, like Age began in Europe, bringing with it a new medium for Linearbandkeramic, Lengyel and Vinča, produced fe- art. The increased efficiency of bronze tools also meant 3.3 Iron Age 7

Three men performing a ritual, Bohuslän, Sweden

an increase in productivity, which led to a surplus — the first step in the creation of a class of artisans. Because of the increased wealth of society, luxury goods began to be created, especially decorated weapons. Examples include ceremonial bronze helmets, ornamen- tal ax-heads and swords, elaborate instruments such as lurer, and other ceremonial objects without a practical purpose, such as the oversize Oxborough Dirk. Special A 1st century BCE mirror found in Desborough, Northants, objects are made in gold; many more gold objects have showing the spiral and trumpet motif survived from Western and Central Europe than from the Iron Age, many mysterious and strange objects rang- ing from lunulas, apparently an Irish speciality, the Mold Cape and Golden hats. Pottery from Central Europe can through plates, knives, cauldrons and cups. Horse tack be elaborately shaped and decorated. Rock art, showing and weaponry were also subjects deemed fit for elabo- scenes from the religious rituals have been found in many ration. Mythical animals were a common motif along areas, for example in Bohuslän, Sweden and the Val Ca- with religious and natural subjects and their depiction is a monica in northern Italy. mix between the naturalistic and the stylized. Megalithic art was still practiced, examples include the carved lime- In the Mediterranean, the Minoan civilization was highly stone pillars of the sanctuary at Entremont in modern- developed, with palace complexes from which sections day France. Personal adornment included torc necklaces of frescos have been excavated. Contemporary Ancient whilst the introduction of coinage provided a further op- Egyptian art and that of other advanced Near Eastern cul- portunity for artistic expression. The coins of this period tures can no longer be treated as “prehistoric”. are derivatives of Greek and Roman types, but showing the more exuberant Celtic artistic style. 3.3 Iron Age The famous late 4th century BCE Waldalgesheim chariot burial in the Rhineland produced many fine examples of Main article: Celtic art La Tène art including a bronze flagon and bronze plaques The Iron Age saw the development of anthropomorphic with repoussé human figures. Many pieces had curvy, sculptures, such as the warrior of Hirschlanden, and the organic styles though to be derived from Classical tendril statue from the Glauberg, Germany. Hallstatt artists in patterns. the early Iron Age favored geometric, abstract designs In much of western Europe elements of this artistic style perhaps influenced by trade links with the Classical world. can be discerned surviving in the art and architecture of The more elaborate and curvilinear La Tène style devel- the Roman colonies. In particular in Britain and Ireland oped in Europe in the later Iron Age from a centre in the there is a tenuous continuity through the Roman period, Rhine valley but it soon spread across the continent. The enabling Celtic motifs to resurface with new vigour in the rich chieftain classes appear to have encouraged ostenta- Christian Insular art from the 6th century onwards. tion and Classical influences such as bronze drinking ves- The sophisticated Etruscan culture developed from the sels attest to a new fashion for wine drinking. Communal 9th to 2nd centuries, with considerable influence from eating and drinking were an important part of Celtic soci- the Greeks, before finally being absorbed by the Romans. ety and culture and much of their art was often expressed By the end of the period they had developed writing, but 8 4 AFRICA early Etruscan art can be called prehistoric.

4 Africa

Ancient Egypt falls outside the scope of this article; it had a close relationship with the Sudan in particular, known in this period as Nubia, where there were advanced cultures from the 4th millennium BCE, such as the "A-Group", "C-Group", and the Kingdom of Kush.

4.1 Southern Africa Long-horned and other rock art in the complex.

which the researchers suggest includes one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.[25][26] Other prehistoric art in the Horn region include stone megaliths and engravings, some of which are 3,500 years old. The town of Dillo in Ethiopia has a hilltop cov- ered with stone stelae. It is one of several such sites in southern Ethiopia dating from historic period (10th-14th San rock painting of an eland at Drakensberg centuries).[27]

There is a significant body of rock painting in the region around Matobo National Park of dating from 4.3 Saharan Africa as early as 6000 BCE to 500 CE.[22] See also: Saharan rock art Significant San rock paintings exist in the Waterberg area above the Palala River and around Drakensberg in South Africa, some of which are considered to derive from the The early art of this region has been divided into five pe- period 8000 BCE. These images are very clear and de- riods: pict a variety of human and wildlife motifs, especially antelope. There appears to be a fairly continuous history • Bubalus Period, roughly 12-8 kya of rock painting in this area; some of the art clearly dates into the 19th century. They include depictions of horses • Round Head Period, roughly 10-8 kya with riders, which were not introduced to the area until • the 1820s.[23] Pastoral Period, roughly 7.5-4 kya Namibia, in addition to the Apollo 11 complex, has a sig- • Horse Period, roughly 3-2 kya nificant array of San rock art near Twyfelfontein. This • Camel Period, 2,000 years ago to the present work is several thousand years old, and appears to end with the arrival of pastoral tribes in the area.[24]

4.2

Laas Geel is a complex of caves and rock shelters in northwestern . Famous for their rock art, the caves are located in a rural area on the outskirts of . They contain some of the earliest known cave paintings in the Horn of Africa, many of which depict pastoral scenes. Laas Geel’s rock art is estimated to date back to somewhere between 9,000–8,000 and 3,000 BCE. In 2008, archaeologists also announced the discovery of cave paintings in Somalia’s northern Dhambalin region, Rock carving of an elephant at Tadrart Acacus 5.2 9

Works of the Bubalus period span the Sahara, with the finest work, carvings of naturalistically depicted megafauna, concentrated in the central highlands. The Round Head Period is dominated by paintings of strangely shaped human forms, and few animals, suggest- ing the artists were foragers. These works are largely lim- ited to Tassili n'Ajjer and the Akakus Mountains. Toward the end of the period, images of domesticated animals, as well as decorative clothing and headdresses appear. Pas- toral Period art was more focused on domestic scenes, including herding and dancing. The quality of artwork declined, as figures became more simplified.[28] The Horse Period began in the eastern Sahara and spread west. Depictions from this period include carvings and paintings of horses, chariots, and warriors with metal weapons, although there are also frequent depictions of wildlife such as giraffes. Humans are generally depicted in a stylized way. Some of the chariot art bears resem- blance to temple carvings from ancient Egypt. Occasion- ally, art panels are accompanied by Tifinagh script, still in use by the Berber people and the Tuareg today; how- ever, modern Tuareg are generally unable to read these in- scriptions. The final Camel period features carvings and paintings in which camels predominate, but also include humans with swords, and later, guns; the art of this time is relatively crude.[29]

Great , a 1,348-foot long effigy mound in Adams County, Ohio, ca. 1070 CE 5 The Americas

Further information: Pre-Columbian art, Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas and List of pre-Columbian cultures

5.1 North America

Belonging in the , the oldest known art in the Americas is the Vero Beach bone, possibly a mammoth bone, etched with a profile of walking mammoth that dates back to 11,000 BCE.[30] The oldest known painted object in the Americas is the Cooper Bison Skull from 10,900–10,200 BCE.[31] An Olmec stone head

5.2 Mesoamerica Much Olmec art is highly stylized and uses an iconogra- Further information: Ancient Maya art, Olmec § art phy reflective of the religious meaning of the artworks. and Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas Some Olmec art, however, is surprisingly naturalistic, § Mesoamerica and Central America displaying an accuracy of depiction of human anatomy The ancient Olmec “Bird Vessel” and bowl, both ceramic perhaps equaled in the pre-Columbian New World only and dating to circa 1000 BC as well as other ceramics by the best Maya Classic era art. Olmec art-forms em- are produced in kilns capable of exceeding approximately phasize monumental statuary and small jade carvings. A 900 °C. The only other prehistoric culture known to common theme is to be found in representations of a di- have achieved such high temperatures is that of Ancient vine jaguar. Olmec figurines were also found abundantly Egypt.[32] through their period. 10 5 THE AMERICAS

5.3 Initial Period and First Horizon Further informa- tion: Chavín culture Lithic age art in South America includes Monte Alegre The Initial Period in Central Andean cultures lasted culture rock paintings created at Caverna da Pedra Pin- tada dating back to 9250–8550 BCE.[33][34] in has the earliest known textiles in South America, dating to 8000 BCE.[35]

5.3.1 Peru and the central Andes

See also: Cultural periods of Peru, and Andean textiles

An image of the Lanzón deity on the great wall at Chavín de Huantar, a First Horizon site

roughly from 1800 BCE to 900 BCE. Textiles from this time found at are of astonishing complex- ity, including images such as crabs whose claws transform into snakes, and double-headed birds. Many of these im- ages are similar to optical illusions, where which image dominates depends in part on which the viewer chooses to see. Other portable artwork from this time includes dec- orated mirrors, bone and shell jewelry, and unfired clay female effigies.[41] Public architecture, including works estimated to require the movement of more than 100,000 tons of stone, are to be found at sites like , El Paraíso, Peru, and La Galgada (archaeological site). Ko- tosh, a site in the Andean highlands, is especially noted as the site of the Temple of the Crossed Hands, in which there are two reliefs of crossed forearms, one pair male, [42] Stirrup handled Cupinisque ceramic vase 1250 BCE from the one pair female. Also of note is one of South Amer- ica’s largest ceremonial sites, Sechín Alto. This site’s crowning work is a twelve-story platform, with stones in- [43] Lithic and preceramic periods Peru, including an cised with military themes. The architecture and art of the highlands, in particular, laid down the groundwork area of the central Andes stretching from to [44] northern , has a rich cultural history, with evidence for the rise of the Chavín culture. of human habitation dating to roughly 10,000 BCE.[36] The Chavín culture dominated the central Andes during Prior to the emergence of ceramics in this region around the First Horizon, beginning around 900 BCE, and is gen- 1850 BCE, cave paintings and beads have been found. erally divided into two stages. The first, running until These finds include rock paintings that controversially about 500 BCE, represented a significant cultural unifica- date as far back as 9500 BCE in the Toquepala Caves.[37] tion of the highland and coastal cultures of the time. Im- Burial sites in Peru like one at Telarmachay as old as agery in all manner of art (textiles, ceramics, jewelry, and 8600-7200 BCE contained evidence of ritual burial, with architectural) included sometimes fantastic imagery such red ocher and bead necklaces.[38] as jaguars, snakes, and human–animal composites, much [45] The earliest ceramics that appear in Peru may have of it seemingly inspired by the jungles to the east. been imported from the Validivia region; indigenous pot- The later stage of the Chavín culture is primarily rep- tery production almost certainly arrived in the highlands resented by a significant architectural expansion of the around 1800 BCE at Kotosh, and on the coast at La Chavín de Huantar site around 500 BCE, accompanied Florida c. 1700 BCE. Older calabash gourd vessels with by a set of stylistic changes. This expansion included, human faces burned into them were found at Huaca Pri- among other changes, over forty large stone heads, whose eta, a site dating to 2500-2000 BCE[39] Huaca Prieta also reconstructed positions represent a transformation from contained some early patterned and dyed textiles made human to supernatural animal visages. Much of the other from twisted plant fibers.[40] art at the complex from this time contains such super- 5.3 South America 11 natural imagery.[46] The portable art associated with this time included sophisticated metalworking, including al- loying of metals and soldering.[47] Textiles found at sites like Karwa clearly depict Chavín cultural influences,[48] and the Cupisnique style of pottery disseminated by the Chavín would set standards all across the region for later cultures.[49] (The vessel pictured at the top of this article, while from the later , is representative of the stirrup-spouted vessels of the Chavín.)

Early Intermediate Period Further information: Paracas culture, culture and Moche (culture) The Early Intermediate Period lasted from about 200

The Nazca line figure known as The

constructions (showing no sign of permanent habitation) and open plazas that presumably had ritual purposes re- lated to the lines. The lines themselves are laid out on a sort of natural blackboard, where a thin layer of dark stone covers lighter stone; the lines were thus created by simply removing the top layer where desired, after using surveying techniques to lay out the design.[54]

A Paracas Mantle dating from 200 CE

BCE to 600 CE. Late in the First Horizon, the Chavín culture began to decline, and other cultures, predomi- nantly in the coastal areas, began to develop. The earliest of these was the Paracas culture, centered on the Paracas Peninsula of central Peru. Active from 600 BCE to 175 BCE, their early work clearly shows Chavín influence, but a locally distinctive style and technique developed. It was characterized by technical and time-consuming detail work, visually colorful, and a profusion visual ele- ments. Distinctive technical differences include painting on clay after firing, and embroidery on textiles.[50] One notable find is a mantle that was clearly used for training purposes; it shows obvious indications of experts doing some of the weaving, interspersed with less technically Gold Moche headdress representing a condor proficient trainee work.[51] The of southern Peru, which is widely In the north of Peru, the Moche culture dominated dur- known for the enormous figures traced on the ground by ing this time. Also known as Mochica or Early Chimú, the Nazca lines in southern Peru, shared some similari- this warlike culture dominated the area until about 500 ties with the Paracas culture, but techniques (and scale) CE, apparently using conquest to gain access to critical differed. The Nazca painted their ceramics with slip, and resources along the desert coast: arable land and water. also painted their textiles.[52] Nazca ceramics featured a Moche art is again notably distinctive, expressive and dy- wide variety of subjects, from the mundane to the fan- namic in a way that many other Andean cultures were not. tastic, including utilitarian vessels and effigy figures. The Knowledge of the period has been notably expanded by Nazca also excelled at goldsmithing, and made pan pipes finds like the pristine royal tombs at Sipán.[55] from clay in a style not unlike the pipes heard in music of [53] The Moche very obviously absorbed some elements of the Andes today. the Chavín culture, but also absorbed ideas from smaller The famous Nazca lines are accompanied by temple-like nearby cultures that they assimilated, such as the Recuay 12 5 THE AMERICAS culture and the Vicús.[56] They made fully sculpted ce- left), and the Sun Gate, both in the main Tiwanaku site. ramic animal figures, worked gold, and wove textiles. The The portable art featured “portrait vessels”, with figured art often featured everyday images, but seemingly always heads on ceramic vessels, as well as natural imagery like with a ritual intent.[57] jaguars and raptors.[61] A full range of materials, from ce- In its later years, the Moche came under the influence ramics to textiles to wood, bone, and shell, were used in of the expanding Huari empire. The Cerro Blanco site creative endeavours. Textiles with a weave of 300 threads per inch (80 threads per cm) have been found at Tiwanaku of appears to have been the Moche capital. [62] Largely destroyed by natural events around 600 CE, it was sites. further damaged by Spanish searching for gold, and continues with modern looters.[58]

The ruins of Pikillacta, a Wari site

The Wari dominated an area from central Peru to Ecuador, with their main center near Ayacucho, Peru. Their art is distinguished from the Tiwanaku style by the use of bolder colors and patterns.[63] Notable among Wari finds are tapestry garments, presumed to be made for priests or rulers to wear, often bearing abstract geometric designs of significant complexity, but also bearing images of animals and figures.[64] Wari ceramics, also of high technical quality, are similar in many ways to those of the preceding cultures, where local influences from fallen cultures, like the Moche, are still somewhat evident. Met- alwork, while rarely found due to its desirability by loot- ers, shows elegant simplicity and, once more, a high level of workmanship.[65]

Ponce monolith in the sunken courtyard of the Tiwanaku’s Late Intermediate Period Following the decline of Kalasasaya temple the Wari and Tiwanaku, the northern and central coastal areas were somewhat dominated by the Chimú culture, Middle Horizon The Middle Horizon lasted from 600 which included notable subcultures like the Lambayeque CE to 1000 CE, and was dominated by two cultures: the (or Sicán) and Chancay cultures. To the south, coastal Huari and the Tiwanaku. The Tiwanaku (also spelled cultures dominated in the Ica region, and there was Tiahuanaco) culture arose near Lake Titicaca (on the a significant cultural crossroads at , near modern border between Peru and ), while the .[66] These cultures would dominate from about arose in the southern highlands of Peru. 1000 CE until the 1460s and 1470s, as the Inca Em- Both cultures appear to have been influenced by the pire began to take shape and eventually absorbed the ge- culture, which was active during the Early In- ographically smaller nearby cultures. termediate in between the primary centers of the Wari and Tiwanaku.[59] These cultures both had wide-ranging Chimú and Sicán Cultures influence, and shared some common features in their Further information: Chimú culture and Sican Culture portable art, but their monumental arts were somewhat [60] distinctive. The Chimú culture in particular was responsible for an The monumental art of the Tiwanaku demonstrated tech- extremely large number of artworks. Its capital city, nical prowess in stonework, including fine detailed reliefs, , appears to have contained building that ap- and monoliths such as the Ponce monolith (photo to the peared to function as museums—they seem to have been 5.3 South America 13 used for displaying and preserving artwork. Much of the Pachacamac Pachacamac is a temple site south of Lima, artwork from Chan Chan in particular has been looted, Peru that was an important pilgrimage center into Span- some by the Spanish after the Spanish conquest.[66] The ish colonial times. The site boasts temple constructions art from this time at times displays amazing complex- from several periods, culminating in Inca constructions ity, with “multimedia” works that require artists work- that are still in relatively good condition. The temples ing together in a diversity of media, including materials were painted with murals depicting plants and animals. believed to have come from as far away as Central Amer- The main temple contained a carved wooden sculpture ica. Items of increasing splendor or value were produced, akin to a totem pole.[73] apparently as the society became increasing stratified.[67] Ica culture The Ica region, which had been dominated by At the same, the quality of some of the work declined, as the Nazca, was fragmented into several smaller political demand for pieces pushed production rates up and values [68] and culture groups. The pottery produced in this region down. was of the highest quality at the time, and its aesthetics would be adopted by the Inca when they conquered the area.[74]

Late Horizon and Inca culture Further information: This time period represents the era in which the cul-

Sicán funerary mask, Metropolitan Museum

The Sicán culture flourished from 700 CE to about 1400 CE, although it came under political domination of the Chimú around 1100 CE, at which time many of its artists may have moved to Chan Chan. There was significant copperworking by the Sicán, including what seems to be a sort of currency based on copper objects that look like axes.[69] Artwork includes burial masks, beakers and metal vessels that previous cultures traditionally made of clay. The metalwork of the Sicán was particularly so- phisticated, with innovations including repoussé and shell inlay. Sheet metal was also often used to cover other works.[70] Prominent in Sicán iconography is the Sicán deity, which appears on all manner of work, from the portable to An 1860 map of . The puma shape is discernible, with the the monumental. Other imagery includes geometric and head at the upper left and the tail at the lower right. wave patterns, as well as scenes of fishing and shell [71] diving. ture of the central Andes is almost completely dominated Chancay culture Chancay culture, before it was sub- by the , which began its expansion in 1438. sumed by the Chimú, did not feature notable monumental It lasted until the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire art. Ceramics and textiles were made, but the quality and in 1533. The Inca absorbed much technical skill from skill level was uneven. Ceramics are generally black on the cultures they conquered, and disseminated it, along white, and often suffer from flaws like poor firing, and with standard shapes and patterns, throughout their area drips of the slip used for color; however, fine examples of influence, which extended from Quito, Ecuador to exist. Textiles are overall of a higher quality, including Santiago, Chile. Inca stonework is notably proficient; gi- the use of painted weaves and tapestry techniques, and ant stones are set so tightly without mortar that a knife were produced in large quantities.[72] The color palette of blade will not fit in the gap.[75] Many of the Inca’s mon- the Chancay was not overly bold: golds, browns, white, umental structures deliberately echoed the natural envi- and scarlet predominate.[73] ronment around them; this is particularly evident in some 14 5 THE AMERICAS

common shape is the urpu, a distinctive urn shape that came in a wide variety of standard capacities, much as modern storage containers do.[80] In spite of this stan- dardization, many local areas retained some distinctive aspects of their culture in the works they produced; ce- ramics produced in areas under significant Chimú control prior to the Inca rule still retain characteristics indicative of that style.[81] Following the Spanish conquest, the art of the central An- des was significantly affected by the conflict and diseases brought by the Spanish. Early colonial period art, began to show influences of both Christianity and Inca religious The twelve angle stone, in the Hatum Rumiyoc street of Cusco, is and artistic ideas, and eventually also began to encompass an example of Inca masonry. new techniques brought by the conquerors, including oil painting on canvas.[82] of the structures at .[76] The Inca laid the city of Cusco in the shape of a puma, with the head of the 5.3.2 Early ceramics in northern South America puma at Sacsayhuaman,[77] a shape that is still discernible in aerial photographs of the city today. See also: Indigenous peoples in and Indigenous The iconography of Inca art, while clearly drawing from ceramics of the Americas its many predecessors, is still recognizably Inca. Bronze- work owes a clear debt to the Chimú, as do a number The earliest evidence of decorated pottery in South of cultural traditions: the finest goods were reserved to America is to be found in two places. A variety of sites the rulers, who wore the finest textiles, and ate and drank in the Santarém region of contain ceramic sherds from gold and silver vessels.[78] As a result, Inca metal- dating to a period between 5000 and 3000 BCE.[83] Sites work was relatively rare, and an obvious source of plunder in Colombia, at Monsú and San Jacinto contained pot- for the conquering Spanish. tery finds in different styles, and date as far back as 3500 BCE.[84] This is an area of active research and subject to change.[85] The ceramics were decorated with curvi- linear incisions. Another ancient site at Puerto Hormiga in the Bolívar Department of Colombia dating to 3100 BCE contained pottery fragments that included figured animals in a style related to later Barrancoid cultural finds in Colombia and Venezuela.[84] Valdivia, Ecuador also has a site dated to roughly 3100 BCE containing dec- orated fragments, as well as figurines, many represent nude females. The Valdivian style stretched as far south as northern Peru,[86] and may, according to Lavallée, yet yield older artifacts.[83] By 2000 BCE, pottery was evident in eastern Venezuela. The La Gruta style, often painted in red or white, in- cluded incised animal figures in the ceramic, as well as ceramic vessels shaped as animal effigies. The Rancho Peludo style of western Venezuela featured relatively sim- ple textile-type decorations and incisions.[86] Finds in the central Andes dating to 1800 BCE and later appear to be derived from the Valdivian tradition of Ecuador.[87]

An Inca period tunic 5.3.3 Early art in eastern South America

Textiles were widely prized within the empire, in part See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil as they were somewhat more portable in the far-flung [79] empire. Relatively little is known about the early settlement of Ceramics were made in large quantities, and, as with much of South America east of the Andes. This is due to other media, in standardized shapes and patterns. One the lack of stone (generally required for leaving durable 6.2 Polynesia 15

artifacts), and a jungle environment that rapidly recycles ten shown from a birds-eye view. For instance, in Abo- organic materials. Beyond the Andean regions, where the riginal symbolism, a swirl stands for a watering hole. inhabitants were more clearly related to the early cultures of Peru, early finds are generally limited to coastal areas and those areas where there are stone outcrops. While there is evidence of human habitation in northern Brazil as early as 8000 BCE,[88] and rock art of unknown (or at best uncertain) age, ceramics appear to be the earliest artistic artifacts. The Mina civilization of Brazil (3000– 1600 BCE) had simple round vessels with a red wash, that were stylistic predecessors to later Bahia and Guyanan cultures.[86]

5.3.4 , Chile, and Patagonia

The southern reaches of South America show evidence Bradshaw rock paintings found in the north-west Kimberley re- of human habitation as far back as 10,000 BCE. A site gion of Western at Arroio do Fosseis on the pampa in southern Brazil has [89] shown reliable evidence to that time, and the Tierra The Bradshaws are a style of rock art found in Western del Fuego at the southern tip of the continent has been Australia. They are predominantly human figures drawn [90] occupied since 7000 BCE. Artistic finds are scarce; in in fine detail with accurate anatomical proportioning. some parts of Patagonia ceramics were never made, only They are usually dated to be around 17,000 years old, and [91] being introduced by contact with Europeans. there have been suggestions they are as much as 70,000 years old.[92] 6 Native arts of Oceania 6.2 Polynesia 6.1 Australia The natives of Polynesia have a distinct artistic heritage. See also Indigenous Australian art While many of their artifacts were made with organic ma- terials and thus lost to history, some of their most strik- ing achievements survive in clay and stone. Among these are numerous pottery fragments from western Oceania, from the late 2nd millennium BCE. Also, the natives of Polynesia left scattered around their islands Petroglyphs, stone platforms or Marae, and sculptures of ancestor fig- ures, the most famous of which are the Moai of Easter Island.

7 See also

• Prehistoric religion

Aboriginal rock painting at Namadgi National Park • Prehistoric music

From earliest times, the natives of Australia, often known • Çatalhüyük as Aborigines, have been creating distinctive patterns of art. Much of Aboriginal art is transitory, drawn in sand or • Lepenski Vir on the human body to illustrate a place, an animal totem, or a tribal story. Early surviving artworks of the Abo- • rigines are mostly rock paintings. Many are called X-ray Göbekli Tepe paintings because they show the bones and organs of the animals they depict. Some Aboriginal art seems abstract • Nevali Cori to modern viewers; Aboriginal art often employs geomet- rical figures and lines to represent landscape, which is of- • List of Stone Age art 16 8 NOTES

8 Notes [25] Mire, Sada (2008). “The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, ”. African Archaeological Review 25: [1] “The term “prehistoric” ceases to be valid some thousands 153–168. doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2. Retrieved of years B.C. in the near east but remains a warranted de- 22 June 2013. scription down to about 500 A.D. in Ireland”, Review by [26] Alberge, Dalya (17 September 2010). “UK archaeolo- “A. T. L.” of Prehistoric Art by T. G. E. Powell, The Jour- gist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites”. The nal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, Vol. 97, Guardian. Retrieved 25 June 2013. No. 1 (1967), p. 95, Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ire- land, JSTOR [27] Coulson, p. 147

[2] “Shell 'art' made 300,000 years before humans evolved - [28] Coulson, pp. 156–160 New Scientist”. New Scientist. [29] Coulson, pp. 160–162,205 [3] New York Times [30] “Ice Age Art from Florida.” Past Horizons. 23 June 2011 [4] The Metropolitan Museum of New York City Introduction (retrieved 23 June 2011) to Prehistoric Art Retrieved 2012-5-12 [31] Bement, Leland C. Bison hunting at Cooper site: where [5] Joordens, Josephine C. A.; d’Errico, Francesco; Wessel- lightning bolts drew thundering herds. Norman: Univer- ingh, Frank P.; Munro, Stephen; de Vos, John; Wallinga, sity of Oklahoma Press, 1999: 37, 43, 176. ISBN 978-0- Jakob; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Reimann, Tony; Wi- 8061-3053-8. jbrans, Jan R.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mücher, Herman J.; [32] Friedman, Florence Dunn (September 1998). “Ancient Coqueugniot, Hélène; Prié, Vincent; Joosten, Ineke; van Egyptian faience”. Retrieved 2008-12-22. Os, Bertil; Schulp, Anne S.; Panuel, Michel; van der Haas, Victoria; Lustenhouwer, Wim; Reijmer, John J. G.; Roe- [33] Wilford, John Noble. Scientist at Work: Anna C. Roo- broeks, Wil (2014). “Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used sevelt; Sharp and To the Point In Amazonia. New York shells for tool production and engraving”. Nature 518 Times. 23 April 1996 (7538): 228–231. doi:10.1038/nature13962. [34] “Dating a Paleoindian Site in the Amazon in Comparison [6] Chase, pp. 145-146 with Clovis Culture.” Science. March 1997: Vol. 275, no. 5308, pp. 194801952. (retrieved 1 Nov 2009) [7] “Indonesian Cave Paintings As Old As Europe’s Ancient Art”. NPR.org. 8 October 2014. [35] Stone-Miller, 17

[8] Portal, p. 25 [36] Lavallée, p. 88

[9] Portal, p. 26 [37] Lavallée, p. 94

[10] Coulson, pp. 150–155 [38] Lavallée, p. 115 [39] Lavallée, p. 186 [11] Thackeray. [40] Bruhns, p. 80 [12] It is on display the museum in Yekaterinburg [41] Stone-Miller, pp. 19–20 [13] Portal, p. 27 [42] Stone-Miller, p. 21 [14] Portal, p. 29 [43] Stone-Miller, p. 27 [15] Portal, p. 33 [44] Stone-Miller, p. 22 [16] Portal, pp. 34–35 [45] Stone-Miller, pp. 28–29 [17] Portal, p. 38 [46] Stone-Miller, p. 40 [18] Portal, p. 39 [47] Stone-Miller, p. 44 [19] Portal, p. 40 [48] Stone-Miller, p. 46

[20] Portal, p. 41 [49] Stone-Miller, p. 49

[21] Sandars, 75-98 [50] Stone-Miller, p. 50

[22] Coulson, p. 86 [51] Stone-Miller, p. 58

[23] Coulson, pp. 80–82 [52] Stone-Miller, p. 67

[24] Unesco World Heritage designation. [53] Stone-Miller, pp. 74–75 17

[54] Stone-Miller, pp. 78–82 9 References [55] Stone-Miller, p. 83 • Arbib, Michael A (2006). Action to language via [56] Stone-Miller, p. 88 the mirror neuron system: The Mirror Neuron Sys- [57] Stone-Miller, p. 86 tem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0- 521-84755-1. [58] Stone-Miller, p. 92 • Bailey, Douglass (2005). Prehistoric Figurines: Rep- [59] Stone-Miller, pp. 121–123 resentation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. Rout- [60] Stone-Miller, p. 119 ledge Publishers. ISBN 0-415-33152-8.

[61] Stone-Miller, pp. 131–134 • Bruhns, Karen O (1994). Ancient South Amer- [62] Stone-Miller, p. 136 ica. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521- 27761-7. [63] Stone-Miller, pp. 138–139 • Chase, Philip G (2005). The Emergence of Culture: [64] Stone-Miller, pp. 146–148 The Evolution of a Uniquely Human Way of Life. [65] Stone-Miller, pp. 149–150 Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-387-30512-7.

[66] Stone-Miller, p. 151 • Coulson, David; Campbell, Alec (2001). African [67] Stone-Miller, p. 153 Rock Art. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109- 4363-8. [68] Stone-Miller, p. 154 • Lavallée, Danièle (1995). The First South Ameri- [69] Stone-Miller, p. 156 cans. Bahn, Paul G (trans.). University of Utah [70] Stone-Miller, pp. 156–158 Press. ISBN 0-87480-665-8.

[71] Stone-Miller, p. 160 • Portal, Jane (2000). Korea: Art and . [72] Stone-Miller, pp. 175–177 Thames & Hudson. [73] Stone-Miller, p. 179 • Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Pen- guin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb [74] Stone-Miller, p. 180 1st edn.) [75] Stone-Miller, p. 181 • Stone-Miller, Rebecca (1995). Art of the Andes. [76] Stone-Miller, p. 190 Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20286-9.

[77] Stone-Miller, p. 194 • Thackeray, Anne I.; Thackeray, JF; Beau- [78] Stone-Miller, p. 186 mont, PB; Vogel, JC; et al. (1981-10-02). “Dated Rock Engravings from Wonderwerk [79] Stone-Miller, p. 209 Cave, South Africa”. Science 214 (4516): 64– [80] Stone-Miller, p. 215 67. doi:10.1126/science.214.4516.64. PMID 17802575. [81] Stone-Miller, p. 216 • [82] Stone-Miller, p. 217 “Unesco World Heritage announcement on Twyfel- fontein”. Retrieved 2008-11-13. [83] Lavallée, p. 182 [84] Bruhns, pp. 116–117 10 External links [85] Lavallée, pp. 176–182

[86] Bruhns, pp. 117–118 • RockArtScandinavia Tanums Hällristningsmuseum [87] Bruhns, p. 119 Underslös. Rock art research centre. [88] Lavallée, p. 113 • EuroPreArt database of European Prehistoric Art

[89] Lavallée, p. 108 • Lepenski Vir [90] Lavallée, p. 112 • Göbekli Tepe, in German [91] Lavallée, p. 187 • Nevali Cori [92] Bradshaw Foundation. “The Bradshaw Paintings - Aus- tralian Rock Art Archive”. Bradshaw Foundation. • Prehistoric Art Expressions from 18 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

• http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHprehistoric.html# general • http://donsmaps.com/combarelles.html

• http://www.caveartproject.com • List of oldest Prehistoric Art ever discovered 19

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text

• Prehistoric art Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_art?oldid=696858680 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Bobby D. Bryant, Mic, Stw, Nikai, Jeandré du Toit, Raven in Orbit, Vodex, Alex S, Wik, Maximus Rex, Hyacinth, Penfold, David.Monniaux, Goethean, Romanm, Chris Roy, Postdlf, Hemanshu, Sheridan, João Sousa, Ancheta Wis, Fennec, Yak, Dsmdgold, Avala, Jackol, John Abbe, Max power, Utcursch, Mustafaa, Kusunose, Adamsan, Beginning, Ukexpat, Sonett72, Picapica, Rich Farmbrough, Cacycle, Metastable, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, ESkog, Neko-chan, Zscout370, El C, Boris Živ, Thialfi, Merope, ChristopherWillis, Sug- aar, Jakek101, Garzo, Geraldshields11, Ghirlandajo, Feezo, Stemonitis, Roylee, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Brunnock, MONGO, Fred J, Eleassar777, CharlesC, Pfalstad, Mandarax, Sparkit, Cuchullain, Rjwilmsi, Guyd, Quiddity, Loggie, Wars, Terrx, Bgwhite, Yurik- Bot, Witan, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, The Ogre, Welsh, Alarichall, Pym98, 1717, Eurosong, WAS 4.250, Phgao, Donald Albury, LeonardoRob0t, Ajdebre, SkerHawx, Nick-D, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Veinor, SmackBot, Inverse- Hypercube, Delldot, Onebravemonkey, Athinaios, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Aridd, Colonies Chris, Bryndza, Madman2001, TenPoundHammer, Euchiasmus, SilkTork, Kemkem, Strainu, Aleator, Locutus Borg~enwiki, Peterlewis, Agathoclea, Ghelae, Optakeover, 2T, Spook`, Geologyguy, Sifaka, KJS77, Flamelai, Eluchil404, Tawkerbot2, Covalent, Zarex, NickW557, Simon McCallum, Doug Weller, Kozuch, Btharper1221, Andyjsmith, S710, Nick Number, Insiriusdenial, Piddle, AntiVandalBot, BokicaK, Modernist, JAnDbot, Boyt- inck, Petronas, AlmostReadytoFly, Abelard39, VoABot II, Baileydw@cardiff.ac.uk, Fang 23, TimidGuy, PhD~enwiki, Bus stop, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Johnbod, Ipigott, Paleo-camera, Pietru, Uyvsdi, Philip Trueman, Mercurywoodrose, Aymatth2, Ruparch, Jalo, CO, Coffee, WereSpielChequers, SSRR065, Faradayplank, AMbot, Lynntoniolondon, Anchor Link Bot, Ascidian, Prof saxx, Geoff Plourde, Lawrence saliba, Randy Kryn, Eebahgum, ImageRemovalBot, WikipedianMarlith, ClueBot, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, CounterVandal- ismBot, Niceguyedc, Ashashyou, Aua, Harrygouvas, Abrech, Dcorbita, Crispness, Addbot, Proofreader77, Bhrgvsridhar, Simonm223, Betterusername, Lithoderm, Ronhjones, Setanta747, Tassedethe, OC Ripper, Jarble, Middayexpress, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, TaBOT- zerem, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Jackiestud, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Sabrebd, Urzică, Aleister Wilson, Citation bot 1, Alonso de Mendoza, Trelawnie, Crusoe8181, Trappist the monk, Animalparty, HelenOnline, Jeffrd10, AXRL, RjwilmsiBot, Emaus- Bot, John of Reading, Aksinja, Look2See1, Jujhar.pannu, K6ka, Resitate, Qqchose2sucre, Δ, Rmashhadi, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Carole- Henson, Helpful Pixie Bot, Thoughtfortheday, MerscratianAce, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Jeancey, Aurence, Benjifriedman, Ἑρμῆς, Khazar2, Yuchitown, EagerToddler39, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Numbermaniac, Tmangibi, Hillbillyholiday, Jodosma, Meganesia, FrB.TG, JaconaFrere, Skr15081997, Saugatad, Monkbot, Eio-cos, Iconaclast and Anonymous: 183

11.2 Images

• File:Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Bradshaw Art Original artist: TimJN1 • File:CabezaColosal1_MuseoXalapa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/CabezaColosal1_ MuseoXalapa.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:CupisniqueLMC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/CupisniqueLMC.jpg License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Lyndsayruell at English Wikipedia • File:CuscoPiedra12angulo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/CuscoPiedra12angulo.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine- readable author provided. Xauxa assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Cuzco1860.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Cuzco1860.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Cuzco1860.jpg Original artist: Formative • File:Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Dancing_Girl_of_ Mohenjo-daro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Joe Ravi • File:Estela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Estela.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Trans- fered from en.wikipedia Transfer was stated to be made by User:Jalo. Original artist: Original uploader was Ghirlandajo at en.wikipedia • File:Goguryeo_tomb_mural.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Goguryeo_tomb_mural.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hochdorf_golden_shoes_ornaments.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Hochdorf_golden_ shoes_ornaments.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rosemania/4120473429 Original artist: Rosemania • File:JomonStatue.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/JomonStatue.JPG License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Korea-Bronze.age-Jinju-Pot-01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Korea-Bronze. age-Jinju-Pot-01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Good friend100 at English Wikipedia • File:Korea-Neolithic.age-Pot-01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Korea-Neolithic.age-Pot-01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Good friend100 at English Wikipedia • File:Laas_Geel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Laas_Geel.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: English Wikipedia Original artist: Abdullah Geelah • File:Lascaux2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Lascaux2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Cro-Magnon peoples • File:Lascaux_04.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Lascaux_04.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib- utors: self-made, edited by user:sailko Original artist: Peter80 20 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Libya_5041_Petroglyphs_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ c/cc/Libya_5041_Petroglyphs_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Photo taken by (Luca Galuzzi)* http://www.galuzzi.it Original artist: Luca Galuzzi (Lucag) • File:Mochica_Headress_Condor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Mochica_Headdress_Condor_ Larco_museum.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: English Wikipedia ([1]) Original artist: en:User:Lyndsayruell • File:Nazca-lineas-perro-c01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Nazca-lineas-perro-c01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Newgrange_Entrance_Stone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Newgrange_Entrance_Stone.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: en:User:Nomadtales • File:Paracas_Mantle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Paracas_Mantle.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Piquillacta_view4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Piquillacta_view4.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Xauxa assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Placca_pantera,_da_regione_di_krasnodar,_kurgan_chertomlyk,_oro_a_sbalzo_e_cesellato,_fine_VII_sec_ac..JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Placca_pantera%2C_da_regione_di_krasnodar%2C_kurgan_ chertomlyk%2C_oro_a_sbalzo_e_cesellato%2C_fine_VII_sec_ac..JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko • File:Romano-Celtic_mirror_(Desborough).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Romano-Celtic_ mirror_%28Desborough%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Photographed in the British Museum. Original artist: Photo by Fuzzypeg • File:SanXingDui_ZongMuMianJu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/SanXingDui_ZongMuMianJu. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jason Zou • File:San_Painting,_Ukalamba_Drakensberge_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/San_ Painting%2C_Ukalamba_Drakensberge_1.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photo by Lukas Kaffer (Super.lukas) • File:Serpent_Mound_(aerial_view).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Serpent_Mound_%28aerial_ view%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Part of the archive Image:Serpent Mound.jpg Original artist: Timothy A. Price and Nichole I.; uploaded by the authors. • File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/protoshiva/protoshiva.jpg Orig- inal artist: unknown Indus Valley Civilization sealmaker from Mohenjodaro archaeological site • File:Sican_funerary_mask_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/ Sican_funerary_mask_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rosemania/ 86743443/in/set-72057594048518296/ Original artist: Rosemania • File:Sleeping_Antelope_Tin_Taghirt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Sleeping_Antelope_Tin_ Taghirt.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Linus Wolf • File:Tanumshede_2005_rock_carvings_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Tanumshede_2005_ rock_carvings_5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Tiwanaku1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Tiwanaku1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contrib- utors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Tupa-inca-tunic.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Tupa-inca-tunic.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Vasija_mochica_crustáceo_(M._América_Inv.1409)_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/ Vasija_mochica_crust%C3%A1ceo_%28M._Am%C3%A9rica_Inv.1409%29_01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Luis Gar- cía (Zaqarbal), 13 July 2008. Original artist: ? • File:Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Venus_of_ Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:MatthiasKabel • File:Yankee_Hat_art-MJC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Yankee_Hat_art-MJC.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

11.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0