Ciudades Libres: La Dramaturgia Subterránea Del Off-Off Broadway Neoyorquino En Los Años Sesenta

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Ciudades Libres: La Dramaturgia Subterránea Del Off-Off Broadway Neoyorquino En Los Años Sesenta Ciudades libres: La dramaturgia subterránea del Off-Off Broadway Neoyorquino en los años sesenta Ana FERNÁNDEZ-CAPARRÓS TURINA Universidad Complutense de Madrid [email protected] RESUMEN En la década de los sesenta una serie de factores socioculturales, políticos y económicos favorecieron la emergencia de un circuito teatral underground localizado entre el Village y el Lower East Side de Nueva York. Si bien se trató de un movimiento contracultural efímero y que respondía a los avatares de un momento histórico muy concreto, su vitalidad sería determinante al promover el trabajo de autores (como Shepard, Wilson, Fornes, etc.) cuyas experimentaciones serían fundamentales para la consolidación del teatro norteamericano contemporáneo. Fue la conciencia de la pertenencia a una comunidad urbana con una idiosincrasia propia y la lucha por legitimarla lo que impulsó que una serie de personas quisieran promover el trabajo de autores teatrales que reflejaran y exploraran esa experiencia urbana; por ello, se analizará cómo estas obras respondieron a este entorno a través de experimentaciones estéticas transgresoras, que no eran sino fruto de una incondicionada libertad de expresión. Palabras clave: teatro, Off-Off Broadway, comunidad, libertad de expresión, posmodernismo. ABSTRACT During the Sixties there were a series of social, cultural, political and economic factors that led to the emergence of an underground theatre movement localized in New York's Greenwich Village and Lower East Side. This counter-cultural theatre was born under very specific historical conditions, (coinciding with the rise of the Civil Right's movement, the emergence of youth culture, etc.), and it only lasted for several years. Yet, its vitality would turn out to be essential in the development of contemporary American Drama in promoting the work of young playwrights such as Shepard, Wilson or Fornes, whose experimentations opened the way for future generations of dramatists. One of the key elements in order to understand the emergence and promotion of the playwright's work is the notion of community, that is, the acknowledgement of the importance of belonging to an urban community; this paper will thus explore in which ways did the urban context shape an often transgressive aesthetic experience characterized by an unconditional freedom of expression. Keywords: theatre, Off-Off Broadway, community, freedom of expression, postmodernism. Allen Ginsberg, Andy Warhol, Lou Reed y Velvet Underground, Bob Dylan, el Judson Dance Theatre, John Cassavettes, son sólo algunos de los nombres más conocidos de aquellos artistas asociados al Nueva York contracultural de los años sesenta. La ciudad de Nueva York ha sido desde siempre un centro de ebullición cultural y contracultural, una ciudad de artistas; por ello no es de extrañar que también en los sesenta en “downtown Manhattan” se reunieran pintores, músicos, escultores, escritores y directores de cine que, unidos bajo un mismo espíritu de renovación y experimentación, cambiarían en muchos sentidos las convenciones hasta entonces aceptadas en las prácticas artísticas. Un fenómeno análogo se produjo también en el mundo del teatro, sólo que la falta de preocupación por documentar los proyectos que se estaban llevando a cabo, así como un posterior declive del movimiento a principios de los años setenta, hicieron que un momento de inigualable producción, de creación de un espacio de inusitada libertad creativa y de fomento de la experimentación, quedara en gran medida relegado al olvido. La preocupación de los promotores y de los dramaturgos en ese momento no era ni mucho menos la posteridad sino la urgencia de crear, de dotar de sentido a la experiencia del presente, de experimentar sin límites; por otra parte, los cafés, clubs, sótanos, buhardillas y parroquias en las que se gestó este movimiento estaban todos concentrados entre el West y el East Village de Nueva York, convirtiéndolo en un movimiento cultural esencialmente local. Nada de esto justifica en ningún caso la falta de Revista de Filología Románica 144 ISBN: 978-84-669-3069-7 2008, Anejo VI (II), 144-150 Ana Fernández-Caparrós Turina Ciudades libres: La dramaturgia subterránea del Off-Off Broadway… atención crítica que el Off-Off Broadway ha recibido; por ello, la publicación de Off-Off Broadway Explosion de David A. Crespy (2003) y la más reciente y excelente historia crítica del movimiento escrita por el profesor Stephen J. Bottoms, Playing Underground (2006) han solventado la deuda que la crítica académica norteamericana tenía con un movimiento que, pese a ser subterráneo, irreverente y amateur en muchos sentidos, fue sin embargo determinante en la emergencia y posterior consolidación de una verdadera dramaturgia contemporánea, genuinamente norteamericana en sus elecciones temáticas, y posmoderna en sus formas. Michael Smith, crítico del Village Voice, afirma en la introducción a la antología editada en 1966 por Nick Orzel y él mismo, Eight Plays from Off-Off Broadway: Off-Off Broadway's birthday can be given, somewhat arbitrarily, as September 27, 1960. On that date a production of Alfred Jarry's King Ubu opened at a Greenwich Village coffehouse called Take 3. The program contained an inspirational note: “This production […] represents a return to the original idea of Off-Broadway theatre, in which imagination is substituted for money, and plays can be presented in a way that would be impossible in the commercial theatre”. A few weeks later the term “Off-Off Broadway” was coined in print by Jerry Talmer, then critic of The Village Voice. (Orzel and Smith 1966: 6) A partir de ese momento, empezaron a ser muy comunes las representaciones en cafés y pequeños locales, tanto que llegó un momento en el que se creó una auténtica demanda de nuevos textos teatrales. Como vemos, el nacimiento de este teatro underground estuvo condicionado en gran medida por la institucionalización y profesionalización del Off-Broadway, el movimiento teatral que en los cincuenta se había opuesto a las imposiciones comerciales de Broadway; pero si a principios de la década de los cincuenta el coste de una producción Off-Broadway no solía sobrepasar unos cientos de dólares, ahora, en esos mismos teatros era prácticamente inconcebible programar un montaje teatral por menos de 10 000 dólares, aunque los presupuestos podían ascender hasta los 40 000. Off-Off Broadway también surgió inicialmente como una estación de paso en el camino hacia el éxito; es decir, como un espacio de formación para actores, autores y directores, cuyo objetivo habría sido después dar el salto al teatro comercial. Sin embargo, como apunta Smith, el progresivo desencanto respecto a nociones convencionales del éxito, así como una revalorización de la libertad que trabajar en locales pequeños y sin fines lucrativos podía llegar a proporcionar, hicieron que Off-Off Broadway se erigiera en una alternativa real al teatro comercial, y no en una vía para llegar a éste. Una de las características más interesantes del Off-Off Broadway es que, pese a que nos refiramos a él usando el término “movimiento”, que lo fue, no se trató no obstante de un movimiento coordinado o premeditado, y mucho menos con un programa estético o político definido, sino que corresponde a la emergencia más o menos simultánea de una serie de locales con políticas culturales afines en el deseo de promover la total libertad de expresión de los artistas, la creación colectiva, y proporcionar espacios donde poder mostrar los resultados de esa libre experimentación. Robert Patrick, uno de los dramaturgos más prolíficos de esta escena subterránea recuerda: “One of the most American things about the Off-Off Broadway movement was that there was no movement –no manifesto, no credo, no criteria. It just happened” (Patrick apud. Bottoms 2006: 15). El Off-Off Broadway ensalzó y promovió sobre todo la figura del dramaturgo, y sin la creatividad de escritores como Lanford Wilson, Paul Foster, Maria Irene Fornes, Megan Terry, Sam Shepard, Jean-Claude Van Itallie, Murray Mednick, Rochelle Owens, Leonard Melfi y otros, no habría alcanzado una identidad propia. El trabajo de éstos no fue en realidad revolucionario: todos ellos debían mucho a sus predecesores inmediatos. Si hubo una obra que marcó un antes y un después, y que para todos los jóvenes principiantes sería una referencia, fue The Zoo Story de Edward Albee, la obra indiscutiblemente de mayor éxito del teatro nortemericano de los sesenta1. _________ 1 Edward Albee escribió The Zoo Story en 1958, pero no consiguió que nadie en Estados Unidos quisiera producirla. La obra se estrenó el 28 de septiembre de 1959 en Berlín, en el Schiller Revista de Filología Románica 145 2008, Anejo VI (II), 144-150 Ana Fernández-Caparrós Turina Ciudades libres: La dramaturgia subterránea del Off-Off Broadway… The play revived, almost single-handedly, the American little theater tradition of the self- contained one-act drama, and did it by fusing a distinctly American urban realism with new ideas derived from the European “theater of the absurd” (as Martin Esslin would label the works of Beckett, Ionesco et al.). (Bottoms 2006: 21) También otros contemporáneos de Albee, como Jack Gelber, Arthur Kopit, o el Living Theatre de Julian Beck y Judith Malina, habían abierto vías para la experimentación inspiradas en el espíritu de Artaud –“agitando sombras en las que siempre ha tropezado la vida” (Artaud 1978: 14)– y por supuesto, en las innovaciones formales de Beckett. Pero fue Albee quien, por encima de cualquier otro, recordó
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