Wind of Doctrine Threshing and Winnowing

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Wed, 25 Aug 2010 17:06:53 UTC Contents

Articles Threshing 1 Winnowing 2 Threshing floor 4 Chaff 4 Harvest 6 Wheat 7 Epiphany (feeling) 23 References Article Sources and Contributors 25 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 26 Article Licenses License 27 Threshing 1 Threshing

Threshing is the process of loosening the edible part of cereal grain (or other crop) from the scaly, inedible chaff that surrounds it. It is the step in grain preparation after harvesting and before winnowing, which separates the loosened chaff from the grain. Threshing does not remove the bran from the grain. Threshing may be done by beating the grain using a flail on a threshing floor. Another traditional method of threshing is to make donkeys or An animal powered thresher oxen walk in circles on the grain on a hard surface. A modern version of this in some areas is to spread the grain on the surface of a country road so the grain may be threshed by the wheels of passing vehicles. However, in developed areas it is now mostly done by machine, usually by a combine harvester, which harvests, threshes, and winnows the grain while it is still in the field. The cereal may be stored in a threshing barn. A Threshing Bee is a festival held in communities to commemorate this process. The event is often held over multiple days and includes flea markets, activity booths, hog wrestling and dances.

See also • Threshing floor • Threshing-board • Threshing machine • Winnowing

Threshing with hand flails, Great Threshing floor Ludovic Bassarab's Threshing rice by hand Britain, c. 1750. La treierat view in Full HD ("Threshing"), showing peasants in Romanian dress around a combine harvester Winnowing 2 Winnowing

Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from chaff. It is also used to remove weevils or other pests from stored grain. Threshing, the separation of grain or seeds from the husks and straw, is the step in the chaff-removal process that comes before winnowing. "Winnowing the chaff" is a common expression.

In its simplest form it involves throwing the mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, while the heavier grains fall back down for recovery. Techniques included using a winnowing fan (a shaped basket shaken to raise the chaff) or using a tool (a winnowing fork or shovel) on a pile of harvested grain.

In China

In Ancient China the method was improved by mechanisation with the development of the rotary winnowing fan, which used a cranked fan to Le vanneur by Jean-François Millet, a19th-century depiction of winnowing by fan produce the airstream.[1] This was featured in Wang Zhen's book the Nong Shu of 1313 AD.

In Europe

In Saxon settlements such as one identified in Northumberland as Bede's Ad Gefrin [2] (now called Yeavering) the buildings were shown by an excavator's reconstruction to have opposed entries. In barns a draught created by the use of these opposed doorways was used in winnowing [3] . The technique developed by the Chinese was not adopted in Europe until the 1700s, when winnowing machines used a 'sail fan'.[4] The rotary winnowing fan was exported to Europe, brought there by Dutch sailors between 1700 and 1720. Apparently they had obtained them from the Dutch settlement of Batavia in Java, Dutch East Indies. The Swedes imported some from south China at about the same time and Chinese rotary fan winnowing Jesuits had taken several to France from China by 1720. Until the machine, from the Tiangong Kaiwu beginning of the eighteenth century, no rotary winnowing fans existed encyclopedia (1637) by Song in the West.[5] Yingxing

In 1737 Andrew Rodger, a farmer on the estate of Cavers in Roxburghshire, developed a winnowing machine for corn, called a 'Fanner'. These were successful and the family sold them throughout Scotland for many years. Some Scottish Presbyterian ministers saw the fanners as sins against God, for wind was a thing specially made by him and an artificial wind was a daring and impious attempt to usurp what belonged to God alone.[6] Winnowing 3

In Greek culture The winnowing-fan (λίκνον [líknon], also meaning a "cradle") featured in the rites accorded Dionysus and in the Eleusinian Mysteries: "it was a simple agricultural implement taken over and mysticised by the religion of Dionysus," Jane Ellen Harrison remarked.[7] Dionysus Liknites ("Dionysus of the winnowing fan") was wakened by the Dionysian women, in this instance called Thyiades, in a cave on Parnassus high above Delphi; the winnowing-fan links the god connected with the mystery religions to the agricultural cycle, but mortal Greek babies too were laid in a winnowing-fan.[8] . In Callimachus' Hymn to Zeus, Adrasteia lays the infant Zeus in a golden líknon, her goat suckles him and he is given honey. In the Odyssey, the dead oracle Teiresias tells Odysseus to walk away from Ithaca with an oar until a wayfarer tells him it is a winnowing fan, and there to build a shrine to Poseidon.

In the New Testament

In the Gospel according to Matthew 3,12, a sentence introduces the separation of wheat and chaff (good and bad) by "His winnowing fan is in his hand" (American Standard Bible translation). The New International Version translates the term as "winnowing fork".

In the United States

The development of the winnowing barn allowed rice plantations in South Carolina to increase their yields dramatically.

See also • Winnowing • Threshing

Chaff

[1] Chaff (pronounced /ˈtʃɑːf/ or English pronunciation: /ˈtʃæf/) is the inedible, dry, scaly protective casings of the seeds of cereal grain, or similar fine, dry, scaly plant material such as scaly parts of flowers, or finely chopped straw. In agriculture chaff is used as livestock fodder, or is a waste material ploughed into the soil or burnt.

Etymology

"Chaff" comes from Middle English chaf, from Old English ceaf; related to Old High German cheva meaning husk. Rice chaff

Grain chaff

In grasses (including cereals such as rice, barley, oats and wheat), the ripe seed is surrounded by thin, dry, scaly bracts (called glumes, lemmas and paleas), forming a dry husk, the chaff. Domesticated types of grain have been bred to have chaff which is easily removed. For example, in wild species of wheat and in the primitive domesticated einkorn,[2] emmer[3] and spelt[4] wheats, the grains are hulled – the husks enclose each seed tightly. Before

the grain can be used, the hulls must be removed by further processing such as milling or Spikelets of a hulled wheat, pounding. In contrast, in free-threshing (or naked) forms such as durum wheat and einkorn common wheat, the glumes are fragile, and on threshing the chaff easily breaks up, releasing the grains.

The process of loosening the chaff from the grain is called threshing, and separating the loose chaff from the grain is called winnowing – traditionally done by tossing grain up into lightly blowing wind, dividing it from the lighter chaff, which is blown aside. This process typically utilizes a broad, plate-shaped basket, or similar receptacle for holding and collecting the winnowed grain as it falls back down. Chaff should not be confused with bran, which is finer, scaly material forming part of the grain itself. Chaff 5

Straw chaff Chaff is also made by chopping straw (or sometimes coarse hay) into very short lengths, using a machine called a chaff cutter. Like grain chaff this is used as animal feed, and is a way of turning coarse fodder into a form more palatable to livestock.[5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Botany In botany, chaff refers to the thin receptacular bracts of many species in the sunflower family Asteraceae and related families. They are modified scale-like leaves surrounding single florets in the flower-head.

Metaphor Chaff as a waste product from grain processing leads to a metaphorical use of the term, to refer to something seen as worthless. This is commonly used in the expression "to separate the wheat from the chaff" from Matthew 3., where it means to separate things of value from things of no value. Another example is in Psalm 1 of the Bible, which says: "Not so the wicked! They are like chaff that the wind blows away".

See also • Bran • Biomass • Combine harvester • Threshing • Threshing machine • Winnowing

References [1] Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1933: Chaff [2] Potts, D. T. (1996) Mesopotamia Civilization: The Material Foundations Cornell University Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-8014-3339-8. [3] Nevo, Eviatar & A. B. Korol & A. Beiles & T. Fahima. (2002) Evolution of Wild Emmer and Wheat Improvement: Population Genetics, Genetic Resources, and Genome.... Springer. p. 8. ISBN 3-540-41750-8. [4] Vaughan, J. G. & P. A. Judd. (2003) The Oxford Book of Health Foods. Oxford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-19-850459-4.

[5] "The Chaff cutter" (http:/ / www. dulwichpicturegallery. org. uk/ collection/ search/ display. aspx?irn=56)

[6] Cutting chaff by hand (http:/ / www. antiquefarmtools. info/ ): detail of painting by David Teniers the Younger

[7] A Victorian chaff cutter (http:/ / www. victorians. asp-host. co. uk/ themes/ agriculture/ chaffcutterobj. htm)

[8] Virtual Victorians (http:/ / www. victorians. asp-host. co. uk/ ) (Accessed 12 May 2008)

[9] Modern chaff cutter (http:/ / www. maharashtradirectory. com/ Catalogue/ agricultural_implements. htm), Maharashtra Industries Directory. (Accessed 12 May 2008) Harvest 6 Harvest

In agriculture, the harvest is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, or reaper.[1] The harvest marks the end of the growing season, or the growing cycle for a particular crop, and this is the focus of seasonal celebrations of many religions. On smaller farms with minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season. On large, mechanized farms, harvesting utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated farm machinery, like the combine harvester. Woman manually harvesting grain in Thirumayam, India. This custom was the norm until the Industrial Revolution, with the introduction of mechanical Harvesting in general usage includes an equipment. immediate post-harvest handling, all of the actions taken immediately after removing the crop—cooling, sorting, cleaning, packing—up to the point of further on-farm processing, or shipping to the wholesale or consumer market.

Important factors Harvest timing is a critical decision, that balances the likely weather conditions with the degree of crop maturity. Weather conditions such as frost, rain (resulting in a "wet harvest"),[2] and unseasonably warm or cold periods can affect yield and quality. An earlier harvest date may avoid damaging conditions, but result in poorer yield and quality. Delaying harvest may result in a better harvest, but increases the risk of weather problems. Timing of the harvest often amounts to a significant gamble.

Etymology

Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the Autumn season: in fact the word comes from old English hærfest, which meant Autumn (the German word Herbst has the same origin and still means Autumn). The word is a compound word (hær + fest) and its first part has Indo-European roots in *kerp meaning to gather, pluck, harvest. Compare it with the Latin verb carpere meaning to cut, divide, pluck (Carpe diem). So hærfest indicated originally the joyful celebration of finally being possible to gather the mature crops; it extended afterwards its meaning to the all period beginning with the Australians harvest the wheat circa 1900 harvest (autumn). Recall also the expression harvest moon which is recorded since 1706 and indicates the full moon within a fortnight of the autumnal equinox (21 of September). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns (especially those who were literate), the word came to refer to the actual activity of reaping, rather than the time of year, and the terms Fall and Autumn began to replace it in the latter sense.[3] Harvest 7

Other uses The word harvest commonly refers to grain and produce, but also has other uses. In addition to fish and timber, the term harvest is also used in reference to harvesting grapes for wine. Within the context of irrigation, water harvesting refers to the collection and run-off of rainwater for agricultural or domestic uses. Instead of harvest, the term exploit is also used, as in exploiting fisheries or water resources. Energy harvesting is the process by which energy (such as solar power, thermal energy, wind energy, salinity gradients and kinetic energy) is captured and stored. Body harvesting, or cadaver harvesting, is the process of collecting and preparing cadavers for anatomical study. In a similar sense, organ harvesting is the removal of tissues or organs from a donor for purposes of transplanting.

See also • Harvest (wine) • Harvest festival • Overharvesting • Threshing • Winnowing

References [1] American Heritage Dictionary (4th ed. ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 2000. ISBN 0618082301.

[2] Alpha-Amylase Activity of Varieties of English Wheat (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v204/ n4963/ abs/ 2041088b0. html)

[3] Please see also etymological dictionaries like Harper’s (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=harvest)

Wheat

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Monocots

(unranked): Commelinids

Order: Poales

Family: Poaceae

Subfamily: Pooideae

Tribe: Triticeae

Genus: Triticum L.

Species Wheat 8

T. aestivum T. aethiopicum T. araraticum T. boeoticum T. carthlicum T. compactum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccum T. durum T. ispahanicum T. karamyschevii T. macha T. militinae T. monococcum T. polonicum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii T. turanicum T. turgidum T. urartu T. vavilovii T. zhukovskyi References: [1] Serial No. 42236 ITIS 2002-09-22

Wheat (Triticum spp.)[2] is a grass, originally from the Fertile Crescent region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize (784 million tons) and rice (651 million tons).[3] Globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food, having a higher protein content than either maize (corn) or rice, the other major cereals. In terms of total production tonnages used for food, it is currently second to rice as the main human food crop, and ahead of maize, after allowing for maize's more extensive use in animal feeds. Wheat was a key factor enabling the emergence of city-based societies at the start of civilization because it was one of the first crops that could be easily cultivated on a large scale, and had the additional advantage of yielding a harvest that provides long-term storage of food. Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles, couscous[4] and for fermentation to make beer,[5] other alcoholic beverages,[6] or biofuel.[7] Wheat is planted to a limited extent as a forage crop for livestock, and its straw can be used as a construction material for roofing thatch.[8] [9] The husk of the grain, separated when milling white flour, is bran. Wheat germ is the embryo portion of the wheat kernel. It is a concentrated source of vitamins, minerals, and protein, and is sustained by the larger, starch storage region of the kernel—the endosperm.

History Wheat is one of the first cereals known to have been domesticated and wheat's ability to self-pollinate greatly facilitated the selection of many distinct domesticated varieties. The archaeological record suggests that this first occurred in the regions known as the Fertile Crescent, and the Nile Delta. These include southeastern parts of Turkey, Syria, the Levant, Israel, and Egypt. Recent findings narrow the first domestication of wheat down to a small region of southeastern Turkey,[10] and domesticated Einkorn wheat at Nevalı Çori—40 miles (64 km) northwest of Gobekli Tepe in Turkey—has been dated to 9,000 B.C.[11] However evidence for the exploitation of wild barley has been dated to 23,000 B.C. and some say this is also true of pre-domesticated wheat.[12] Wheat 9

Wheat origins near Turkey's Karacadag Mountains Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra, confirms the domestication of einkorn near the Karacadag Mountain Range. The earliest carbon-14 date for the einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE.[13] Recent genetic and archeological discoveries indicate that both emmer wheat and durum (hard pasta wheat) also originated from this same Karacadag region of southeastern Turkey. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8,800 BCE and 8,400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period.[14] Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, as mutant forms ('sports') of wheat were preferentially chosen by farmers. In domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds (spikelets) remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets.[15] Selection for these traits by farmers might not have been deliberately intended, but simply have occurred because these traits made gathering the seeds easier; nevertheless such 'incidental' selection was an important part of crop domestication. As the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant's natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8,000 BCE. Jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent about 8500 BCE, reaching Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE [16] . "The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large-scale food production industries." [17] By 3,000 BCE, wheat had reached England, and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China. Wheat spread through out Europe and in England, thatch was used for roofing in the bronze age, and was in common use until the late 19th century.[18]

Farming techniques Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop. Agricultural cultivation using horse collar leveraged plows (at about 3000 BCE) was one of the first innovations that increased productivity. Much later, when the use of seed drills replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century, another great increase in productivity occurred. Yields of wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long cultivated land, and the use of fertilizers became widespread. Improved agricultural husbandry has more recently included threshing machines and reaping machines (the 'combine harvester'), tractor-drawn cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see green revolution and Norin 10 wheat). Great expansions of wheat production occurred as new arable land was farmed in the Americas and Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries. Wheat 10

Genetics

Wheat genetics is more complicated than that of most other domesticated species. Some wheat species are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, but many are stable polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).[19] • Einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) is diploid (AA, two complements of seven chromosomes, 2n=14).[2] • Most tetraploid wheats (e.g. emmer and durum wheat) are derived from wild emmer, T. dicoccoides. Wild emmer is itself the result of a hybridization

Spikelets of a hulled wheat, einkorn between two diploid wild grasses, T. urartu and a wild goatgrass such as Aegilops searsii or Ae. speltoides. The unknown grass has never been identified among now surviving wild grasses, but the closest living relative is Aegilops speltoides. The hybridization that formed wild emmer (AABB) occurred in the wild, long before domestication,[19] and was driven by natural selection.

• Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields. Either domesticated emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass (Aegilops cylindrica) to make the hexaploid wheats, spelt wheat and bread wheat.[19] These have three sets of paired chromosomes, three times as many as in diploid wheat. The presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields. Apart from mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity during domestication, there has been more recent deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics. Genes for the 'dwarfing' trait, first used by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short-stalked wheat, have had a huge effect on wheat yields world-wide, and were major factors in the success of the Green revolution in Mexico and Asia. Dwarfing genes enable the carbon that is fixed in the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production, and they also help prevent the problem of lodging. 'Lodging' occurs when a ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots on the ground, and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes the grass grow taller and become more susceptible to this problem. By 1997, 81% of the developing world's wheat acreage was planted to semi-dwarf wheats, giving both increased yields and better response to nitrogenous fertilizer. Wild grasses in the genus Triticum and related genera, and grasses such as rye have been a source of many disease-resistance traits for cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s.[20] Heterosis, or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize), occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale (as is done with maize) because wheat flowers are complete and normally self-pollinate. Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents; these chemicals selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France), the USA and South Africa.[21] F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with the standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny many (ten or more) generations before release selections are identified to be released as a variety or cultivar. Synthetic hexaploids [22] made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor Aegilops tauschii and various durum wheats are now being deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats. Stomata (or leaf pores) are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration. Basic physiological investation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water-use efficiency. These varieties can improve crop productivity in rain-fed dry-land wheat farms.[23] Wheat 11

Plant breeding

In traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces, informal farmer-maintained populations that often maintain high levels of morphological diversity. Although landraces of wheat are no longer grown in Europe and North America, they continue to be important elsewhere. The origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century, when single line varieties were created through selection of seed from a single plant noted to have desired properties. Modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth century and was closely linked to the development of Mendelian genetics. The standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by Baled and stacked wheat crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny. Selections are identified (shown to have the genes responsible for the varietal differences) ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar.[24]

F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding. Heterosis or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize) occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are complete and normally self-pollinate.[24] Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been Wheat produced using chemical hybridizing agents, plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France), the United States and South Africa.[25]

The major breeding objectives include high grain yield, good quality, disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses include mineral, moisture and heat tolerance. The major diseases in temperate environments include the following, arranged in a rough order of their significance from cooler to warmer climates: eyespot, Stagonospora Wheat nodorum blotch (also known as glume blotch), yellow or stripe rust, powdery mildew, Septoria tritici blotch (sometimes known as leaf blotch), brown or leaf rust, Fusarium head blight, tan spot and stem rust. In tropical areas, spot blotch (also known as Helminthosporium leaf blight) is also important. Wheat 12

Hulled versus free-threshing wheat

The four wild species of wheat, along with the domesticated varieties einkorn,[26] emmer[27] and spelt,[28] have hulls. This more primitive morphology (in evolutionary terms) consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains, and (in domesticated wheats) a semi-brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing. The result is that when threshed, the wheat ear breaks up into spikelets. To obtain the grain, further processing, such as milling or pounding, is needed to remove the hulls or husks. In contrast, in free-threshing (or naked) forms such as durum wheat and common wheat, the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough. A mature wheat field in Israel On threshing, the chaff breaks up, releasing the grains. Hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain.[26]

Naming

There are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate article on Wheat taxonomy. The name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another. Within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms of: • growing season, such as winter wheat vs. spring wheat,[9] by gluten content, such as hard wheat (high protein content) vs. soft wheat

(high starch content), or by grain color (red, white or amber). Sack of wheat • Protein content. Bread wheat protein content ranges from 10% in some soft wheats with high starch contents, to 15% in hard wheats. • The quality of the wheat protein gluten. This protein can determine the suitability of a wheat to a particular dish. A strong and elastic gluten present in bread wheats enables dough to trap carbon dioxide during leavening, but elastic gluten interferes with the rolling of pasta into thin sheets. The gluten protein in durum wheats used for pasta is strong but not elastic. • Grain color (red, white or amber). Many wheat varieties are reddish-brown due to phenolic compounds present in the bran layer which are transformed to pigments by browning enzymes. White wheats have a lower content of phenolics and browning enzymes, and are generally less astringent in taste than red wheats. The yellowish color of durum wheat and semolina flour made from it is due to a carotenoid pigment called lutein, which can be oxidized to a colorless form by enzymes present in the grain. Wheat 13

Major cultivated species of wheat • Common wheat or Bread wheat (T. aestivum) – A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world. • Durum (T. durum) – The only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat. • Einkorn (T. monococcum) – A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but never reached the same importance. • Emmer (T. dicoccum) – A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use. • Spelt (T. spelta) – Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities. Classes used in the United States are • Durum – Very hard, translucent, light colored grain used to make semolina flour for pasta. • Hard Red Spring – Hard, brownish, high protein wheat used for bread and hard baked goods. Bread Flour and high gluten flours are commonly made from hard red spring wheat. It is primarily traded at the Minneapolis Grain Exchange. • Hard Red Winter – Hard, brownish, mellow high protein wheat used for bread, hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein in pastry flour for pie crusts. Some brands of unbleached all-purpose flours are commonly made from hard red winter wheat alone. It is primarily traded by the Kansas City Board of Trade. One variety is known as "turkey red wheat", and was brought to Kansas by Mennonite immigrants from Russia.[29] • Soft Red Winter – Soft, low protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, and muffins. Cake flour, pastry flour, and some self-rising flours with baking powder and salt added for example, are made from soft red winter wheat. It is primarily traded by the Chicago Board of Trade. • Hard White – Hard, light colored, opaque, chalky, medium protein wheat planted in dry, temperate areas. Used for bread and brewing. • Soft White – Soft, light colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas. Used for pie crusts and pastry. Pastry flour, for example, is sometimes made from soft white winter wheat. Red wheats may need bleaching, therefore white wheats usually command higher prices than red wheats on the commodities market.

As a food

Cracked wheat. Wheat 14

Wheat germ crude (not whole grain)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1506 kJ (360 kcal)

Carbohydrates 51.8 g

Dietary fiber 13.2 g

Fat 9.72 g

Protein 23.15 g

Thiamine (Vit. B ) 1.882 mg (145%) 1 Riboflavin (Vit. B ) 0.499 mg (33%) 2 Niacin (Vit. B ) 6.813 mg (45%) 3 Pantothenic acid (B ) 0.05 mg (1%) 5 Vitamin B 1.3 mg (100%) 6 Folate (Vit. B ) 281 μg (70%) 9 Calcium 39 mg (4%)

Iron 6.26 mg (50%)

Magnesium 239 mg (65%)

Phosphorus 842 mg (unknown operator: u'.'%)

Potassium 892 mg (19%)

Zinc 12.29 mg (123%)

Manganese 13.301 mg

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. [30] Source: USDA Nutrient database

Raw wheat can be powdered into flour; germinated and dried creating malt; crushed or cut into cracked wheat; parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur; or processed into semolina, pasta, or roux. Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, Muesli, pancakes, pies, pastries, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, boza (a fermented beverage), and breakfast cereals (e.g., Wheatena, Cream of Wheat, Shredded Wheat, and Wheaties).

Nutrition 100 grams of hard red winter wheat contain about 12.6 grams of protein, 1.5 grams of total fat, 71 grams of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2 grams of dietary fiber, and 3.2 mg of iron (17% of the daily requirement); the same weight of hard red spring wheat contains about 15.4 grams of protein, 1.9 grams of total fat, 68 grams of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2 grams of dietary fiber, and 3.6 mg of iron (20% of the daily requirement).[31] Much of the carbohydrate fraction of wheat is starch. Wheat starch is an important commercial product of wheat, but second in economic value to wheat gluten.[32] The principal parts of wheat flour are gluten and starch. These can be separated in a kind of home experiment, by mixing flour and water to form a small ball of dough, and kneading it gently while rinsing it in a bowl of water. The starch falls out of the dough and sinks to the bottom of the bowl, leaving behind a ball of gluten. Wheat 15

Health concerns Roughly 1% of Indian populations[33] [34] has coeliac (also written as celiac) disease—a condition that is caused by an adverse immune system reaction to gliadin, a gluten protein found in wheat (and similar proteins of the tribe Triticeae which includes other species such as barley and rye). Upon exposure to gliadin, the enzyme tissue transglutaminase modifies the protein, and the immune system cross-reacts with the bowel tissue, causing an inflammatory reaction. That leads to flattening of the lining of the small intestine, which interferes with the absorption of nutrients. The only effective treatment is a lifelong gluten-free diet. The estimate for people in the United States is between 0.5 and 1.0 percent of the population.[35] [36] [37] While the disease is caused by a reaction to wheat proteins, it is not the same as wheat allergy.

Synopsis of major Staple food

[38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] Synopsis of Staple food ~composition: Amaranth Wheat Rice Sweetcorn Potato

Component (per 100g portion) Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount

water (g) 11 11 12 76 82

energy (kJ) 1554 1506 1527 360 288

protein (g) 14 23 7 3 1.7

fat (g) 7 10 1 1 0.1

carbohydrates (g) 65 52 79 19 16

fiber (g) 7 13 1 3 2.4

sugars (g) 1.7 0.1 >0.1 3 1.2

iron (mg) 7.6 6.3 0.8 0.5 0.5

manganese (mg) 3.4 13.3 1.1 0.2 0.1

calcium (mg) 159 39 28 2 9

magnesium (mg) 248 239 25 37 21

phosphorus (mg) 557 842 115 89 62

potassium (mg) 508 892 115 270 407

zinc (mg) 2.9 12.3 1.1 0.5 0.3

panthothenic acid (mg) 1.5 0.1 1.0 0.7 0.3

vitB6 (mg) 0.6 1.3 0.2 0.1 0.2

folate (µg) 82 281 8 42 18

thiamin (mg) 0.1 1.9 0.1 0.2 0.1

riboflavin (mg) 0.2 0.5 >0.1 0.1 >0.1

niacin (mg) 0.9 6.8 1.6 1.8 1.1 Wheat 16

Commercial use

Harvested wheat grain that enters trade is classified according to grain properties for the purposes of the commodities market. Wheat buyers use these to decide which wheat to buy, as each class has special uses, and producers use them to decide which classes of wheat will be most profitable to cultivate.

Wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a Wheat output in 2005 temperate climate even with a moderately short growing season, and yields a versatile, high-quality flour that is widely used in baking. Most breads are made with wheat flour, including many breads named for the other grains they contain like most rye and oat breads. The popularity of foods made from wheat flour creates a large demand for the grain, even in economies with significant food surpluses.

In recent years, low international wheat prices have often encouraged farmers in the USA to change to more profitable crops. In 1998, the price at harvest was $2.68 per bushel. A USDA report[44] revealed that in 1998, average operating costs were $1.43 per bushel and total costs were $3.97 per bushel. In that study, farm wheat yields averaged 41.7 bushels per acre (2.2435 metric ton / hectare), and typical total wheat production value was $31,900 per farm, with total farm production value (including other crops) of $173,681 per farm, plus $17,402 in government payments. There were significant profitability differences between low- and high-cost farms, mainly due to crop yield Utensil made of dry wheat branches for loaves of bread differences, location, and farm size.

In 2007 there was a dramatic rise in the price of wheat due to freezes and flooding in the northern hemisphere and a drought in Australia. Wheat futures in September, 2007 for December and March delivery had risen above $9.00 a bushel, prices never seen before.[45] There were complaints in Italy about the high price of pasta.[46] This followed a wider trend of escalating food prices around the globe, driven in part by climatic conditions such as drought in Australia, the diversion of arable land to other uses (such as producing government-subsidised bio-oil crops), and later by some food-producing nations placing bans or restrictions on exports in order to satisfy their own consumers. Other drivers affecting wheat prices include the movement to bio fuels (in 2008, a third of corn crops in the US are expected to be devoted to ethanol production) and rising incomes in developing countries, which is causing a shift in eating patterns from predominantly rice to more meat based diets (a rise in meat production equals a rise in grain consumption—seven kilograms of grain is required to produce one kilogram of beef).[47] Wheat 17

Production and consumption

In 2003, global per capita wheat consumption was 67 kg, with the highest per capita consumption (239 kg) found in Kyrgyzstan.[48] In 1997, global wheat consumption was 101 kg per capita, with the highest consumption (623 kg per capita) in Denmark, but most of this (81%) was for animal feed.[49] Wheat is the primary food staple in North Africa and the Middle East, and is growing in popularity in Asia. Unlike rice, wheat production is more widespread globally though China's share is almost Worldwide wheat production one-sixth of the world.

In the 20th century, global wheat output expanded by about 5-fold, but until about 1955 most of this reflected increases in wheat crop area, with lesser (about 20%) increases in crop yields per unit area. After 1955 however, there was a dramatic ten-fold increase in the rate of wheat yield improvement per year, and this became the major factor allowing global wheat production to increase. Thus technological innovation and scientific crop management with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, irrigation and wheat breeding were the main drivers of wheat output growth in the second half of the century. There were some significant decreases in wheat crop area, for instance in North America.[50]

Better seed storage and germination ability (and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year's seed) is another 20th century technological innovation. In Medieval England, farmers saved one-quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop, leaving only three-quarters for food and feed consumption. By 1999, the global average seed use of wheat was about 6% of output. Several factors are currently slowing the rate of global expansion of wheat production: population growth rates are falling while wheat yields continue to rise, and the better economic profitability of other crops such as soybeans and maize, linked with investment in modern genetic technologies, has promoted shifts to other crops.

Farming systems In the Punjab, India, and North China, irrigation has been a major contributor to increased grain output. More widely over the last 40 years, a massive increase in fertilizer use together with the increased availability of semi-dwarf varieties in developing countries, has greatly increased yields per hectare. In developing countries, use of (mainly nitrogenous) fertilizer increased 25-fold in this period. However, farming systems rely on much more than fertilizer and breeding to improve productivity. A good illustration of this is Australian wheat growing in the southern winter cropping zone, where, despite low rainfall (300 mm), wheat cropping is successful even with relatively little use of nitrogenous fertilizer. This is achieved by 'rotation cropping' (traditionally called the ley system) with leguminous pastures and, in the last decade, including a canola crop in the rotations has boosted wheat yields by a further 25% [51] . In these low rainfall areas, better use of available soil-water (and better control of soil erosion) is achieved by retaining the stubble after harvesting and by minimizing tillage.[52] Wheat 18

Futures contracts Wheat futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade, Kansas City Board of Trade, and Minneapolis Grain Exchange, and have delivery dates in March (H), May (K), July (N), September (U), and December (Z).[53]

Top Ten Wheat Producers — 2008 (million metric ton)

China 112

India 79

United States 68

Russia 64

France 39

Canada 29

Germany 26

Ukraine 26

Australia 21

Pakistan 21

World Total 690

Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation [54] (FAO)

Geographical variation There are substantial differences in wheat farming, trading, policy, sector growth, and wheat uses in different regions of the world. In the EU and Canada for instance, there is significant addition of wheat to animal feeds, but less so in the USA. The two biggest wheat producers are China and the EU, followed currently by India, then USA. Developed countries USA, Canada, Australia, the EU and increasingly Argentina are the major exporters with developing countries being the main importers, although both India and China are close to being self-sufficient in wheat. In the rapidly developing countries of Asia, Westernization of diets associated with increasing prosperity is leading to growth in per capita demand for wheat at the expense of the other food staples. In the past, there has been significant governmental intervention in wheat markets, such as price supports in the USA and farm payments in the EU. In the EU these subsidies have encouraged heavy use of fertilizers inputs with resulting high crop yields. In Australia and Argentina direct government subsidies are much lower.[55] Wheat 19

Agronomy

Crop development

Wheat normally needs between 110 and 130 days between planting and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions (winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze). Optimal crop management requires that the farmer have a detailed understanding of each stage of development in the growing plants. In particular, spring fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, growth regulators are typically applied only at specific stages of plant development. For example, it is currently recommended that the second application of nitrogen is best done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1 cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also important to identify periods of Wheat spikelet with the three anthers higher risk from the climate. For example, pollen formation from the mother cell, sticking out and the stages between anthesis and maturity are susceptible to high temperatures, and this adverse effect is made worse by water stress.[56] Farmers also benefit from knowing when the 'flag leaf' (last leaf) appears, as this leaf represents about 75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period, and so should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.

Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the Feekes and Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.

Wheat at the anthesis stage. Face view (left) and side view (right)

Diseases There are many wheat diseases, mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses.[57] Plant breeding to develop new disease-resistant varieties, and sound crop management practices are important for preventing disease. Fungicides, used to prevent the significant crop losses from fungal disease, can be a significant variable cost in wheat production. Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant diseases vary between 10–25% in Missouri.[58] A wide range of organisms infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi. The main wheat-disease categories are: • Seed-borne diseases: these include seed-borne scab, seed-borne Stagonospora (previously known as Septoria), common bunt (stinking smut), and loose smut. These are managed with fungicides. • Leaf- and head- blight diseases: Powdery mildew, leaf rust, Septoria tritici leaf blotch, Stagonospora (Septoria) nodorum leaf and glume blotch, and Fusarium head scab. • Crown and root rot diseases: Two of the more important of these are 'take-all' and Cephalosporium stripe. Both of these diseases are soil borne. • Viral diseases: Wheat spindle streak mosaic (yellow mosaic) and barley yellow dwarf are the two most common viral diseases. Control can be achieved by using resistant varieties. Wheat 20

Pests Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including The Flame, Rustic Shoulder-knot, Setaceous Hebrew Character and Turnip Moth.Wheat is eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including The Flame, Rustic Shoulder-knot, Setaceous Hebrew Character and Turnip Moth. Early in the season, birds and rodents can also cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or young plants. They can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike. Recent post-harvest losses in cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the USA alone, and damage to wheat by various borers, beetles and weevils is no exception. [59] Rodents can also cause major losses during storage, and in major grain growing regions, field mice numbers can sometimes build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food.[60] To reduce the amount of wheat lost to post-harvest pests, Agricultural Research Service scientists have developed an “insect-o-graph,” which can detect insects in wheat that are not visible to the naked eye. The device uses electrical signals to detect the insects as the wheat is being milled. The new technology is so precise that it can detect 5-10 infested seeds out of 300,000 good ones. [61] Tracking insect infestations in stored grain is critical for food safety as well as for the marketing value of the crop.

See also • Bran • Chaff • Deficit irrigation • Husk • Wheat germ oil • Wheat middlings • Whole wheat flour

References

[1] http:/ / www. itis. gov/ servlet/ SingleRpt/ SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN& search_value=42236& print_version=PRT& source=to_print [2] Belderok, Bob & Hans Mesdag & Dingena A. Donner. (2000) Bread-Making Quality of Wheat. Springer. p.3. ISBN 0-7923-6383-3.

[3] "FAOSTAT" (http:/ / faostat. fao. org/ site/ 526/ default. aspx). 2007. . Retrieved 2009-05-05. [4] Cauvain, Stanley P. & Cauvain P. Cauvain. (2003) Bread Making. CRC Press. p. 540. ISBN 1-85573-553-9. [5] Palmer, John J. (2001) How to Brew. Defenestrative Pub Co. p. 233. ISBN 0-9710579-0-7. [6] Neill, Richard. (2002) Booze: The Drinks Bible for the 21st Century. Octopus Publishing Group - Cassell Illustrated. p. 112. ISBN 1-84188-196-1. [7] Department of Agriculture Appropriations for 1957: Hearings ... 84th Congress. 2d Session. United States House Committee on Appropriations. 1956. p. 242. [8] Smith, Albert E. (1995) Handbook of Weed Management Systems. Marcel Dekker. p. 411. ISBN 0-8247-9547-4. [9] Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 1959. [10] Lev-Yadun S et al. (2000) The cradle of agriculture Science 288471:1602-3 PMID 10858140

[11] "Which came first, monumental building projects or farming?" (http:/ / www. stonepages. com/ news/ archives/ 003061. html). Archaeo News. 2008-12-14. .

[12] [ |Piperno, Dolores (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 104/ 29/ 11871. extract)]; et al. (2004-06-04). "Processing of wild cereal grains in the

Upper Palaeolithic revealed by starch grain analysis" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v430/ n7000/ abs/ nature02734. html). Nature 430 (430): 670–673. doi:10.1038/nature02734. PMID 15295598. . [13] Heun MR et al (1997) Site of Einkorn Wheat Domestication Identified by DNA Fingerprinting Science 278:1312-4 DOI:

10.1126/science.278.5341.1312 (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 278/ 5341/

1312?ijkey=f838446b5748ced88fb8394621a2a9b4dd81c5e1& keytype2=tf_ipsecsha) [14] Özkan H et al. (2002) AFLP analysis of a collection of tetraploid wheats indicates the origin of emmer and hard wheat domestication in

southeast Turkey Molecular Biology and Evolution 19:1797-1801 (2002) (http:/ / mbe. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 19/ 10/ 1797) PMID 12270906

[15] Tanno, K Willcox, G (2006) How fast was wild wheat domesticated? Science 311 1886 DOI 10.1126/science.1124635 (http:/ / www.

sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 311/ 5769/ 1886) PMID 16574859 Wheat 21

[16] Diamond J (1997) Guns, Germs and Steel, A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years. Viking UK Random House ISBN 0-09-930278-0 [17] Direct quotation: Grundas ST : Chapter: Wheat: The Crop, in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition p6130, 2003; Elsevier Science Ltd [18] Belderok B et al. (2000) Bread-Making Quality of Wheat Springer p 3 ISBN 0-7923-6383-3

• Abengoa And Dyadic Sign Ethanol R&D Agreement Posted Oct 31st, 2006 (http:/ / energy. seekingalpha. com/ article/ 19551) • Cauvain SP, Cauvain P (2003) Bread Making CRC Press p 540 ISBN 1-85573-553-9

• Bergen R 'American wheat beers' In Brewing Techniques (http:/ / brewingtechniques. com/ library/ backissues/ issue1. 1/ bergen. html)

• FAOSTAT Agricultural statistics (http:/ / faostat. fao. org/ site/ 291/ default. aspx) 2005 data values [19] Hancock, James F. (2004) Plant Evolution and the Origin of Crop Species. CABI Publishing. ISBN 0-85199-685-X.

[20] Hoisington D et al. (1999) Plant genetic resources: What can they contribute toward increased crop productivity? (http:/ / www. pnas. org/

cgi/ content/ abstract/ 96/ 11/ 5937) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:5937-43 PMID 10339521 [21] Basra, AS (1999) Heterosis and Hybrid Seed Production in Agronomic Crops Haworth Press pp 81-82 ISBN 1-56022-876-8

[22] http:/ / www. k-state. edu/ wgrc/ Germplasm/ synthetics. html

[23] Drysdale wheat bred for dry conditions (http:/ / www. cropchoice. com/ leadstry7802. html?recid=2458)

• Huge potential for water-efficient wheat (http:/ / www. innovations-report. com/ html/ reports/ agricultural_sciences/ report-26501. html) • Condon AG et al.(1990) Genotypic variation in carbon isotope discrimination and transpiration efficiency in wheat. Leaf gas exchange and

whole plant studies (http:/ / www. publish. csiro. au/ nid/ 102/ paper/ PP9900009. htm) Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 17: 9 - 22 doi:10.1071/PP9900009 [24] Bajaj, Y. P. S. (1990) Wheat. Springer. pp. 161-63. ISBN 3-540-51809-6. [25] Basra, Amarjit S. (1999) Heterosis and Hybrid Seed Production in Agronomic Crops. Haworth Press. pp. 81-82. ISBN 1-56022-876-8. [26] Potts, D. T. (1996) Mesopotamia Civilization: The Material Foundations Cornell University Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-8014-3339-8. [27] Nevo, Eviatar & A. B. Korol & A. Beiles & T. Fahima. (2002) Evolution of Wild Emmer and Wheat Improvement: Population Genetics, Genetic Resources, and Genome.... Springer. p. 8. ISBN 3-540-41750-8. [28] Vaughan, J. G. & P. A. Judd. (2003) The Oxford Book of Health Foods. Oxford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-19-850459-4. [29] Moon, David, "In the Russian Steppes: the Introduction of Russian Wheat on the Great Plains of the UNited States," Journal of Global History 3 (2008), 203-225

[30] http:/ / www. nal. usda. gov/ fnic/ foodcomp/ search/

[31] USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (http:/ / www. nal. usda. gov/ fnic/ foodcomp/ search/ ), Release 19 (2006)

[32] International Starch Institute, TM 33-1www - ISI Technical Memorandum on Production of Wheat Starch (http:/ / www. starch. dk/ isi/

starch/ tm33www-wheat. htm). Retrieved August 11, 2008.

[33] van Heel D, West J (2006). "Recent advances in coeliac disease" (http:/ / gut. bmjjournals. com/ cgi/ content/ full/ 55/ 7/ 1037). Gut 55 (7): 1037–46. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.075119. PMID 16766754. PMC 1856316. .

[34] "Coeliac UK - The charity for people with coeliac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis" (http:/ / www. coeliac. co. uk/ other/ TextOnly/

?ContentID=252& FontSize=9). Coeliac.co.uk. . Retrieved 2009-05-18. [35] Fasano, A; Berti I, Gerarduzzi T, et al. (2003). "Prevalence of celiac disease in at-risk and not-at-risk groups in the United States: a large

multicenter study" (http:/ / archinte. ama-assn. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 163/ 3/ 286?view=abstract). Arch Intern Med. 163 (3): 286–292. doi:10.1001/archinte.163.3.286. PMID 12578508. .

[36] Presutti, John; et al. (2007-12-27). "Celiac Disease" (http:/ / www. aafp. org/ afp/ 20071215/ 1795. html). American Family Physician 76 (12): 196–1802. . [37] Hill, I. D., Horvath, K., and Fasano, A., Epidemiology of celiac disease. 1: Am J Gastroenterol. 1995 Jan;90(1):163-4

[38] USDA (http:/ / www. nal. usda. gov/ fnic/ foodcomp/ search/ ) [39] raw, uncoocked [40] germ, crude [41] white, long-grain,regular, raw, unenriched [42] sweet, yellow, raw [43] white, flesh and skin, raw [44] Ali MB (2002) Characteristics and production costs of US wheat farms (SB-974-5 ERS, USDA.)

[45] "Wheat futures again hit new highs" (http:/ / www. kansascity. com/ business/ story/ 295713. html) article by Victoria Sizemore Long in The Kansas City Star September 28, 2007

[46] "Wheat Prices Send Italian Pasta Costs Up" (http:/ / ap. google. com/ article/ ALeqM5gn9LSyRa1AbT3rICpaVcHU36XjCQ) Associated Press story by Colleen Barry, September 13, 2007 By COLLEEN BARRY – Sep 13, 2007

[47] "Broker picks in the soft commodities sector" (http:/ / www. compareshares. com. au/ fras38. php) in CompareShares April 2, 2008

[48] http:/ / faostat. fao. org/ FAOSTAT [49] CIMMYT World wheat facts and trends 1998-9. [50] See Chapter 1, Slafer GA, Satorre EH (1999) Wheat: Ecology and Physiology of Yield Determination Haworth Press Technology & Industrial ISBN 1560228741.

[51] Swaminathan MS (2004) Stocktake on cropping and crop science for a diverse planet (http:/ / www. cropscience. org. au/ icsc2004/ plenary/

0/ 2159_swaminathan. htm) Wheat 22

[52] Umbers, Alan (2006, Grains Council of Australia Limited) Grains Industry trends in Production - Results from Today’s Farming Practices

(http:/ / www. grainscouncil. com/ EMS/ 06_Nov_02_Production_Farming_Practices. pdf) [53] List of Commodity Delivery Dates on Wikinvest

[54] "Major Food And Agricultural Commodities And Producers - Countries By Commodity" (http:/ / faostat. fao. org/ site/ 567/

DesktopDefault. aspx?PageID=567#ancor). Fao.org. . Retrieved 2010-05-21.

[55] CIMMYT World Wheat Overview and Outlook 2000-2001 (http:/ / www. cimmyt. org/ research/ economics/ map/ facts_trends/

wheat00-01/ wheat00-01. html) [56] Slafer GA, Satorre EH (1999) Wheat: Ecology and Physiology of Yield Determination Haworth Press Technology & Industrial ISBN 1560228741. pp 322-3 • Saini HS et al. (1984) Effect of heat stress during floral development on pollen tube growth and ovary anatomy in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 10:137-144 doi:10.1071/PP9830137

[57] Crop Disease Management Bulletin 631-98. Wheat Diseases (http:/ / ohioline. osu. edu/ b631/ b631_5. htmlField)

[58] "G4319 Wheat Diseases in Missouri, MU Extension" (http:/ / muextension. missouri. edu/ explore/ agguides/ crops/ g04319. htm). Muextension.missouri.edu. . Retrieved 2009-05-18.

[59] Biological Control of Stored-Product Pests. Biological Control News Volume II, Number 10 October 1995 (http:/ / www. entomology. wisc.

edu/ mbcn/ fea210. html)

• Post-harvest Operations Compendium, FAO. (http:/ / www. fao. org/ inpho/ content/ compend/ allintro. htm)

[60] CSIRO Rodent Management Research Focus: Mice plagues (http:/ / www. cse. csiro. au/ research/ rodents/ focus. htm)

[61] "ARS, Industry Cooperation Yields Device to Detect Insects in Stored Wheat" (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ pr/ 2010/ 100624. htm). USDA Agricultural Research Service. June 24, 2010. . This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Wheat", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.

Further reading • Bonjean, A.P., and W.J. Angus (editors). The World Wheat Book: a history of wheat breeding. Lavoisier Publ., Paris. 1131 pp. (2001). ISBN 2-7430-0402-9 • Christen, Olaf (Ed.): Winterweizen. Das Handbuch für Profis. DLG-Verlags-GmbH, , ISBN 978-3-7690-0719-0. • Garnsey Peter, Grain for Rome, in Garnsey P., Hopkins K., Whittaker C. R. (editors), Trade in the Ancient Economy, Chatto & Windus, London 1983 • Jasny Naum, The daily bread of ancient Greeks and Romans, Ex Officina Templi, Brugis 1950 • Jasny Naum, The Wheats of Classical Antiquity, J. Hopkins Press, Baltimore 1944 • Heiser Charles B., Seed to civilisation. The story of food, Harvard University Press, Harvard Mass. 1990 • Harlan Jack R., Crops and man, American Society of Agronomy, Madison 1975

• S. Padulosi, K. Hammer, J. Heller, editors (1996). Hulled wheats (http:/ / www. bioversityinternational. org/

Publications/ pubfile. asp?ID_PUB=54). Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 4. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. • Saltini Antonio, I semi della civiltà. Grano, riso e mais nella storia delle società umane, Prefazione di Luigi Bernabò Brea, Avenue Media, Bologna 1996 • Sauer Jonathan D., Geography of Crop Plants. A Select Roster, CRC Press, Boca Raton Wheat 23

External links

• Crop Wild Relatives Gap Analysis Portal (http:/ / gisweb. ciat. cgiar. org/ GapAnalysis/ ?p=286) reliable information source on where and what to conserve ex-situ, regarding Triticum genepool

• Price history of wheat, according to the IMF (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ commodities/

?commodity=wheat& months=300)

• Photos of wheat fields (http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ jaco/ sets/ 72157604419390265/ )

• Watch Australian science documentary on developing drought-resistant wheat (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/

catalyst/ stories/ s1913579. htm)

• Wheat Foods Council (http:/ / www. wheatfoods. org/ ) Est. 1972

• NAWG (http:/ / www. wheatworld. org/ )—Web site of the National Association of Wheat Growers

• CIMMYT (http:/ / www. cimmyt. org/ )—Web site of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

• Triticum species (http:/ / www. hort. purdue. edu/ newcrop/ crops/ wheat. html) at Purdue University

• A Workshop Report on Wheat Genome Sequencing (http:/ / www. genetics. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 168/ 2/ 1087)

• Molecular Genetic Maps in Wild Emmer Wheat (http:/ / www. genome. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 10/ 10/ 1509)

• Winter Wheat in the Golden Belt of Kansas (http:/ / www. skyways. org/ orgs/ fordco/ malin/ ) by James C. Malin, University of Kansas, 1944

• Varieties of club wheat (http:/ / digital. library. unt. edu/ permalink/ meta-dc-1510:1) hosted by the UNT

Government Documents Department (http:/ / digital. library. unt. edu/ browse/ department/ govdocs/ )

• aestivum: facts, developmental stages, and inflorescence at GeoChemBio (http:/ / www. geochembio. com/

biology/ organisms/ wheat/ '''Triticum)

• Major topic "Triticum": free full-text articles in National Library of Medicine (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/

sites/ entrez?Db=pubmed& Cmd=DetailsSearch& Term="Triticum"[Majr]+ AND+ "loattrfree+ full+ text"[sb])

Epiphany (feeling)

An epiphany (from the ancient Greek ἐπιφάνεια, epiphaneia, "manifestation, striking appearance") is the sudden realization or comprehension of the (larger) essence or meaning of something. The term is used in either a philosophical or literal sense to signify that the claimant has "found the last piece of the puzzle and now sees the whole picture," or has new information or experience, often insignificant by itself, that illuminates a deeper or numinous foundational frame of reference. Epiphanies of sudden comprehension have also made possible leaps in technology and the sciences. Famous epiphanies include Archimedes' realization of how to estimate the volume of a given mass, which inspired him to shout "Eureka!" ("I have found it!"). The biographies of many mathematicians and scientists include an epiphanic episode early in the career, the ramifications of which were worked out in detail over the following years. For example, Albert Einstein was struck as a young child by being given a compass, and realizing that some unseen force in space was making it move. An example of a flash of holistic understanding in a prepared mind was Charles Darwin's "hunch" (about natural selection) during The Voyage of the Beagle.

History The word's secular usage may owe some of its popularity to James Joyce, who expounded on its meaning in the fragment Stephen Hero and the novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916). Referring to those times in his life when something became manifest, a deep realization, he would then attempt to write this epiphanic realization in a fragment. Joyce also used epiphany as a literary device within each short story of his collection Dubliners (1914) as his protagonists came to sudden recognitions that changed their view of themselves or their social condition and often sparking a reversal or change of heart. For the philosopher Emmanuel Lévinas, epiphany or a manifestation of Epiphany (feeling) 24

the divine is seen in another's face (see face-to-face). In the 2000s in traditional and pre-modern cultures, initiation rites and mystery religions have served as vehicles of epiphany, as well as the arts. The Greek dramatists and poets, would, in the ideal, induct the audience into states of catharsis or kenosis, respectively. In modern times an epiphany lies behind the title of William Burroughs' Naked Lunch, a drug-influenced state, as Burroughs explained, "a frozen moment when everyone sees what is at the end of the fork." Both the Dadaist Marcel Duchamp and the Pop Artist Andy Warhol would invert expectations by presenting commonplace objects or graphics as works of fine art, simply by presenting them in a way no one had thought to do before; the result was intended to induce an epiphany of "what art is" or is not.

In religion The Christian Epiphany refers to the Adoration of the Magi of the miraculous Incarnation of the infant Christ, and to the Feast of the Epiphany which commemorates it. In more general terms the phrase religious epiphany is used when a person realizes their faith or when they are convinced that a event or happening was really caused by a deity or being of their faith. The Zen term kensho also describes this moment, referring to the feeling attendant on realizing the answer to a koan.

Popular culture FOX's House, MD, makes frequent usage of epiphanies where the title character often comes to a full realization of a problem from a seemingly irrelevant event, which leads to the solution of the episode's medical puzzle.

See also • Lateral thinking • Gnosis • Anagnorisis • Peripeteia • Eureka effect Article Sources and Contributors 25 Article Sources and Contributors

Threshing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380351672 Contributors: 16@r, Abendago, Ahusni, Alan Liefting, Bdell555, Bejnar, Bender235, Blokenearexeter, Bogdangiusca, Cryonic07, Drbreznjev, El C, Friman, GL, HelgeRieder, Hmains, Ignus, Inwind, Japanese Searobin, Locutus Borg, Loggie, Lowellian, Matt Crypto, OlEnglish, Pekinensis, Ranveig, Richard New Forest, RobertStar20, Rror, Seattle Skier, Shanes, TiffyBeth, Una Smith, Unara, User-green, Wendell, Zureks, 14 anonymous edits

Winnowing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=371996910 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alynna Kasmira, Balthazarduju, Biruitorul, Bwilliams, Carlaude, Chriswaterguy, Conscious, Cynwolfe, Dbachmann, DeadEyeArrow, Flag-Waving American Patriot, Gordonofcartoon, Hirpex, Inclosure, J04n, Kingpin13, Lir, Loggie, Lowellian, Maias, Marshman, Maurreen, [email protected], Namey Design Studios, Netanel h, Oreo Priest, Owen, Pengo, PericlesofAthens, Pgan002, Pissant, Pollinator, Renata, Richard001, SigPig, Snowmanradio, StuHarris, Vonfraginoff, Wetman, Youpunchedmerightinthewiki, Zondor, Лев Дубовой, 37 anonymous edits

Threshing floor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378087140 Contributors: Abendago, Alan Liefting, Ghirlandajo, Idont Havaname, JoniFili, Locutus Borg, Ori229, RafaAzevedo, Steven Walling, 1 anonymous edits

Chaff Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378576086 Contributors: 7, Acjelen, Antiballad, Arkuat, Bryan Derksen, Chivista, CryptoDerk, Dan100, Danny, Dbfirs, Demus Wiesbaden, Edcolins, Erud, Foxandpotatoes, GraemeLeggett, GreatWhiteNortherner, Hamamelis, Hardyplants, Hcsknight, Infrogmation, Intgr, Ithunn, JetLover, Jpfagerback, JubileeBri, Kembangraps, Kwamikagami, Longhair, Loupeter, MPF, Maurreen, Mikaduki, N328KF, Nema Fakei, Octahedron80, Ortonmc, Patrick, Philip Baird Shearer, Piano non troppo, Queen lauren22, Richard New Forest, Royalguard11, Shii, SigPig, Sir Isaac, The Man in Question, Trevor MacInnis, User-green, Uthbrian, Vicarious, Vikom, Vortexrealm, WAS 4.250, Wetman, Whitepaw, Wickelyby, Wik, Wikipediatrix, Zureks, 62 anonymous edits

Harvest Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380658878 Contributors: Agne27, Alan Liefting, Andrea105, Andrewa, Andycjp, Angie Y., Antialias, Arcturus, Arthena, Bethling, Bonwag, Bougainville, CWii, CanisRufus, Classical Esther, Crosbiesmith, D-Rock, Decltype, East718, Eeekster, Eleonora2010, Epipelagic, Erianna, Ethono21, Femto, Fortehlulzofit, Fuzzform, Gamer007, GentlemanGhost, Gune, Harmil, Husond, I.M.S., Inwind, Kembangraps, Kjkolb, Laslovarga, Lucyin, Mac, Markjdonkin, Martpol, Matt Crypto, Moonriddengirl, Natalya, NawlinWiki, Nipisiquit, Noisy, Ocee, Ojw, Palnatoke, Pearle, Pekinensis, Pinkadelica, Privatemusings, PseudoSudo, RTC, RedWolf, Reedy, Res2216firestar, Reuvenk, Rjgibb, Rl, RobertG, Sandstein, SimonP, Sophus Bie, SpectrumDT, Stefan da, Syd1435, Thamis, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGrimReaper NS, Tomer T, Tony Sidaway, Tsavage, Turzh, VKokielov, Voulouza, Wilhelm meis, Александър, 84 anonymous edits

Wheat Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380560593 Contributors: 119, 123abc432def, 16@r, 24champion, A. B., A930913, ABTY, Abductive, AbleConnections, Aboctok, Acalamari, Acdx, Acroterion, AdamRetchless, Admbws, Ahaigh9877, Alansohn, Ale jrb, AlexGWU, Alexwcovington, Americasroof, An3sthesia, Angusmclellan, Anna Lincoln, Anomalocaris, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthere, Anthony, Anwar saadat, Arakunem, Arekku, Asrsin, Assargar, Azul247, Ba dust, Baiji, Banana04131, Barleybaron, BarryNorton, Barticus88, Bdiscoe, Bdoserror, Belgrano, Ben-Zin, BernardM, BerserkerBen, Betterlivingrightnow, Bggoldie, Bha4ever, Bigbluefish, Bkell, Bkkbrad, Bloodlessknight, BlueMoonlet, BobKawanaka, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Bongwarrior, BorgQueen, Bsod2, Caeruleancentaur, CanDo, CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, Canterbury Tail, Capricorn42, Capt. James T. Kirk, Careless hx, CattleGirl, Cfailde, Chalfontmurphy, Chickenisawesome, Chris Roy, Chun-hian, Clasqm, Coemgenus, Cometstyles, Cookforu, Cool Hand Luke, Cp111, Csigabi, Cwoll, Cybercobra, Cyktsui, Cylik, DPdH, Daf, Daniel, Daniel Quinlan, DanielCD, Danny, Danomagnum, David.Monniaux, DavidFarmbrough, Decltype, Delldot, DerHexer, Desiphral, Diderot, Diego Moya, Diligent Terrier, Discospinster, Donarreiskoffer, Doug, DougsTech, Download, Dquiring, DrKamaila, DragonflySixtyseven, Drum guy, Dumarest, Dysepsion, Dysmorodrepanis, EOBeav, EdTrist, Edison, Elliskev, Emeldil, Epbr123, Epic Penguin123, Epolk, Erianna, Eric Herboso, Erik Zachte, Esprit15d, Eugene van der Pijll, Everyking, Excirial, Fdp, Femto, Finkelon, Fir0002, Flakinho, Frecklefoot, Fred Bauder, Fredrik, Fshaffer 2000, Fëaluinix, GILDog, Gabi bart, Gaius Cornelius, Gbleem, Gene Nygaard, Gerald mansar, Giftlite, Ginsengbomb, Glenn, Gloriamarie, Gogo Dodo, Grassfire, Greenman, Grover cleveland, Grunty Thraveswain, Gryphn, Gueneverey, Gurch, Hadal, Hadz, Haham hanuka, HalfShadow, Halomaster222, HarlandQPitt, Hemantc, Herman The Bald, Heron, Hesperian, Hipolux, Hmains, Hshook, Humus sapiens, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Ilya, Imc, ImmortalYawn, Inluminetuovidebimuslumen, Invertzoo, Iustinus, Izzedine, J.delanoy, JSR, JabberWok, Jack Catura, Jacobweddle, Jaganath, Jahangard, JamesBWatson, Jdorje, JeremyA, JeremyCherfas, Jerseyjoeinflorida, Jfdwolff, Jimbreed, Jimfbleak, JinJian, John courtneidge, Jonadab, Jonathan.s.kt, Jonik, Jorfer, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joyous!, Jreconomy, JustAGal, Justinbb, Karada, Katieh5584, Katimawan2005, KayakDog, Kazvorpal, Kbdank71, Kbh3rd, Keilana, Kess1573, KevinClifford, Khalid Mahmood, KhunMKham, Kingpin13, Kipala, Kjkolb, Krukouski, L Kensington, L33th4x0rguy, LaGuanegna, LachlanA, Lenticel, Leuliett, Liblamb, Lightmouse, Lincher, Llywrch, Locker Room, Lockesdonkey, Lode (Germany), Lowellian, Luk, Luna Santin, Lupin, M.nelson, MBK20Z3SI, MKoltnow, MPF, Mac, Maccheek, Magnus Manske, Malcolm Farmer, Mani1, Marasek, Mareino, Marknesbitt, Marshman, Martin451, Martinman11, Mateo SA, MattTM, Mav, Maxcap, Mboverload, McValen, Media-entry, Melburnian, Merope, Metsavend, Meursault2004, Mgiganteus1, Michael Hardy, Minesweeper, Miss Madeline, Mkweise, Monkeycheetah, Moverton, Mr. Lefty, Mridu Verma, MusicInTheHouse, Musical Linguist, Nakon, Nascar1996, NawlinWiki, Nirvana2013, Nonenmac, Nsaa, Nutrigirl, Nuttycoconut, Nv8200p, Nwbeeson, Oatmeal batman, Octane, OgdenPub, OldSpot61, Omgkittys, Orangemarlin, Orderinchaos, PDH, Pathh, Pattirelli, Paul August, Paul Slocum, Pdeitiker, Pedro, Pekinensis, Pepve, Peter Erwin, Phoebe, Photographer2008, PierreAbbat, Pigman, Pinethicket, Piotrus, Piperh, Plushy, Pmsyyz, Pollinator, PookeyMaster, PopUpPirate, Pro crast in a tor, Pupster21, PuzzletChung, Quadell, QuadrivialMind, Quiddity, Qutezuce, Qwyrxian, Qxz, RFerreira, RandySavageFTW, Ranveig, Rattus, Raven4x4x, Razimantv, Redvers, Reinthal, Reinyday, Renata, Renato Caniatti, RexNL, Ricardo Carneiro Pires, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richard Barlow, Rick Norwood, Rickjpelleg, Ripe, Rjwilmsi, Rkr1991, Rmhermen, RobertMfromLI, Robinh, Roger Davies, Rorro, Rosyaraur, Rowsees, RoyBoy, Rrburke, RunOrDie, Ryajinor, RyanCross, Ryulong, S h i v a (Visnu), S3000, Salvio giuliano, Sam Hocevar, Sam Korn, Samgeerts, Sango123, Sangriademuertos, Sanjay ach, Sankalpdravid, SchfiftyThree, Scott Adler, Seba5618, Shafei, Shangrilaista, SheepNotGoats, Shekhartagra, Shimmin, Shoteh, Shrine of Fire, Sigmundpetersen, Sitharus, SivaKumar, Sjakkalle, Skdeewan, Skunkboy74, SkyWalker, Smooth O, Sneakscapey, SoLando, Solipsist, Somanypeople, Soulfingiz, Spettro9, Srsrhs, Statsone, StefanoC, Steven J. Anderson, Stevenspallrocks, Stupid Corn, Sufan97, Surv1v4l1st, Swicket, Symane, Tarquin, Teratornis, TerriersFan, Testdummy, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thesamaritan, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tomaradze, Tomcrisp7, Tommy2010, Tpayne, Tpbradbury, Tpk5010, Treisijs, Tyw7, Ufwuct, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Umbert', Una Smith, Uncle Dick, Unyoyega, Uriah923, Vagary, Van helsing, Vclaw, Versus22, Vicarious, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vikkib, Vikramparsani, Vina, Vinny Burgoo, Vivenot, Vlad, Vortexrealm, Vvarkey, WAS 4.250, WIN, Walkerma, Wavelength, Wdfarmer, Weetoddid, Werdan7, Weyes, Wheatfreak, Wikiproject1400, Wikiscient, Wilful, William Avery, Willtron, Wine Guy, Wlodzimierz, Wombatcat, Woohookitty, WormRunner, WriterHound, Wtmitchell, Wugo, Wwm101, Yaarp, Yath, Yidisheryid, Zeamays, రవిచంద్ర, 736 anonymous edits ,لیقع فشاک ,Zfr, Zoe, Zzedar, Zzuuzz, Александър

Epiphany (feeling) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378019996 Contributors: 980sero, Aaron Kauppi, Abigail-II, Alansohn, Albany NY, Alexius08, Andycjp, Angr, Antonio Lopez, Apptas, Baloo rch, Bfigura's puppy, Bfinn, Bliduta, Caiaffa, Caltas, Carbuncle, Chameleon, Chaosdruid, Ckatz, Coralmizu, Crobichaud, Cs302b, Cybercobra, Daatass, DanMS, David Underdown, Den fjättrade ankan, Didactohedron, Dmmaus, DragonflySixtyseven, Drosdaf, Dynaflow, EdBever, Eisengel, Emiellaiendiay, Emmanuel Chanel, Evercat, Fratrep, Gaff, Gwernol, HappyInGeneral, Hmrox, Hoshie, Ihcoyc, J.delanoy, J04n, JD554, Joseph Dwayne, Keenan Pepper, Kizor, Kristof vt, Lova Falk, Lucaas, Mattisse, Maximus Rex, Michael Hardy, Mike Klaassen, Morutyta, NatusRoma, NawlinWiki, Nihil novi, Ninetyone, Old Moonraker, Olivier, OnBeyondZebrax, Oota, Oxymoron83, Patar knight, Placcjata, Quasihuman, Quiddity, RJFJR, Raven in Orbit, RedWolf, RexNL, Reyps, Rhinoracer, Richard75, RichardF, Risserata, Roberto Cruz, Rror, S h i v a (Visnu), Saimhe, SchfiftyThree, Shogartu, SlackerMom, Slothrop, Ssaalon, Stephenparsons, Suduser85, Suicidalhamster, Swaq, TOttenville8, TakuyaMurata, Tanthalas39, Teammoto, That Guy, From That Show!, Three six one, TigerShark, Transmod, Ttassr, Ukexpat, Useight, Uuda, VolatileChemical, Vrrad, Wesley, Wetman, Wikedguy, Wilson44691, Xosa, Xp54321, Youandme, Zanimum, Zeno Gantner, 117 anonymous edits Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 26 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Batteuse 1881.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batteuse_1881.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alexandrin, Bogdan, Kersti Nebelsiek, Lidingo, Martina.lukacova, Mdd, Storye book, Wst, 3 anonymous edits Image:Threshing-with-flail-RSJ.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Threshing-with-flail-RSJ.jpg License: unknown Contributors: unknown Image:Threshing place, Santorini, Greece.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Threshing_place,_Santorini,_Greece.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Stan Zurek File:Ludovic Basarab - La treierat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ludovic_Basarab_-_La_treierat.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Bdk, Dahn, Mvelam File:Threshing_rice_by_hand_320x180.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Threshing_rice_by_hand_320x180.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Bdell555 File:Jean-François Millet (II) 008.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean-François_Millet_(II)_008.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alexandrin, AndreasPraefcke, Frank C. Müller, G.dallorto, Kilom691, Rasbak, 1 anonymous edits File:Winnowing machine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Winnowing_machine.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:PericlesofAthens File:C+B-Agriculture-Fig12-Winnowing.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:C+B-Agriculture-Fig12-Winnowing.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: no idea - see source Image:rice chaffs.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rice_chaffs.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Green, Überraschungsbilder Image:Usdaeinkorn1 Triticum monococcum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Usdaeinkorn1_Triticum_monococcum.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rasbak Image:Manual harvest in Tirumayam.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manual_harvest_in_Tirumayam.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Claude Renault (frame removed by uploader) Image:Harvesting from The Powerhouse Museum Collection.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harvesting_from_The_Powerhouse_Museum_Collection.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown file:Wheat close-up.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat_close-up.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Bluemoose File:Usdaeinkorn1 Triticum monococcum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Usdaeinkorn1_Triticum_monococcum.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rasbak Image:WheatPennsylvania1943.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WheatPennsylvania1943.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 119, EugeneZelenko, Trialsanderrors, Wst, Überraschungsbilder Image:Wheat P1210892.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat_P1210892.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:David.Monniaux Image:Wheat blue sky2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat_blue_sky2.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Photographer2008 Image:Wheat-haHula-ISRAEL2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat-haHula-ISRAEL2.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:H20 Image:Wheat in sack.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat_in_sack.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ikiwaner, JackyR, Jurema Oliveira, Queryzo, Ranveig, 1 anonymous edits File:Sa-cracked-wheat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sa-cracked-wheat.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Sanjay ach Image:2005wheat.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2005wheat.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Anwar saadat at en.wikipedia Image:Punjabi Utensil - Chaba.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjabi_Utensil_-_Chaba.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Khalid Mahmood Image:WheatYield.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WheatYield.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:AndrewMT File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370 File:Flag of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn, User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndriusG, Artem Karimov, Davepape, Dmitry Strotsev, Drieskamp, Enbéká, Fred J, Gleb Borisov, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Kiensvay, Klemen Kocjancic, Kwj2772, Mattes, Maximaximax, Miyokan, Nightstallion, Ondřej Žváček, Pianist, Pumbaa80, Putnik, R-41, Radziun, Rainman, Reisio, Rfc1394, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Sasa Stefanovic, SeNeKa, Srtxg, Stianbh, Wikiborg, Winterheart, Zscout370, Zyido, ОйЛ, 34 anonymous edits File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp File:Flag of Canada.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:E Pluribus Anthony, User:Mzajac File:Flag of Germany.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Pumbaa80 File:Flag of Ukraine.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jon Harald Søby, User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Australia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ian Fieggen File:Flag of Pakistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abaezriv, AnonMoos, Badseed, Dbenbenn, Duduziq, Fry1989, Gabbe, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Juiced lemon, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Neq00, Pumbaa80, Rfc1394, Srtxg, ThomasPusch, Túrelio, Zscout370, 8 anonymous edits File:Spiklet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spiklet.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Anthere at en.wikipedia Image:WheatFlower1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WheatFlower1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:anthere Image:WheatFlower3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WheatFlower3.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Anthere at en.wikipedia License 27 License

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported

http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/