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Office Bearers of the APS College Of Community Psychologists

Chairperson Grace Pretty Queensland

Ex Officio Heather Gridley Victoria

Secretary Meg Smith New South Wales

Treasurer Pam Loughnan Victoria

Programme Accreditation Lynne Cohen Western Australia

Professional Development Di Clarke New South Wales

Membership Secretary Catherine D'Arcy Victoria

Student Representatives Carol Tutchener Victoria University

Anne Sibbel Edith Cowan University

State Chairs Anne Sibbel Western Australia

Di Clark New South Wales

Julie Dean Queensland

Catherine DÁrcy Emma Sampson Victoria

ACP Editorial Board Lauren Breen Anne Sibbel Meg Smith Carol Tutchener Tahereh Ziaian

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The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 3 Contents Contents 3

General Information 4

Editorial Amiee-Jade Pember 5

Research Papers The Construction of Muslims as “Other” in Mainstream Australia’s Print Media: An Analysis of Discourse 8 Amy Quayle and Christopher C. Sonn

Multiculturalism and Whiteness: Through the Experiences of Second Generation Cypriot Turkish 24 Lütfiye Ali and Christopher C. Sonn

Accessing ‘Authentic’ Knowledge: Being and Doing with the Sudanese Community 39 Jay M. Marlowe

Differences in Resilience and University Adjustment between School Leaver and Mature Entry University Students 50 Brent Munro and Julie Ann Pooley

Understanding and Assisting Excessive Players of Video Games: A Community Psychology Perspective 62 Daniel King and Paul Delfabbro

Articles Giving Psychology Away for the Common Good: Reflections of a Novice Community Psychologist 75 Chris Michael Kirk

Reflections on Implementing an Education Support Programme for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Secondary School Students in a Non-government Education Sector: What did we Learn and What do we Know? 84 David Mander and Lisa Fieldhouse

Using the SPECS Model to Explore New Paradigms in Health Psychology 102 Tim MacKellar

A Case for More Culture in Community Psychology: The Federated States of Micronesia 108 David S. Jackson and Richard J. Kim

Preparation, Submission and Publication of Manuscripts 123

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 4 General Information

The Australian Community Psychologist is the Official Journal of the College of Community Psychologists of the Australian Psychological Society

Editor Lauren Breen, Social Justice Research Centre, Edith Cowan University, Western Australia

Production Editor Anne Sibbel, Reflective Practice, Western Australia

Editorial Board Meg Smith, Social Justice and Social Change, University of Western Sydney Carol Tutchener, St Kilda Youth Service Tahereh Ziaian, School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of South Australia

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PANDORA is an initiative of the Australian National Library in conjunction with nine other collections. The name is an acronym derived from its mission: Preserving and Accessing Networked Documentary Resources of Australia.

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 5 Editorial Special Issue Showcasing Student Research

Amiee-Jade Pember Advanced Personnel Management

Welcome to the first issue of the understanding of the work involved in the Australian Community Psychologist for production of a journal. More importantly, I 2009. This issue is a Special Issue now have a greater appreciation for the efforts Showcasing Student Research, and the of those who make journals, and other purpose of the issue was to provide students publications, possible. I am glad to have with an opportunity to engage in all aspects undertaken the Guest Editor role prior to of the publication process. publishing my Masters research. I will I was selected as Guest Editor definitely take much more time to prepare my working alongside Lauren Breen (Editor), manuscript in order to minimise the work of who assisted me in developing the skills those on the other side of the publication. necessary for overseeing the production of a Hopefully this will make for a smoother journal issue, and also developing an editorial process. understanding of the editorial process. This Approximately 20 students from around was quite a commitment, as I graduated Australia and overseas actively engaged in the from my Master of Psychology production of this issue, either as Guest Editor, (Community) and commenced full-time authors, or reviewers. Student authors were employment whilst undertaking the Guest responsible for submitting their manuscripts, Editor role. However, I am pleased to have liaising with myself and Lauren, considering been given the opportunity, as I learnt so the feedback that they received from reviewers, much about the publication process. and deciding how to respond to this feedback. I remember publishing my Honours Student reviewers actively sought advice on research (Pereira & Pooley, 2007) and the review process and feedback on their feeling frustrated by the time it took from responses to the manuscripts, providing them submission to seeing the manuscript in with an opportunity to develop their critical print. I remember wondering why it took so thinking skills and skills in communicating long. Now I know! Those involved in the their feedback constructively to colleagues. In publication process do so in their own time, addition to the students who contributed to the often after business hours and on weekends production of this issue, I would also like to when they are not at their ‘day jobs’! acknowledge the efforts of the experienced Furthermore, Editors not only have to seek mentors and supervisors who encouraged submissions, but also reviewers. Editors are students to submit papers and those who responsible for remembering when participated in the manuscript review process. submissions, reviews, revised submissions It is through your recognition of the abilities of and final manuscripts are due, and remind the future community psychologists that this authors and reviewers of these deadlines. Special Issue has come about. And there’s the proofing process – typos, Some people may assume that a journal spell-checking, grammar, formatting, and issue written, reviewed, and edited by students identifying missing references or page would not be at the same standard of an issue numbers for references. This is a time produced by more experience authors, consuming process! So aside from refining reviewers and editors. I would like to my communication skills, organisation emphasise that throughout the production of skills, writing skills, and editing skills, I the issue, we focused on maintaining the have now developed a greater standard quality of the Australian Community

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Psychologist. With this in mind, all reviewers playing amongst adolescents and adults, and (students and experienced reviewers) were identifies empowerment, recognition, control, reminded to review the manuscripts in the and completion as themes relevant to same way they would for any other issue of the understanding such behaviour. journal. Student authors therefore experienced The Articles section of the Special Issue a critical review process as they would have if includes four papers in which students reflect they had submitted to any other issue of the on issues in practice. Chris Kirk provides an journal. analysis of community psychology through his This Special Issue consists of two eyes as a novice community psychologist. sections; Research Papers and Articles. The Kirk’s paper encourages us to reflect not only Research Papers section includes research on where community psychology has come conducted at fourth year and postgraduate from, but also where it is heading, in the current levels in the areas of cultural issues, diversity, global context. David Mander and Lisa resilience and empowerment. Amy Quayle and Fieldhouse reflect on their experience of Christopher Sonn utilise Foucaldian discourse developing an education support programme for analysis to explore the construction of Muslims Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander secondary as ‘Other’ in the print media following the school students in Western Australia. They Cronulla riots in Sydney, Australia. They discuss practice issues around working cross- demonstrate the importance of considering culturally, and within the various systems that discourse as a medium through which racism impact upon the students’ lives. In his paper on occurs in everyday lives. Lütfiye Ali and the SPECS model, Tim MacKellar examines the Christopher Sonn explore the experiences of interface between health and community second generation Cypriot Turkish people psychologies. He considers the relevance of the living in Australia using Critical Whiteness SPECS model throughout psychology, and studies. They consider how Anglo Saxon argues that it provides a more holistic dominance and privilege affects the framework for understanding health and construction of identity for Cypriot Turkish wellbeing. Finally the Special Issue ends with a people. Jay Marlowe also considers cultural critical examination of the inclusion of ‘culture’ issues, but with a focus on his personal in community psychology. David Jackson and experience working with Sudanese men Richard Kim argue that substance abuse and resettling in Australia. Marlowe emphasises mental health need to be understood within the the need to provide the men with the cultural context of a community, using the opportunity to discuss their experiences in a Federated States of Micronesia as an example. respectful and empowering manner, in order to I am sure you will agree that the papers in assist them in the process of liberation whilst this issue serve to remind us of the need for resettling. Brent Munro and Julie Ann Pooley continual reflection on the theory and practice explore the relationship between resilience and of community psychology, and of considering university adjustment and focus on the the perspectives of those new to the field, which differences in resilience and university often provide a fresh view of issues that our adjustment between school leavers and mature communities, and community psychology as a entry university students. Interestingly, field, are facing. On that note, I hope you enjoy although they found a relationship between reading the fantastic work that the students from resilience and university adjustment, Munro around Australia and internationally are and Pooley found no difference in the undertaking as they develop professionally. adjustment of the two cohorts, and no And students, thanks again for working with difference in their levels of resilience. Finally, myself and Lauren in the development of our Daniel King considers excessive video game Special Issue Showcasing Student Research!

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 Editorial 7

Amiee-Jade Pember (neé Pereira) M.Psych (Community), MAPS Advanced Personnel Management (APM) Reference Pereira, A., & Pooley, J. (2007). A qualitative exploration of the transition experience of students from a high school to a senior high school in rural Western Australia. Australian Journal of Education, 51, 162-177.

Address correspondence to: email [email protected]

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The Construction of Muslims as “Other” in Mainstream Australia’s Print Media: An Analysis of Discourse

Amy Quayle Christopher C. Sonn Victoria University

The Cronulla riots signalled the existence of a banal everyday form of racism operating in Australia that works to construct Muslims as ‘other’. In this article, racism is explored as ideology, (re)produced through, and reflected in social practices and processes, such as language and communication. Media representations are considered, a site where dominant social narratives manifest and where racism happens. Using Foucauldian discourse analysis, several strategies employed to construct ‘in- groups’ and ‘out-groups’, following the riots, were revealed in newspaper discourse, and dominant understandings of Muslims, multiculturalism and racism became apparent. Discourses identified that problematise Muslims, included the construction of the ‘inassimilable, misogynist and criminal other’. Discourses that effectively legitimate deny and justify this othering, thereby maintain Australia and Australians self image as a fair, just and tolerant society, included the construction of ‘the good nation; Howard’s diverse country’. Findings reflect the importance of understanding everyday forms of racism, operating in and through social narratives, which function to construct particular groups in particular ways. This research offers important lessons on the importance of examining taken for granted ‘text and talk’, as a site of racism.

It has been suggested that Australian to examine how racism is produced and Muslims are living in an environment where maintained through powerful institutions such the significance of their ascribed religion is as the media, in coming to an understanding of “being reshaped through media discourses, racism. public policy and, at a conceptual level, the If racism is viewed as ideology, newfound salience of the apparent maintained through everyday social practices, incompatibility of Islam and modern secular language and communication, ‘talk and text’, political forms of society” (Celermajer, 2007, become the focus of research rather than p. 3). The Cronulla riots of December 2005 individual ‘attitudes’. Foucault (1972) wrote, were a frightening example of the hostility “As a pre-eminent manifestation of socially held towards Muslims, Middle Easterners, and constitutive ideology, language becomes the Arabs in Australia, which some have labelled primary instrument through which ideology is “Islamophobia”, an overt form of racism transmitted, enacted and reproduced” (p. 56). (Dunn, 2004; Gale, 2006; Poynting & Mason, Therefore, through analysis of linguistic 2006; Poynting & Mason, 2007). This hostility structures and discourse strategies, with highlights much more than the existence of consideration of their interactional and wider bigoted, uneducated or ignorant individuals social contexts, it is possible to reveal the within the Australian community, as traditional ideologies and retrieve the social meanings psychological accounts of racism have expressed in and through discourse (Teo, 2000). typically conceived. Rather, these hostilities Indeed, it is through discourse that justifications can be viewed as an indication of banal in defence of processes of racial domination, everyday racism, constructed discursively marginalisation and exclusion are formulated through the social practices and processes of and transmitted (Ratele & Duncan, 2003). everyday life. If viewed in this way, everyone Therefore mediated communication, such is implicated in racism and we therefore need as print media, can be viewed as a site of

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racism. Analysis of media discourses would blame, excuse, persuade, and present thus be an appropriate strategy for themselves in the best possible light (LeCouteur understanding racism. Indeed critical and & Augoustinos, 2001). The major assumption community psychologists have proposed that of discursive psychology then, is that the critical engagements with the media are phenomena of interest in social and important in order to achieve social change psychological research are constituted in and (Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky, 2003). through discourse (Potter & Wetherell, 2004). Accordingly this research investigated ways in Consequently, racism is viewed as located which Muslims are socially constructed as within the formal and informal language ‘other’ against a particular ‘insider’ in the practices and discourses of society, it is through Australian community. Discourses pervading these that relations of power, dominance and mainstream Australia’s print media following exploitation become reproduced and legitimated the Cronulla riots were examined for the (Augoustinos, Tuffin & Every, 2005). presence of a subtle form of racism operating In many western countries, there is a to exclude this particular community, whilst mounting body of discursive research on simultaneously affirming Australia’s image as majority group members’ text and talk an egalitarian, fair and just society. Discursive regarding issues concerning race and racism, approaches to psychology, which inform this multiculturalism, nationalism and immigration study, will be explored as a means of (Augoustinos & Reynolds, 2001; Augoustinos conceptualising racism as ideology. et al., 2005; LeCouteur & Augoustinos, 2001). Discursive psychology: ‘The turn to language’ Conducted across a range of sites, including the The development of discursive media, parliament and everyday talk, this psychology, made possible through the ‘turn to research has shown a commonality in the language’ of the 1970s and the emergence of discursive resources of the contemporary social constructionism, has been indispensable language of racism across western liberal in coming to terms with racism (Burr, 1995; democracies (Augoustinos et al., 2005; Hosking & Morley, 2004; Willig, 2001a, Augoustinos & Every, 2007). The research 2001b). The development of a social suggests there has been a discursive shift in the constructionist epistemology entailed way inequality and oppression, are justified increasing interest in the ways in which (Augoustinos et al., 2005; Augoustinos & language, or more specifically discourse, Every, 2007). New racism refers to this constrains, determines and influences our discursive shift, which is strategically organised knowledge of the world (Burr, 1995; Willig, to deny prejudice and racism, in a society where 2001a, 2001b). The role of language in explicit racism has become taboo (Foster, 1999; creating and reproducing meaning in everyday Leach, 2005). By redrawing the boundaries of social interaction became the focus of research what may legitimately be defined as ‘racist’ the with the assumption being that “psychological category of racism can be used to position a processes occur not in the heads of self person or group as ‘not racist’ by placing their contained individuals, but between or among own behaviour and views outside of these multiple, differentially positioned speaking boundaries. The notion of new racism subjects” (Foster, 1999, p. 341). highlights the importance of seeing racism as Consequently, discursive psychology discursive, as constantly being reconstructed, involved a major shift from the traditional and renegotiated through text and talk. view of language as a tool for description and The notion of new racism as a medium for communication, to a view of The notion of new racism is based upon language as social practice, as a way of doing the argument that “racism now manifests in things. People use language to justify, explain, more muted or veiled terms, in contrast to the

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old fashioned, blatant or red-necked forms acknowledged as an everyday problem, thereby which were shaped in constructs of hierarchy alluding to the normalcy of racism (Essed, and claims of superiority of one ‘race’ over 2002). Along similar lines, Harvey (1999) another” (Foster, 1999, p. 332). Emphasis characterised the everyday processes of instead shifts to cultural aspects of human oppression in normal life as “civilized behaviour such as language, beliefs, religions oppression”. Essed (1991) argues that racism is and customs, or ‘ways of life’ (Barker, 2002; more than structure and ideology. As a process Lentin, 2005). According to Hopkins, Reichter it is routinely created and reinforced through and Levine (1997), new racism is entrenched everyday practices. Everyday racism connects in arguments suggesting the existence of a structural forces with routine situations in natural affinity towards members of the same everyday life. Thus new racism and everyday race, as well as a natural tendency towards racism, serve ideologically to (re)produce a avoidance or antagonism between members of process of racialisation, and justify and defend different races. Furthermore new racism is said existing racialised inequalities and exclusions, to involve assertions that power relations and or structural relations of oppression, albeit in structural inequalities are not requirements for more subtle ways (Foster, 1999). analysis and understanding of racism The media as a site of racism (Reichter, 2001), which has the effect of These theoretical understandings of “naturalising inequality and blaming the racism imply that, in contemporary Australian victim” (van Dijk, 2002, p. 34). Therefore, the society, the media, as a form of social practice, people who practice this new racism believe in should be recognised as an institution capable and uphold the basic values of democratic of obfuscating, legitimating and naturalising the egalitarianism and would thus emphatically ideology of racism, and hence perpetuating the deny that they are ‘racist’, while articulating oppression of minorities. Indeed news media, views that are exclusionary and oppressive in particularly newspapers, have played a crucial their effects (Augoustinos & Every, 2007). role in the emergence of the new language of While the notion of new racism is a ‘race’ and nation (Gale, 2006). The media can valuable concept in understanding the masked convey and broadcast pervasive and negative language of racism in contemporary Australian narratives, images and ideas about racial and society, everyday racism calls attention to the ethnic minorities that can have a significant embeddedness of, and inescapability from, effect on the collective beliefs of mainstream racism in our society. Effectively this means Australia (Anti-Discrimination Board of New that the ideology of racism becomes part of South Wales [ADBNSW], 2003). Thus, while who we are, and how we operate in the world drawing on traditions of objectivity of fact, at large, whether we are aware of it or not. The news media have the power to marginalise and inclusion of everyday racism in the conceptual construct racial or ethnic minority communities framework of this study reflects a commitment as ‘other’ (ADBNSW, 2003; Campbell, 1995). to tackle racism as more than just an individual The assumption that there is the possibility of level problem, but rather, as something in neutral media refutes the fact that media which we are all implicated in some way or commentators do not live in a social vacuum; another. the ideology of racism is deeply embedded in The notion of everyday racism society, therefore members internalise aspects The concept of everyday racism opposes of the ideology and the self- perpetuating cycle the view that racism is an individual problem, continues (Campbell, 1995; Ratele & Duncan., asserting that it is not simply a question of “to 2003). be or not to be a racist” (Essed, 1991, p. 3). Events are often explained in racial Instead it is argued that racism needs to be terms. This labelling has the effect of

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legitimating prejudice and discrimination Responses suggested that incidence of against particular minority groups (ADBNSW, discrimination and vilification peaked and 2003; Duncan, 2007; Poynting & Morgan, waned, corresponding with various local 2007; Poynting, Noble, Tabar & Collins, 2004) regional, national and international crises often resulting in what Poynting et al. (2004) including, the Bali bombings in October 2002 describe as moral panics about ‘ethnic others’. and the war in Iraq in 2003, but authors The overwhelming force of racialisation of emphasised that it was always present media and public discourse makes resistance to (HREOC, 2004). common sense explanations difficult. Racist The main themes implicit in the ideologies become naturalised within society vilification experienced by Muslim Australians and begin to be seen as simple ‘common were identified in the HREOC (2004) research. sense’ (ADBNSW, 2003; Fulton, 2005). Van They were that Australian Arabs and Muslims Dijk (1992) identified several patterns in media are seen to share responsibility for terrorism or discourses, which allow for the perpetuation of are potential terrorists, that there is no place in racism. These include negative representation Australia for Arabs or Muslims, and finally of the ‘other’, denial, mitigation, reversal, and there was an underlying expectation that new naturalising inequality and blaming the victim. migrants to Australia should assimilate and These patterns parallel the functioning of both discard their foreign dress codes, languages and new racism (Hopkins et al., 1997) and cultural practices (HREOC, 2004; Poynting & everyday racism (Essed, 2002). Mason, 2006). Importantly, responses Vilification of Muslims in the Australian emphasised not only the significance of blatant context acts of hostility, but also more normal everyday Since September 11 2001, Muslim forms of discrimination, such as unwarranted minorities have experienced intensive othering police attention and suspicion, unfriendliness as in western countries, particularly those well as biased media representation. associated with the US led ‘war on terror’ Noble (2005) argues that forms of social involving the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq incivility, like the harsher experiences of (Dunn, 2004; Gale, 2006; Kuhn, 2006; Noble, vilification, amount to the affective regulation 2005; Poynting & Mason, 2006; Poynting & of social belonging and participation. Social Mason, 2007). An abundance of research incivility for Noble refers to everyday attests to the fact that the many diverse Muslim behaviours of others that are felt to be rude or communities of Australia have become the insulting, even as their significance is focus of intense negativity regarding a dismissed. Corresponding with Essed’s (1991) supposed link to terrorism (e.g., Aly, 2007; notion of everyday racism this might include Dunn, 2004; Gale, 2006; Human Rights and “name calling, jokes in bad taste, bad manners, Equal Opportunity Commission [HREOC], provocative and offensive gestures or even just 2004; Kuhn, 2006; Noble, 2005; Saniotis, a sense of social distance or unfriendliness or an 2004; Sivanandan, 2006). HREOC (2004) excessive focus on someone’s launched a study in March 2003, following ethnicity” (Noble, 2005, p. 110). September 11 attacks and the Bali bombings of The affective regulation of difference 2002, exploring Muslim and Arab Australians amounts to an active process of othering and perceptions of racial vilification. Responses by exclusion, and this exclusion does not simply Muslim Australians suggested that there had involve economic and political deprivation, but been an intensification of existing, ongoing entails social and cultural dimensions, such as and everyday forms and patterns of notions of agency and power (Noble, 2005). vilification, which had continued since the Our ability to be comfortable in public settings 1990s and before (Poynting & Mason, 2006). rests on our ability to be acknowledged as

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rightfully existing there, that is, to be or people of ‘Middle Eastern appearance’, recognised as belonging (Noble). Significantly, during these riots came to be conflated with the he points out the opposite of recognition is not vilification of Muslims in general, as reflected invisibility but the “active, affective regulation by prominent slurs such as “Go nulla, fuck of the inappropriate existence of others, a Allah” during the riots, subsequent media constant reminder of inadequate reportage of events, and the perception and existence” (Noble, 2005, p. 114). causes of events as demonstrated by letters to While the current study does not the editor, and in editorials. Analysis of endeavour to understand the psychological newspaper discourse following the Cronulla effects of these everyday instances of racism riots was chosen to explore the functioning of and exclusion for the minority community, it racism in the media, because this event ignited can suggest what the creation of the categories, public debate about Muslims and Islam and ‘us’ and ‘them’, accomplishes in the larger more generally about multiculturalism and scheme of things. Moral exclusion is described racism within Australia. as “the process whereby individuals or groups Methodology are perceived to be outside the boundary in Foucauldian Discourse Analysis which moral values, rules, and considerations Foucauldian discourse analysis (FDA), of fairness apply” (Opotow, 1990, p. 5). If seeks to expose and ultimately resist social particular communities are seen as outside inequality by taking a “critical, progressive and ones moral community, or ones ‘scope of political stance to the truth claims made by justice’, they are viewed as psychologically discourses, which help maintain oppressive distant and as non-entities undeserving of power relations, and to increase the voice of fairness or resources (Opotow, 2001). marginalised discourses” (Burr, 1995, p. 119). Therefore, unfair, unjust and inhumane From a critical post structuralist perspective, treatment and/or conditions continue to occur “discourses facilitate and limit, enable and with impunity. Arguably then, the construction constrain what can be said, by whom, when and of Muslims as ‘other’, preceding and during where” (Parker, 2002, p. 245). the Cronulla riots, works to justify/excuse the Within this framework discourse may be racism and hostility that was blatantly evident defined as a set of statements that construct throughout the riots. It also helps to understand objects and a variety of subject positions. Thus, how the social incivilities and vilification there is a concern with what discursive experiences, reported in much of the literature, resources people draw on, how these resources can occur with impunity, in an egalitarian come to be culturally available and the effects nation whose citizens are supposedly “relaxed they have in terms of the kinds of objects, and comfortable” (Noble, 2005, p. 107). subjects, and positions, which they make The Cronulla Riots available (Willig, 2001a). This construction of The Cronulla riots occurred in December objects and subject positions through discourse, 2005. The riots began as a beachfront brawl ultimately make available certain ways of involving a handful of young men in Sydney seeing and certain ways of being in the world and developed into a “violent racist mob attack (Willig, 2001a, 2001b). of thousands of angry white Australians on Parker (1992) and Burr (1995) describe anyone they suspected of being of ‘Middle the goal of discourse analysis from a Eastern appearance’” (Poynting & Morgan, Foucauldian perspective as being 2007, p. 158). These riots highlighted extreme “deconstruction”. Deconstruction refers to hostility existing towards the Lebanese Muslim attempts to take apart texts and see how they are community within Australian society. The constructed in such a way as to present vilification of peoples with Lebanese ancestry, particular images of people and their actions

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(Burr, 1995). Foucauldian discourse analysts Cronulla riots were analysed. The ‘Australian’, do not seek to understand the “true a national daily broadsheet newspaper, was nature” (Willig, 2001a, p. 120) of chosen because of its national appeal. psychological phenomena. Instead they seek to Newspapers were analysed from the 12th of understand the social and historical conditions, December 2005 to the 29th of December 2005. which support certain discourses at particular Analysis also involved focus on letters to the times and therefore try to map the discursive editor, which serve as forums for opinion, worlds people inhabit and to trace possible dialogue and debate. The inclusion of prejudice ways of being afforded by them (Willig, and everyday racism in such letters therefore 2001a). Given their emphasis on the stands as an indication of the extent to which constructed nature of language, discourse racist views have become part of what is seen as analysts see the researcher as an active ‘author’ normal by the dominant group and an indication of interpretations and thus no analysis is of a newspaper’s differential perceptions of the presented as the only ‘true’ reading, rather it is ideological boundaries of legitimate and fair presented as one possible reading or version of comment (Essed, 1991, 2002). Article and the world (Willig, 2001a). The identification of editorial content, positioning and structure, discourses is largely an intuitive and including accompanying pictures, were also interpretive process (Burr, 1995; Parker, 2002; included in the analysis, providing an overall Willig, 2001a). reading of the discourses at work in the texts. Data sources Newspapers were read extensively until the Media representations of the Cronulla event disappeared from headlines and letter riots and associated issues were explored as a pages, thus making further reading redundant. specific site, within a societal dialogue, where Analysis of newspaper discourses understandings of Muslims, racism and There is no standardised form of immigration in Australia, are not only reflected discourse analysis or FDA, due to a belief that but also (re)produced. Newspaper content was dictating a specific sequence of steps would viewed as social practice, reflecting wider only lead to discourse analysis becoming social narratives about Muslims, racism, and plagued with the same limitations traditional immigration in the Australian context, psychology encompasses (Hook, 2007). Billig effectively making available certain ways of (1987) suggests the analyst simply look for seeing, and certain ways of being in the world. implicit themes within the texts. Rhetorical This approach is considered appropriate devices identified by Tilbury (1998) in her because the stories presented by the media do analysis of talk about Maori/Pakeha Relations not occur in a social vacuum, instead they provided further guidance in this study. These “emerge within a larger universe of beliefs, included among other strategies; appeal to the values, and worldviews” (Hodgetts, Masters & ‘facts’, dichotomising, direct criticism of Robertson, 2004, p. 460). Media framing and another individual, rhetorical questions, analysis of the event draws upon ready-made couching ones view as the majority opinion, social narratives about Muslims, racism and using personal experience of proof of one’s immigration operating in Australia. Analysis view, exemplification, overstatement, repetition that explores such shared symbolic resources and emphasis, claiming special knowledge as enables us to begin to understand how well as disclaimers. Muslim’s are positioned in the Australian Parker’s (1992) steps for discourse context, how this positioning is achieved, as analysis guided analysis for the current research well as how it is justified (Hodgetts et al., due to his focus on power and ideology. 2004). Analysis proceeded with a close reading of Newspapers printed following the newspapers, whilst attempting to take a critical

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distance from language, which implies asking thought to be provoking fear, about the threat of questions about it, and imagining how it could terrorism, or a threat to our ‘way of life’ (n = 9). have been constructed differently. What has Many headlines could be considered as been left out? What has been emphasised? The belonging to a number of these categories, at overall aim is to reveal the construction of a the same time. Furthermore while headlines racist ideology embedded within the structure may have appeared neutral further reading may of newspaper discourse and to show how have proven otherwise. While an analysis of dominant forces in society construct versions headlines is a crude measure of the analysis, it of reality that favour the interests of those provides a general picture of the coverage, and same forces. aided in the analysis process. After reading the Items from newspapers were considered entire corpus of ‘relevant’ media coverage, relevant for analysis if they were thought to researchers then met to discuss emerging issues position Muslims and Islam, Australia, race and to establish general trends. Core themes and racism, multiculturalism and immigration were identified and then further developed, in a particular way, whether it was positive or through in depth analysis. negative. Headlines included in analysis, An analysis of discourses in the print media covered a range of subjects including the preceding the Cronulla riots Cronulla riots, Muslims, religion (e.g., Why Several discourses concerning Muslims, being Christian is cool), Multiculturalism, racism and immigration were identified in Immigration, race, violence and aggression, as newspaper coverage following the Cronulla well as terrorism and the threat of terror. A riots. Collectively these discourses work to, first total of 115 headlines, and their article content construct Muslims as a negative other, and then were examined, 46 of which were letters to the to justify, defend or simply deny this othering editor or opinion pieces. or moral exclusion, by redrawing the Findings boundaries of what is defined as ‘racism’ and Of the overall corpus of media coverage, what is defined as legitimate and fair comment. it was evident that the discourse of White Discourses identified were; extremism as a Australia as opposed to discourse produced by measure of racism, the construction of a Lebanese or Muslim Australia, or sympathetic negative other (misogynist, inassimilable, and to Lebanese or Muslim Australia, dominated criminal), the good nation; ‘Howard’s diverse the media coverage. Headlines of articles used country’, an attack on ‘elites’ and finally an in the analysis were counted and contrasted in attack on ‘cushy Multiculturalism’. Due to order to get a general feel of the coverage and space constraints, each of the discourses will whom it was favouring. The first category not be explored here. Instead the last three created to describe what the headlines were interrelated discourses will be elaborated on, in doing, was related to the denial and mitigation order to demonstrate how they function to of racism, including individualising it, blaming justify and defend the construction of the it on situational factors and justifying it as negative other that legitimates the conditional inevitable (n = 21). The second category nature of citizenship and belonging. The last included headlines that constructed the three are good examples of ‘new racist’ negative other (n = 25). The third constructed discourses, which effectively work to determine Australia as diverse, multicultural, tolerant and who ‘belongs’. accepting, or drew on Australian symbols and The good nation: ‘Howard’s diverse country’ icons (n = 16). The fourth category of This ‘good nation’ discourse, positions headlines was used to describe those that were Australia and Australian’s as being ‘warm and neutral, or gave voice to the minority (n = 13), friendly’ ‘tolerant’, ‘accepting’ and ‘fair’. This and the fifth included headlines that were discourse was strikingly apparent in the media

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coverage following the riots and is evident in that ‘they’, not belonging to the “overwhelming the quotation from the then Prime Minister, majority”, are seen to not share these “decent John Howard. values” and “decent attitudes”. Extract 1 Moreover, this previous statement made I do not accept that there is by John Howard blatantly ignores the tensions underlying racism in this country. I and inequality existing in the country based on have always taken a more racial lines, and any reference to asylum seekers optimistic view of the character of and the “humanitarian crisis”. It also leaves out the Australian people. This nation the fact that Australia had an explicitly racist of ours has been able to absorb ‘White Australia policy’, up until the early 70s; millions of people from different effectively painting a rosy picture of Australian parts of the world over a period of immigration, so that what is left out is more now some more than 40 years and telling than what is actually said. Furthermore, we have done so with remarkable it leaves out the struggle that migrants have success and in a way that has faced when coming to Australia. Also of brought enormous credit to this importance, is the use of the word “absorb” country. And it’s very important reflecting Howard’s stance on integration, or that we keep that in mind (Howard, more accurately ‘assimilation’. 2003, p. 13). ‘Racism is repulsive but so is self- loathing: An Australia and Australians are presented attack on elites’ as tolerant and accepting, “with good values”, Extract 1 also alludes to another common where every other migrant group has discourse in the corpus of newspapers analysed, successfully been “absorbed”, and where the involving an attack on so- called ‘elites’, presence of racism is non-existent or only in a ‘academics’ or ‘Howard Haters’. It represents pathological few. By implication it is these this discourse in the way Howard proclaims; “I Lebanese Muslims who are to blame for their have always taken a more optimistic view of the inability and unwillingness to be “absorbed”. character of the Australian people”. Howard not As Hage (1998) argues, ‘tolerance’ is only explicitly denies underlying racism in problematic because of the unequal power Australia, he does so in a way that positions relations inherent in the term. The ability to be himself as being loyal to this country and to the ‘tolerant’ implies an equal ability to be Australian people. Thus this statement intolerant if one chooses to be. implicitly suggests that those who dare to The implied attack on the ‘inassimilable criticise Australia by suggesting or even other’ continued as Howard asserts that these considering the possibility that there may be a values “respect the equal rights and roles of racial problem embedded in the social fabric, men and women within our community”, are doing Australia a disservice. It is portrayed eliciting in reader’s minds the discourse of as an act of betrayal of the country and of the Islam as misogynist and uncivilised, also Australian people. “And I think it would be an identified at work in the newspapers analysed. enormous mistake if we begin to wallow in It is clear whom Howard is talking about, generalised self- criticism, because the though an actual reference to Muslims or Islam overwhelming majority of Australians have the would be inappropriate, it is implied however proper instincts and decent attitudes and decent and so mainstream Australians are led into values”, he continues, further positioning seeing ‘them’ and their culture as the problem. himself as a defender of this mighty country, The ideology of them as misogynist is already mitigating and denying any hint of racism. The primed. Thus the whole statement may in fact discourse of Australian values, is common in be read as directed to the Muslim minority, so the “texts”, and is suggestive of ‘their’

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incompatible values and ‘their’ inherent hold of Hansonism every time backwardness that we will not tolerate in this racism rears its ugly head and country, as a secular society. The rhetorical tarring the whole crowd with the device, couching ones views as the same racist brush gets us nowhere . ‘overwhelming’ majorities, is clearly at work ….Goodhart was hounded for here (Tilbury, 1998). What is more, is that the suggesting that throwing people of individual speaking for the majority here is a different cultures together can member of the powerful ‘elite’, who to some cause friction. Not because of any extent determines what is and what is not latent racism but because “we feel considered legitimate and fair comment (van more comfortable with and sacrifice Dijk, 1992). Further examples of the discourse for those with whom we have attacking ‘elites’ are provided in extracts 2, 3 & shared histories and similar 4: values”…. As Goodhart says “To Extract 2 put it bluntly – most of us prefer our “Let’s not wallow in self pity, self own kind”. Even to raise such a flagellation and self criticism”…. notion would have the less “Have Christmas and celebrate the thoughtful leftists crying racism. fact this is still the greatest country But the sooner we recognise human of the world in which to live, let nature, the sooner we can work out nobody tell us otherwise”. ….“There where to go from that starting point is a tendency among insecure (Albrechtsen, 2005, p. 12). Australians to be too sensitive to allegations of racism and too Extract 4 exaggerate the effect overseas of Culture is about how you think and what happens here. There is also a act and can be changed………a tendency to declare ourselves single unifying culture is the international pariahs at the drop of a national culture is the only way to hat and indulge in self- flagellation achieve harmony and peaceful co- without perspective” (Plan to existence in a sea of racial and saturate City with Police: PM calls ethnic diversity. And for those who for calm over holidays, 2005, p. 6). seemingly delight in the denigrating the old Australian ‘monoculture’, Extract 3 evidences of its success are Suggesting that the nation is everywhere to be seen. …If swamped by racists that ordinary Australian culture is so bad, why do Australians need some fine moral so many migrants still seek to come instructions from the like of Brown is here in the thousands? Stop the just the latest adaptation of the self-loathing and consider carefully David Williamson school of thought why some think and behave in that treat ordinary Australian with unacceptable ways? (Rodski, 2005, disdain. It’s a form of elitist self- p. 13). loathing that gets us nowhere in Overall this discourse has the effect of explaining why thousands of people bringing ridicule on those who dare descended on the streets of Cronulla. acknowledge racism as a social problem, firmly This is racist and it’s wrong. embedded in Australian society by belittling Vigilantes’ bashing young men and them as ‘insecure’ and ‘too sensitive’. women is criminal. But grabbing Therefore, through the accusations of having

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ignored the catalyst for the conflict supplied by policies” leading to “inappropriate ethnic gang violence, and exploiting the riots as immigration” (Oldfield, as cited in O’Brien & an opportunity to sneer at ordinary Australian Kearney, 2005, p. 11). Essentially the problem this discourse acts as a repression of alternative was presented as being “multiculturalism that discourses (Essed, 1991). This discourse works highlights differences, promotes divisiveness to discredit and make illegitimate opponents and spurns the principles of unity given by a contentions that may implicate Australia and singular national identity” (Oldfield, as cited in Australians in racism. It appeals to people, as it O’Brien & Kearney, 2005, p. 11). presents itself as the ‘champion of the common This neo-assimilation theme was man’, defender of the ‘ordinary Australian’, predominant in the corpus of newspaper ‘texts’. against the whims and nonsense of an all- Integration or assimilation was presented as powerful elite, who are treating them with vital because, “most of us prefer our own kind” disdain. The conditional nature of citizenship and so “the sooner we recognise human nature” and belonging is clearly evident in extract 4, the better off we will be. These discourses with the assertion that ‘culture’ can be changed. would suggest that, before, ‘we’, “the less Rhetorical questions feature extensively in thoughtful leftists” “cry racism” at such extract 4, drawing on the discourse of the assertions, remember that racism, as John negative ‘other’. Howard says, is “a term flung around The description of an elitist accusation of sometimes carelessly” (Kerin & Leys, 2005, p. Australia as being ‘swamped by racists’ is an 4). This has the effect of ‘naturalising inequality example of ‘hyperbole’ (van Dijk, 1992), which and blaming the victim’ (van Dijk, 1992), presents the claims of these ‘elites’ as farfetched, which is demonstrated in extract 5. seeing as though the general perception of the Extract 5 meaning of racism is something quite different In Sydney, it has been plain to see to what the ‘elites and academics’ would for at least a decade, that instead of generally suggest. These extracts clearly ethnic communities living happily demonstrate the workings of ‘new racism’, in in the diversity of social pluralism, that attempts are being made to reshape the multiculturalism has bred ethnic boundaries of what is defined as racism. There is ghettoes characterised by high an emphasis on culture as opposed to race, and levels of unemployment, welfare the incompatibility of, and natural antagonism dependency, welfare abuse, crime between, different cultures and thus the necessity and violence (Windshuttle, 2005, p. to change, or adapt to the ‘Australian culture’ or 13). ‘monoculture’. An extremely good example of The attack on multiculturalism, as the covertness of ‘new racism’, or what Hall politically correct and as a root cause of the (1995) describes as inferential racism is social problems displayed during the riots, is evidenced in extract 4 with the closing rhetorical exemplified in extracts 5 and 6: question, “consider carefully why some think Extract 6 and behave in unacceptable ways?” While, the While nobody with any nous is construction of the negative other, is not the against immigration, people who focus here, the problematisation of ‘their’ culture come to Australia need to integrate is inherent in this discourse. into our way of life. Not set up ‘It’s not race, it’s culture stupid: An attack on enclaves of seperatism with cultures cushy Multiculturalism’ different from ours. The sooner we While multiculturalism was portrayed as a get rid of multiculturalism and ‘warm sentiment’, ultimately the discourses promote multiethnicity the better identified constructed it as “failed social we’ll be (Henry, 2005, p. 13).

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This discourse works to (re)define and thus representations, which uphold these inequalities deny racism, by presenting the issue as the is in order. The power to act in particular ways, insurmountability of ‘cultural’ differences, and to claim resources, to control, or be controlled as both extracts articulate, those who express depends upon the ‘knowledge’ prevailing in a doubts about the multicultural society, are not, as given society at a given moment (Burr, 1995). their opponents hasten to call them ‘racist’, as This ‘knowledge’ comes to constitute ‘truth’, or after all it’s ‘race, not culture, what we have been referring to as discourses, stupid’ (Windshuttle, 2005). In doing so, this which construct objects and a variety of subject discourse attempts to reconstruct the boundaries positions. For Foucault (1972), knowledge is a of what constitutes racism and what constitutes power over others, the power to define others. fair, indeed necessary social comment, and This research identified a number of positions such assertions as ‘not racist’. In fact, discourses circulating in mainstream Australia there were many suggestions to rename it print media, following the Cronulla riots that ‘multiracialism’ as opposed to multiculturalism. constructed Muslims as an uncompromisingly, This discourse involved presenting the negative ‘other’, against a positive image of “socially conservative” police and government Australia and Australians. This othering or as being too politically correct, taking the ‘moral exclusion’ was obscured behind the “softly, softly approach” in dealing with the language of egalitarianism and tolerance, made antisocial behaviour going on at Cronulla and possible by the circulation of discourses that elsewhere, in fear of being labelled effectively redraw the boundaries of what’s ‘racist’ (Kearney & Sexton, 2003, p. 1). This defined as ‘racist’. This ‘new racism’, suggests politically correct approach was constructed as that understandings of racism and an underlying problem, implying that we are multiculturalism, are not static, but rather are perhaps not being ‘racist’ enough. Furthermore (re)constructed and (re)negotiated in and there was a strong focus on the discourse of through discourses of our everyday lives. ‘rights versus responsibilities’, the suggestion However, as Foucault suggests, some have being that there has been too much focus on a more power in this negotiation process, as was ‘rights’ agenda’ as opposed to a ‘responsibility’ evident by the discourses dominating print one, so that minority groups take on a “victim media coverage, following the riots. mentality” and “cry racism” as an excuse for New racism and every day racism in acting irresponsibility, and not following mainstream print media Australian laws. These discourses, although they The mechanisms identified by van Dijk were not all elaborated here, helped us to (1992) in the analysis of racism in the media understand the ideology of racism and how it including, negative other presentation, positive was operating, particularly in terms of how it self presentation, mitigation, denial, reversal, as structured social group identities and belonging, well as naturalising inequality and blaming the within Australia at the time, as well as how it victim were recognised throughout this constructed racism and in doing so justified, analysis, as were the strategies found by Tilbury legitimated or denied its existence. (1998). It was strikingly evident that those Discussion wishing to express negative views about this In order to understand the power particular out-group took care to construct these inequalities in society properly, Foucault views as justified, warranted and rational suggests an examination of how discursive (Rapley, 2001), denying, mitigating and practices serve to create and uphold particular excusing negative acts and views towards forms of social life (Burr, 1995). If some people minorities in order to position themselves as are said to have more power than others, then an decent, moral reasonable citizens. examination of the discourses and The attack on ‘cushy multiculturalism’

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and ‘elites’ involved the prominence of claims mundane to the wider world and generating a commonly made by perpetrators of new racism, kind of ‘common sense’ of the world, which that it is human nature to prefer your own kind, naturalises that reality and the relations of that different cultures are naturally antagonistic power which structure it (Poynting et al., 2004). towards one another and that structural With the emergence in recent years of a highly inequalities and power relations are not racialised framing of current events, involving requirements for examining and understanding binary oppositions of ‘us’ and ‘them’, ‘good’ racism (Hopkins et al., 1997). Indeed negative and ‘bad’, ‘victim’ and ‘villain’, ‘right’ and feelings of ‘white’ Australia towards these ‘wrong’, around crime and terrorism, on a local, ‘others’ were presented as being ‘not racist’, but national and international level (Poynting et al., rather as justifiable responses to the ‘fact’ that 2004), the implications for those constructed as this minority group transgress central values. the out-group, as was the case with Lebanese However they still function to exclude and have Muslims during, before and after the Cronulla racist premises and propositions inscribed in riots are very concerning. Moral exclusion them (Ratele & Duncan, 2003). These discourses reduces restraints against harming or exploiting attacking the policy of ‘multiculturalism’ and the certain groups of people (Opotow, 2001). If ‘political correctness’ of ‘elites’, were aided by moral exclusion was seen to influence the way the construction of extremism as a measure of the Cronulla riots were represented, and the racism and of racism as something specifically way understandings of ‘belonging’ were related to ‘race’, rather than culture, which was constructed, then we need to question, what else constructed as something that can and should be it could be influencing our interpretations and changed, in order to integrate or be ‘absorbed’ understandings of, and the effects of this. successfully. These discourses also worked in Furthermore, even though this event occurred conjunction with a discourse emphasising the some time ago, the findings of this research are ‘tolerance’ and diversity of Australia, ‘the good important as arguably similar phenomena are nation’. being reflected in relation to the Sudanese in Implications and future directions Australia currently, who seem to be becoming a The implication is that new racist key ‘out-group’ (Puoch, 2007). discourses circulate through discourses in the Because new racism is covert it does not print media, and arguably have everyday effects. appear to be ‘racist’ and is not as confronting as This suggests that people are made to feel ‘old racism’, it is much more likely to become unwelcome, uncomfortable, and illegitimate and naturalised as taken for granted ‘common that these exclusionary actions are (re) produced sense’. Furthermore because new racism is so at an everyday level. Indeed discussion of freely expressed by social actors, such as media immigration and multiculturalism and thus commentators and politicians, who are powerful ‘belonging’, focused on the ‘absorption’ of non- members of society, this ultimately conveys white Others in a country in which whiteness is what Barbara Perry calls, a ‘permission to the normative mode of belonging. This hate’ (cited in Poynting et al., 2004). Similarly ‘negotiation’ of belonging then, threatens what Hage (1998) suggests “violent racists are Noble (2005) calls the ‘ontological security’, of always a minority. However their breathing particular ‘out groups’ who are constantly space is determined by the degree of ordinary reminded that they don’t belong, effectively ‘non-violent’ racism a government and culture limiting their capacity to exist as citizens and will allow” (p. 247). Thus the media as a feel ‘fully human’. pervasive site of racism needs to be challenged The media in ordering our perceptions of and counter discourses need to be produced, the social world, are central in reproducing giving voice to those relegated to ‘outsider’, dominant cultural frames connecting the ‘invader’, or simply ‘other’. This necessitates

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that psychology, an institution capable of just passive recipients or victims of dominant influencing the way that racism is understood, discourses. Future research should explore the has a moral responsibility to critically engage different ways they are challenged, and the with the media in tackling racism, and avoid the spaces where this is achieved. ‘reductionistic’, ‘psychologising’ and References ‘individualistic’ accounts that have dominated Albrechtsen, J. (December 14, 2005). Racism is the social psychology of racism (Augoustinos & repulsive but so is self-loathing. The Reynolds, 2001; Foster, 1999). Australian, p. 12. While discourse analysis is a useful and Aly, A. (2007). Australian Muslim responses to worthwhile means of exploring the banal way the discourse on terrorism in the that racism operates in contemporary Australian Australian popular media. Australian society on a daily basis, future research should Journal of Social Issues, 42(1), 27- 40. focus on the need to give voice to the oppressed Anti-Discrimination Board of New South within society. It should aim to empower Wales. (2003). Race for the headlines: marginalised communities to determine their Racism and media discourse. Sydney: own social representations, rather than have Author. them determined for them. It should also aim to Augoustinos, M. & Every, D. (2007). The raise awareness in the dominant culture of the language of ‘race’ and prejudice: A taken for granted ways that racism is reproduced discourse of denial, reason and liberal- on a day- to- day basis. Indeed it is important to practical politics. Journal of Language move away from simply trying to ‘understand’ and Social Psychology, 26(2), 123-141. the ‘other’, and emphasise the importance of Augoustinos, M., & Reynolds, K. J. (2001). understanding the self in the midst of unbalanced Prejudice, racism and social psychology. power relationships. There is a growing interest In M. Augoustinos & K. J. Reynolds in addressing racism through raising the socio- (Eds.), Understanding prejudice, racism political awareness of powerful groups, and social conflict (pp. 1-23). London: involving the interrogation of how dominant Sage. groups benefit from and are implicated in Augoustinos, M., Tuffin, K. & Every, D. maintaining racism (Duncan, 2007). The power (2005). New racism, meritocracy and dimension of racism is essential in any individualism: constraining affirmative understanding of racism. Furthermore, any action in education. Discourse and analysis of the subjective experience of Society, 16(3), 315-339. marginalisation needs to encompass everyday Barker, M. (2002). The problems with racism. forms of racism, that is, the seemingly In P. Essed & D. T. Goldberg (Ed.), Race insignificant ways that people are racialised. critical theories (pp. 80-90), Malden: Limitations Blackwell. The current study was useful as an Billig, M. (1987). Arguing and thinking: A exploratory start to research in this area, though rhetorical approach to social psychology. more needs to be done to really tackle the issue Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. of racism in the media and to understand the Burr, V. (1995). An introduction to social psychological effects of everyday and banal constructionism. London: Routledge. forms of racism. While discourse analysis can be Cambpell, C.P. (1995). Race, myth and the useful in tracing the representations/discourses news. London: Sage. dominant in a particular context, at a particular Celermajer, D. (2007). If Islam is our other, historical moment, it does not acknowledge the who are we? Australian Journal of Social way these are variably taken up. They may be Issues, 42(1), 106- 120. rejected resisted or consumed; people are not Duncan, N. (2007). ‘Listen here, just because

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you think I’m coloured...’ Responses to the Hopkins, N., Reichter, S. & Levine, M. (1997). construction of difference in racist On the parallels between social cognition discourses. In N. Duncan, P. Gqola & M. and the ‘new racism’. British Journal of Hofmeyr et al. (Eds.), Discourses on Social Psychology, 36, 305-329. difference, discourses on oppression (pp. Hosking, D. M., & Morley, I. (2004). Social 113 – 138). Plumstead: CASAS. constructionism in community and Dunn, K. (2004). Islam in Sydney: Contesting applied social psychology. Journal of the discourse of absence. Australian Community and Applied Social Geographer, 35(3), 333-353. Psychology, 14, 318-331. Essed, P. (1991). Understanding everyday Howard, J. (December 13, 2005). Letter to the racism: An interdisciplinary theory. Editor. The Australian, p. 13. London: Sage. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Essed, P. (2002). Everyday racism: A new Commission. (2004). Isma Report. approach to the study of racism. In P. Retrieved April 4, 2007 from http:// Essed & D. T. Goldberg (Ed.), Race www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/ critical theory (pp. 176-194). Malden: isma/index.html Blackwell. Kearney, S. & Sexton, E. (December, 13, Foster. D. (1999). Racism, Marxism, 2005). Muslims retaliate for riot. The psychology. Theory and Psychology, 9, Australian, p. 1. 331- 350. Kerin, J. & Leys, N. (December 13, 2005). Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of We’re not a bunch of racists, PM says. knowledge. New York, Pantheon. The Australian, p. 4. Fulton, H. E. (2005). Analysing the discourse of Kuhn, R. (2006, February 20). The rise of anti- news. In H. E. Fulton, R. Huisman, J. Muslim racism in Australia: Who Murphet & A. Dunn (Eds.), Narrative and benefits? Paper presented at Humanities media (pp. 245-268). Melbourne: Research Centre Work in Progress Cambridge University Press. seminar. Gale, P. (2006). Fear, race, and national identity. Leach, C. W. (2005). Against the notion of a Dialogue, 25(3), 35-42. ‘new racism’. Journal of Community and Hage, G. (1998). White nation. Annandale, Applied Social Psychology, 15, 432-445. NSW: Pluto Press. LeCouteur & Augoustinos, M. (2001). The Hall, S. (1995). The whites of their eyes: Racist language of prejudice and racism. In M. ideologies and the media. In G. Dines and Augoustinos, & K. J. Reynolds (Eds.), J. M. Humer (Eds.), Gender, race and Understanding prejudice, racism and class in media: A text— reader (pp. 18-33). social conflict. London: Sage. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lentin, A. (2005). Replacing ‘race’, Harvey, J. (1999). Civilized oppression. New historicizing ‘culture’ in multiculturalism. York: Rowman and Littlefield. Patterns of Prejudice, 39(4), 379-396. Henry, R. (December 20, 2005). Letter to the Noble, G. (2005). The discomfort of strangers: Editor. The Australian, p. 13. Racism, incivility and ontological security Hodgetts, D., Masters, B., & Robertson, N. in a relaxed and comfortable nation. (2004). Media coverage of ‘Decades of Journal of Intercultural Studies, 26(1), Disparity’ in ethnic mortality in Aotearoa. 107- 120. Journal of Community and Applied Social O’Brien, N, & Kearney, S. (December 13, Psychology, 14, 455–472. 2005). Hate at the beach. The Australian, Hook, D (2007). Foucauldian analysis and p. 11. psychology. London, UK, Palgrave. Opotow, S. (1990). Moral exclusion and

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injustice: An overview. Journal of Social Y: Accomplishing discrimination without Issues, 46(1), 1-20. ‘being racist’—‘doing equity’. In M. Opotow, S. (2001). Social injustice. In D. J. Augoustinos, & K. J. Reynolds (Eds.), Christie, R. V. Wagner, & D. D. Winter Understanding prejudice, racism and (Eds.), Peace, conflict, and violence: social conflict (pp. 231–250). London: Peace psychology for the 21st century (pp. Sage. 102-109). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Ratele, K., & Duncan, N. (Eds.). (2003). Social Prentice Hall. psychology: Identities and relationships. Parker, I. (1992). Discourse dynamics: Critical Cape Town: UCT Press. analysis for social and individual Reichter, S. (2001). Studying psychology psychology, London: Routledge. studying racism. In M. Augoustinos, & K. Parker, I. (2002). Critical discursive psychology. J. Reynolds (Eds.), Understanding New York: Palgrave MacMillan. prejudice, racism and social conflict (pp. Plan to saturate city with police: PM calls for 273-298). London: Sage. calm over holidays. (December 16, 2005). Rodski, S. (December 21, 2005). Letter to the The Australian, p. 6. editor. The Australian, p. 13. Potter, J. & Wetherell, M. (2004). Discourse Saniotis, A. (2004). Embodying ambivalence: analysis. In M. Hardy & A. Bryman (Eds.), Muslim Australians as ‘other’. Journal of Handbook of data analysis (pp. 607- 24). Australian Studies, 82, 49-58. London: Sage. Sivanandan, A. (2006). Race, terror and civil Poynting, S., & Mason, V. (2006). “Tolerance, society. Race and Class, 47(1). 1-8. Freedom, Justice and Peace”?: Britain, Teo, P. (2000). Racism in the news: A critical Australia and Anti-Muslim Racism since discourse analysis of news reporting in 11 September 2001. Journal of two Australian newspapers. Discourse Intercultural Studies, 27(4), 365-391. and Society, 11(1), 7- 49. Poynting, S., & Mason, V. (2007). The resistible Tilbury, F. (1998). ‘I really don’t know much rise of Islamophobia: Anti Muslim racism about it but…’: A typology of rhetorical in the UK and Australia before 11 devices used in talk about Maori/ Pakeha September 2001. Journal of Sociology, 43 relations. New Zealand Sociology, 13(2), (1), 61-86. 289-320. Poynting, S., & Morgan, G (Eds). (2007). van Dijk, T. A. (1992). Discourse and the denial Outrageous: Moral panics in Australia. of racism. Discourse and Society, 3(1), Hobart: ACYS Publishing. 87-118. Poynting, S., Noble, G., Tabar, P., & Collins, J. van Dijk, T. A. (2002). Denying racism: Elite (2004). Bin Laden in the suburbs: discourse and racism. In P. Essed & D .T. Criminalizing the Arab other. Sydney: Goldberg (Eds.), Race critical theories Institute of Criminology. (pp. 307-324). Malden: Blackwell. Prilleltensky, I., & Prilleltensky, O. (2003). Willig, C. (2001a). Introducing qualitative Towards a critical health psychology research in psychology: Adventures in practice. Journal of Health Psychology, 8, theory and method. New York: Open 197-210. University Press. Puoch, G. (2007, March 21). The impact of Willig, C. (Ed.) (2001b). Applied discourse racism on Sudanese in Australia. Paper analysis: Social and psychological presented at UN day on eliminating interventions. Buckingham: Open racism: Valuing Diversity seminar: University Press. Victoria University. Windshuttle, K. (December 16, 2005). It’s not Rapley, M. (2001). How to do X without doing race it’s culture. The Australian, p. 13.

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Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their comments on an earlier version of this paper, and Lauren Breen and Aimee Jade Pember for their valuable feedback throughout the process.

Address Correspondence to Amy Quayle School of Social Sciences and Psychology Victoria University PO Box 14428 Melbourne City, MC Melbourne, Australia email: [email protected]

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 24 Multiculturalism and Whiteness:

Through the Experiences of Second Generation Cypriot Turkish

Lütfiye Ali Christopher C. Sonn Victoria University

Multicultural policies have enabled many migrants and their descendents to develop a sense of belonging to Australia. However, national multicultural policies also position the Anglo Saxon descendents as a higher civilised group who are more Australian relative to their ‘ethnic’ counterparts, who are confronted with ambiguity when identifying as an Australian. By adopting critical whiteness studies as an analytical framework we explore community dynamics by focusing on how the Anglo Saxon ethnic group maintains its dominance and privilege. We examine discourses that second generation Cypriot Turkish people in Australia use to construct their identity. Our analysis reveals the covert and often banal ways in which privilege is maintained. We suggest that whiteness studies provides a set of tools to extend critical community psychology because of its focus on unpacking how dominance is negotiated and potentially reproduced by those who have differential access to racialised privilege.

This article examines dynamics of Australian, as not having an ethnic identity. On inclusion and exclusion through the the other hand, for many migrant descendants experiences of second generation Cypriot their Australian identity is accessible if it is Turkish Australians. In the year 1973 the hyphenated with their ethnic identity. As a White Australia Policy, which favoured result people other than Anglo Saxon have immigration from certain countries, was noted ambiguity about their belongingness to officially replaced with the national policy of the Australian community (Ang, Brand, Noble Multiculturalism. Multicultural policies did not & Sternberg, 2006; Castles & Vasta, 1996; discriminate on the basis of race, culture and Sonn & Lewis, 2009; Vasta, 1992; Vasta, religion in relation to immigration to Australia 1993; Zevallos, 2003; Zevallos & Gilding, (Department of Immigration and Citizenship 2003). These processes of identity negotiation, [DIAC], 2007). Multicultural policies were which we describe in this article, demonstrate also a reactionary move following migrant the relational and contingent nature of ethnic resistance to assimilation as they redefined identity. their past in a new social and political context Ethnic identity is conceptualised as a (Vasta, 1993). Multicultural policies afforded relational construct which is negotiated with different ethnic groups the right to practice ones world and other people, structures, social their cultural and religious beliefs (DIAC, conditions expressed through discourses rather 2003). These policies provided impetus for the than something that is possessed (Hook, 2003; construction of new discourses and the Verkuyten, 2005). Mama (1995) defines emergence of the ethnic identity. In Australia, discourses as “historically constructed regimes the ethnic category embraces the identities of of knowledge. These include common-sense many migrants and the descendants of assumptions and taken-for-granted ideas, belief migrants in Australia. However, descendants systems and myths that groups of people share of an Anglo Saxon background are ostensibly and through which they understand each omitted from this category1. Those of Anglo other” (p. 98). Discourses position people in Saxon background are simply identified as relation to each other socially, culturally, and

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politically, -- ‘ethnics’ are positioned in anyone who identified as other than Turkish had Australia as the other to Anglo Australians to pay extra tax shaping the modern bicultural who occupy a privileged, dominant and community of the island (Hugg, 2001). Cyprus normative position (Hage, 1998; Sonn & became an independent state in 1960 following Fisher, 2005). This normative and privileged an agreement between Britain, Greece and position has been named whiteness Turkey, which recognised the two ethnic groups (Frankenberg, 1993). Arguably, being as equal citizens under the new constitution positioned outside the dominant culture (Gorvett, 1999; Hugg, 2001). However, this provides a vantage point from which to make constitution collapsed during 1963 when the visible dominance and dynamics of inclusion drive for the unification of Cyprus with Greece and exclusion (Ladson-Billings, 2003; Sonn, gained momentum and ethnic cleansing became 2004). Challenging normativity and dominance widespread. In response, Turkey intervened to is in line with a community psychology (e.g., prevent the unification of Cyprus with Greece Watts & Serrano-García, 2003) agenda that is and to protect the Cypriot Turkish population aimed at deconstructing and transforming (Peggs, 1998). taken for granted discourses about race and The island has since been divided into ethnicity that position self and others in a two, with two separate governments. However, broader context of power relations. In this the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus article, we explore ethnic identity construction, (TRNC) is not recognised internationally by with a focus on the negotiation of whiteness, any other country besides Turkey (Gorvett, from the perspectives of Cypriot Turks who 1999; Rotberg, 2003). Turkish Cypriots remain grew up in Australia. unrepresented in the international arena unlike We draw on data from a research project the Greek Cypriots who represent Cyprus in that focused on dynamics of inclusion and international political and social arenas exclusion and the discourses that construct the (Bamanie, 2002). Due to the conflict around the multi-hyphenated nature of the Cypriot legitimacy of TRNC, the voices of Cypriot Turkish Australian identity (Ali, 2006; Ali & Turks’ and the representations of Cyprus have Sonn, in press). In this article we examine the been restricted making Cyprus, for those who negotiation of whiteness through the are not familiar with its history, a Greek Island experiences of second generation Cypriot with Cypriot Greek population. Turks Australians. We consider two discourses As a result of these historical and political that are used to construct Cypriot Turkish processes, Cypriot Turks who identify as a identity and examine how whiteness is Cypriot lose their ‘Turkishness’ as Cyprus is reproduced and privilege maintained through represented as a Greek Island. On the other the construction of other identities. Before this hand, identification as a Turk leads to the we provide background to the Cypriot Turkish assimilation of their identity with mainland identity and review literature on whiteness and Turks. Although Cypriot Turks have strong ties whiteness in an Australian context. This is with the mainstream Turkish community, they followed by examining whiteness from the perceive themselves and are perceived by vantage point of Cypriot Turkish lived mainland Turks as different, on the basis that experiences. they are not from Turkey and differ in terms of Cypriot Turkish identity and migration speaking and cultural values such as level of Cypriot Turks are descendents of the secularity (Canefe, 2002). Ottoman Empire, who remained in power Due to the inter-communal conflict of the until1878 when Cyprus was ceded to Britain. 1950s and 1960s and the economical and During this period the island was governed politically unstable nature of Cyprus during the under the Ottoman Millet system where 1970s and 1980s following the ongoing

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embargo imposed on TRNC, many Cypriot decide who belongs to the nation and the power Turks have migrated from Cyprus (Robins & to name racism. For instance, knowledge Aksoy, 2001). It is estimated that 40,000- around and the representations of Australia’s 50,000 people emigrated from Cyprus during colonial history is a political endeavour shaped this period (Kücükcan, cited in Robins & by the normative worldview of whiteness Aksoy, 2001). Cypriot Turks began migrating (Larbalestier, 2004). Whiteness also reproduces to Australia in early 1960 with the biggest and maintains its position of dominance as it is influx in the late 1960s (Sayar, 1988). linked with ownership of a nation whilst people Whiteness who do not belong to the white category are Steyn (2006) wrote that critical made to feel unease with their sense of whiteness studies has provided a site critiquing belonging to a nation due to the lack of racial formations by tracing processes that representation at a national level (Green et al., have lead to the ways in which white people 2007; Hage, 1998). Finally, whiteness are socially positioned relative to others. Part constructs itself through antiracism practices of the focus is to understand the implications because white people can assume the power to for identity construction of those racialised into name what is and what is not construed as whiteness as well as understanding the racism, and they can deny noticing race mechanisms and process – semiotic, including their own racial position (Ahmed, discursive, material and everyday ways – 2004; Green & Sonn, 2005; Green et al., 2007) through which whiteness is produced and Whiteness is not just shaped by daily life maintained. Frankenberg (1993) explains and current race relations but also shaped by whiteness to be a position of privilege, a local, national and international histories worldview and a set of cultural practices that (Frankenberg, 1993). Whiteness is embedded in are unmarked and unnamed and positioned as historical and global history of colonial normative. Access to whiteness privilege and expansion (Frankenberg, 1993; Grosfoguel & dominance intersects with other identity Georas, 2000). Social power relations and the makers such as gender, sexuality, class, race, present racial and ethnic hierarchies in religion, ethnicity, history and socio political contemporary world systems are still embedded context (Frankenberg, 1993; Moran, 2007). in Western colonial expansion even though Privileges associated with whiteness is not there is no colonial administration (Grosfoguel equally accessible by all people therefore the & Georas, 2000). For instance, in Australia experience of whiteness and white privilege is exclusion is particularly evident for people who not uniform (Green, Sonn & Matsebula, 2007; identify as Muslims (Ali & Sonn, in press; Aly, Moran, 2007). Whiteness is a socially 2007; Casimiro, Hancock & Northcote, 2007; constructed phenomenon however it has real Elley, 1993; Fijac & Sonn, 2004; Hage, 1998; implications for ‘non whites’ in their daily Humphrey, 2007; Mubarak, 1997; Poynting & lives and their identity construction. It also Noble, 2004; Zevallos, 2003). The presence of shapes whites’ sense of self and sense of Muslims in Australia is not a new phenomenon others. The non ‘white’ experiences of daily (Yasmeen, 2007) however; their visibility has life and opportunities are shaped by overt and increased following the global events of covert forms of racism. They are aware of September 11, Bali and the London bombings being different to the socially valued norm and (Yasmeen, 2007). This heightened visibility and experience themselves as the representative of exclusion is not just a result of the current their background (Moran, 2007; Noble, 2005). global climate but rather has a long history of Green et al. (2007) explain that east-west relations. There has been a whiteness is produced and maintained as resurfacing of historical colonial discourses whites have the power to construct knowledge, where the east has been constructed as the other

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who is weak, barbaric and backward (Said, Billings, 2003). 1979). Ethnic minority groups not only recognise Although the “white Australia policy” their own position in race relations but also the has been replaced with policy of dominant group’s position, who may be blind to multiculturalism, Australian identity continues their privileged and normative position and who to reflect colonial ideologies and discourses are generally oblivious to the effects of racism whilst heterogeneous social and cultural or the significance of race relations of landscape of Australia is downplayed in Australian society (Fisher & Sonn, 2007; nationalistic discourses (Green et al., 2007; Frankenberg, 1993; Ladson-Billings, 2003; Green & Sonn, 2005; Moran, 2007). Australian Moran, 2007). We suggest that we can look into identity is defined by dominant white versions the dynamics of dominance and privilege of reality, despite alternative discourses, as through the lived experiences of people who they hold and have access to “social, cultural, occupy liminal spaces (Ladson-Billings, 2003). economic, political and symbolic To this end we explore dynamics of inclusion power” (Moran, 2007, p. 211). Although this and exclusion using the lens of whiteness. We has created a sense of belongingness and do this by examining discourses used by second inclusion into Australia’s landscape for ‘non generation Cypriot Turkish to construct their whites’ it has not challenged the dominant identity and how these discourses contribute to position of the white cultural hegemony the reproduction of whiteness. (Moran, 2007; Hage, 1998, 2003). Methods and Data Analysis In Australia whiteness is covert. Ten Cypriot Turkish participants from Standfield (2007) explains that the replacement Melbourne were interviewed in 2006 about of the white Australia policy, the adoption of their identity and sense of belongingness. The multicultural policies, and the referendum acts participants were recruited through the as a discursive break from a history of racism networks of the first author who identifies as and the beginning of benign racism. These Cypriot Turkish. Four of the participants were forms of remembrance and the showing of the men and six were women. All of the ‘goodwill’ of white Australians supports the participants were born in Australia other than benign racism, which is built on foundations of Julide who came to Australia at the age of three. structural inequality that centres white They all identified as Muslims. It was an Australians as the true citizens of the nation. interactive form of interviewing where the Multiculturalism obscures whiteness interviewee and the interviewer were both (Hage, 1998) and there is a denial of identified as collaborators and co-constructers dominance, but dominance is maintained due of knowledge (Burgess-Limerick & Burgess- to the normativity of whiteness (Green et al., Limerick, 1998; Burr, 1995). 2007; Hage, 1998; Moran, 2007). This form of Discursive analysis was used to explore ‘repression’ is one of the mechanisms by the relationship between society and individual which racial hierarchies and systems of experience and unveil discourses that create and knowledge are reproduced (Hage, 1998; sustain patterns of privilege, power and of Moran, 2007; Riggs, 2007a). In Australia, inequality (Burr, 1995; Collins, 2004; Karim, where whiteness is expressed in symbolic 1997). The particular approach employed was forms and as cultural racism, it is necessary to the ‘power and subjectivity’ approach deconstruct our society’s discourses that shape developed by Parker (1992). In line with the subjectivities (Green & Sonn, 2005). One way aim and the theoretical orientation of the to do this is to look through the lived research this approach is concerned with power experiences of ethnic minority groups, a key relations, experiences, and subjectivity, which objective of critical race theory (Ladson- is multiple, contradictory, fluid, and context

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specific. Power is understood to be exercised religion. They will practice; pray through discourse rather than being a personal more, you see the Turkish women attribute or possession. wearing scarfs, they visit mosques We identified four discourses that more, they will expect a lot more participants used to construct the Cypriot from their children they hang on to Turkish identity. These were identified as the practices. Cypriot Turks could modern Muslim discourse, language, be the same as the Turkish Turks, phenotype and ancestral and generational but they seem more strict not as discourses (Ali, 2006). Similar to many other easy going as us. ethnic Australians, all four men and two of the women from this study did not express Mehmet hesitation in calling themselves Australians by Religion makes us different but we hyphenating their identity as Cypriot-Turkish- are not that religious so I do not feel Australians. The remaining four females that different to an Australian. I am referred to themselves as Cypriot Turks living Muslim but I do not practice it. But in Australia. They explained that they were it does make you different from the Australian only because they were born and rest. Not eating pork singled you raised in Australia. out. You can have an Australian Findings Muslim because we don’t really Here we focus on two of the discourses – practice it anyway. We are a the modern Muslim and phenotype discourses. Muslim by name. This is not to say that the other two discourses Although during the Howard period of play a less important role in the construction of government there was an emphasis on whiteness. However, these two discourses constructing good Muslims as moderate, the were most evident in the data particularly due term ‘modern Muslim’ as it is used here arises to the political issues in Australia. Initially, we out of relational understandings between discuss the ways in which the discourses are themselves and mainstream Turks. This used to construct Cypriot Turkish identity positions Cypriot Turks as less invested in followed by a discussion on how whiteness is religion in comparison to mainland Turks. able to maintain its dominant and privileged Through the text we can see that being a position through the Cypriot Turkish identity moderate Muslim positions them as someone construction. All of the participants’ names who is not physically different or have very have been replaced with pseudonyms. different lives to Australians. This is Modern Muslim discourse: “Religion makes us comparable to the Tatar Muslims in the different but we are not that religious” Netherlands who also draw on discourses that All 10 participants constructed position them as similar to the mainstream themselves as modern Muslims. The excerpt group (Verkuyten, 2005). There is fluidity in here from Halide and Mehmet explains: their position as the other. Because their Halide Muslim identity does not fit the stereotypical I think the Cypriot Turkish values image of Muslim they can be part of the are a lot more easy going, a lot Australian society because their Muslim more relaxed. Sort of reminds me identity goes unnoticed. By being a modern of the Aussie laid back person Muslim they can be like ‘Aussies’. “Religion attitude, relaxed compared to the makes you different to the Australian Turkish Turkey Turk culture and population but it depends on how religious you their values because I find that they are” (Julide). There is a degree of access to are a lot more dedicated to their white privilege as they note the benefits of

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being a Muslim that do not fit the negative Muslim identity, an identity that has been stereotypes of dominant public discourses. constructed in the media as a deviant, evil and However, their sense of inclusion is a threat. She feels like she is not completely context-bound and conditional because welcome in this setting because how she might whiteness intersects with other social identity be perceived as a Muslim person. Sami also markers that determine access to white expresses concerns about how Muslims are privilege (Frankenberg, 1993). The modern being constructed in the media. He explains Muslim discourse, although discrete and not so that people are going to make judgements tangible to others and, besides the noted based on the stereotypes that are presented in benefits of being a moderate Muslim, there is a mainstream news. sense of exclusion as members of Australian The dominant discourses within social community through various processes. In the spaces focus on events that alienate the following excerpts we can see a sense of Muslim population. It does not give value to exclusion related to their Muslim identity the everyday multicultural interactions. through processes of stereotyping, Instead, immigrants, multiculturalism and scapegoating and othering (Riggins, 1997) of Muslims are constructed as problems that have the Muslim identity. These processes work to be dealt with by the white national subject covertly to maintain white race privilege. (Hage, 1998). Whiteness maintains its Stereotyping. These quotations illustrate dominance and patterns of privilege through how stereotyping of Muslim people by the knowledge construction (Green et. al., 2007; media has lead to a sense of exclusion for the Riggs 2007b). In this case, their religious participants (Karim, 1997; Van Dijk, 1997). identification is associated with terrorism. The Halide effect is a sense of exclusion and distancing of Due to September 11 incidents. I Muslim identity from normative constructions feel that a lot people are hearing of Australian. and believing what they see in the Othering. Although Cypriot Turks note media and relating it and judging the benefits of being a moderate Muslim, a all Muslims which is quite sad sense of exclusion is also experienced through because they are unethical crimes the process of othering. which none of us agree with. I went Ayse to this Christian function, I still had Interviewer: Does your religion a great time but at the back of my impact on your belongingness mind I wonder if anyone has an more so than your ethnic identity? issue with me being there. Yes definitely, particularly because that singles you out as someone Sami that doesn’t celebrate Easter and I do not know what they are Christmas and fasting in terms of thinking about us. If you watch the Ramadan. So it is much more of an bullshit news on (the commercial identifier for people. Um and television stations) they are telling although it would be further you pretty much every night of the exacerbated if I was a much more week that we are bad and if you strict Muslim in terms of wearing a watch those and you believe it, veil so I think it acts as a further which a lot of people do, they are identifier in a negative way.. going to make judgements. Sevda Halide feels uncomfortable due to her Interviewer: Why can’t you be

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Australian? being targeted as not belonging to Australia. Cause you are Turkish. You are Ayse Australian because you are born in Like, I remember during the Gulf Australia but you cannot be an war with a surname like Huseyin Australian because you are not (pseudonym) we had people that Australian you are not an Aussie. It would look up the white pages at is two different things. Like to say Three am in the morning and just to someone I am Australian that call and say is Saddam there? means that they think you are Interviewer: In terms of being Christian, Catholic or whatever. Australian did that make feel in But you are not you are Muslim so any way less Australian? you say I am Turkish but I was Less Australian, yes definitely cause born in Australia. you are sort of targeted and Interviewer: So Australian stigmatised or blamed in a way for doesn’t represent who you are? having a name, for having a No, it doesn’t. It doesn’t because if heritage. And also when there was you say to me that you are the questioning around the Australian I am going to straight terrorism that has happened um the away think you are Christian, media associated that being Muslim Catholic. means you support that sort of stuff These quotations highlight that Cypriot and you are less Australian. Turks are positioned outside of the Australian As objects of the moderate Muslim identity because of their Muslim identity and discourse, people are restricted and limited with because they are not Christian. They are what can be said as observed in the following positioned as the others who do not celebrate quotation from Halil. the national religious celebrations (Barker & Halil Galasinski, 2001; Nagel, 1994). They express Interviewer: Has there been times exclusion and uncertainty about their where you felt excluded from the belongingness to Australia because Islam is not Australian identity? a part of the symbolic representations’ of Ever since this September 11thing Australia. and all has kicked up a bit of Whiteness maintains its patterns of paranoia… you cannot just express privilege by othering other religious you opinion. “Look John Howard, celebrations. Whiteness is experienced to be an we are not American we do not have ownership of a nation (Hage, 1998), which is the problems that Americans do” achieved through promoting only the dominant you cannot sometimes say things. groups’ religious celebrations as central at a You can’t sometimes say things national level and others as on the margins, because your surname is Ali kept within the family or the community. (pseudonym) and “ah you’re Scapegoating. This process was another Muslim” and all the stuff. There are way that led to a sense of exclusion for Cypriot times where you hold yourself back Turkish due to their religion. In this case, Ayse from saying and doing things is scapegoated and stigmatised because she because you worry if it’s going to be was associated with terrorist acts for being a misinterpreted because of your Muslim. In doing so, she expressed feeling less perceived background. Australian, despite the Howard government The moderate Muslim discourse limits claims that the fundamentalist Muslims were their sense of belonging to Australia. If it is not

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observable they can be part of Australian I am Australian in that I was born in community. The Cypriot Turks’ sense of Australia and all my siblings were belonging as an Australian is nurtured by not born in Australia but we are not bringing up issues that can challenge views so Australian in that we do not look that their established sense of belonging is not Australian. You need to have a disturbed. Halil feels like he needs to keep particular look and colour that is silent because he knows that if he is to more Australian um. Australians are challenge the hegemonic discourses about more fair blonde lightish colour these issues his Muslim identity will hair. There are many different overshadow his whiteness and Australianness colours but the majority are more and “be misinterpreted” because of his blue eyed, blond, fair looking perceived background. This discourse restricts Australian people. I feel like I him in expressing his views concerning couldn’t call myself Australian on its government decisions. own, I am an Australian Cypriot This example of being silenced and Turk. feelings of having opinions about national issues that are not presented in the public Ayse discourses is referred to by Hage (1998) as Interviewer: Who is Australian? exclusion from governmental belonging. Halil For me it is around, I don’t feel like, is excluded from governmental belonging I do not look Australian so hence not given he felt that he did not have a right to accepted. For me it is not just about contribute his views to discussions around having or being Australian by birth Australia’s involvement in Iraq. Hence, when a or having citizenship but about person feels this way they are positioned as the looking like the norm. That to me is other- the other to a national white majority. what defines an Australian in Ethnic minorities’ views, particularly views reality. that are not the norm are silenced and excluded from governmental belonging. Feriha Phenotype: “Australians have more fair, Well when you see someone. If you blondish lightish colour hair” see someone that is fair with the blue This discourse was repeatedly used by eyes yeah you wouldn’t think of them the Cypriot Turkish participants to construct being Turkish Cypriot. Like my son. their ethnic identity. Even though Halide calls A lot of people would think he is herself Australian she also notes otherness of Australian. her identity. This otherness arises out of her Interviewer: To be Australian do phenotype that is different to the Australian you have to be a certain way? phenotype. For this reason she cannot call … When someone looks at me they herself Australian. She can only call herself know I am a wog. They know that I Australian through hyphenating Australian am not Australian. You know, I am with her ethnic identity. Here we see the not that blond hair blue eye. relational understanding of identity that is The phenotype discourse positions people informed by racialised hegemonic discourses in relation to the mainstream population constructing the Australian identity. depending on their perceived color. This phenotype discourse enables the privilege of Halide whiteness to go undisrupted by limiting the Interviewer: So you wouldn’t call social representations of Australians to people yourself Australian? with certain type of phenotype. Similar to

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research by Zevallos (2003), phenotype Everyone has this general discourses informed who the real Australian is, understanding of an Australian that is someone who is white, fair, blond and and I guess I fit into that. blue eyed an as someone from the Anglo cultic Halil expressed feeling silenced about background. The participants have certain governmental issues due to his Muslim Australian capital such as the language or identity. Although he notes that he is “quite accent however they have accumulated and right looking” and the benefits associated acquired this capital unlike those who are with being white and a fair person he is well ‘naturally’ white (Hage, 1998). aware that his Muslimness can be a threat to Participants who perceived themselves his privileged position. Similarly, Mehmet as having a ‘white’ appearance were able to also notes the benefits of his phenotype and pass as an Australian because ethnicity was the fragile acceptance as a white because his not physically observable. They also noted the name can be an identifying marker of benefits of being “the right colour” (Halil) difference. These two preceding quotations and blending in with the Australian identity. demonstrates how whiteness intersects with For instance, they know that you can be other social identity markers (Frankenberg, treated differently depending on your skin 1993) limiting access to privilege even for colour. In this case skin colour works in their people that are “right looking”. favour. Using Hage’s (1998) term, these two Halil people are naturalised whites in that they I actually cannot think of any have fair skin and they also have accumulated downside at all (to ethnic identity). cultural capital. However, they can still be But I think, the thing is that we are excluded from the Australian identity because quite, how do I say this in a way, they have ‘different’ names and a ‘different’ quite right looking. So we don’t religion. This adds a level of complexity to really stand out in a crowd in terms Hage’s explanation of naturalised and of what we look like. I don’t really accumulated whiteness. One can accumulate stand out in terms of how I look. If cultural capital and also be white; however I was a real karasakal (dark this is not sufficient to access the white featured Turk) maybe I’ll be privilege and governmental belonging treated differently. That will have because they are not of an Anglo-Saxon an influence on how you are background, the aristocracy of all Australians reacted to. But cause you do not (Hage, 1998). look different you do not sound Although in these preceding paragraphs different so you aren’t different, we can see access and exclusion to white but underneath you are. privilege whiteness is also being challenged by arguing the need for indigenous Mehmet sovereignty. Indigenous Australians are used I don’t feel like a minority. I guess as a point of reference to position ethnic it is because I do not look very Australians and Anglo Australians as equal Turkish so I never felt persecuted Australia. In doing so whiteness is challenged or singled out. I guess I didn’t have as it is positioned as another migrant ethnic any problems there. I don’t look category, just like all other migrant different to what ever your average descendents. Australian is. If I was in a crowd no Sami one would pick me out as different Interviewer: What does unless I told them my name. Australian mean to you?

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Australian means a person from this case the dominant Anglo-Saxon ethnic another culture living in Australia, group of Australia. Through these discourses living in the land of Aboriginals. So they are positioned as the ethnic Australian, a basically an immigrant, someone hyphenated Australian. Cypriot Turks embody from a multicultural society with their position as an ethnic Australian and it is heaps of immigrants. I think the experiences as a natural category rather than a only Australians are the social category. Although these two discourses Aboriginals. Until they are given are clearly relational it is perceived and their full respect I think only then experienced as a determinist discourse, it is could we all be Australians…. at naturalised and it is experienced as common the end of the day they are Poms or sense (Collins, 2004). Irish or whatever No one is from Participants’ understandings of not being here really. It only two hundred the right colour or from the mainstream religion years. Dedenin dedesi (Grandad’s, arise through comparison to ‘the white Grandad). That is it. Australian’. The participants who embodied the naturalised Australian capital, that is skin colour Taylan (Hage, 2003), noted their greater access to Because everyone knows that you privilege to other ethnics who can only are not Australian. The only true accumulate their Australian cultural capital. Australian are the Aboriginals. You Even though they have the accumulated capital could call the British that came that has transferred into national belonging to a here Australian but apart from that greater extent in comparison to participants who everyone migrated here. If you say were not ‘the right’ colour, governmental you are Australian you are either belonging has not been accessible. To some Aboriginal or you came here when extent it translates into national belonging but the Brits came here or you just say not as a dominant member, with power to the nationality that you come from position others in Australia. Muslim identity in and everyone basically assumes Australia does not convert into governmental that you are born in Australia or belonging (Hage, 1998) as Halil and Mehmet you came from that country like have displayed. In comparison to the ‘white your parents did. Anglo Saxon Australians’, other forms of Taylan also challenges the normative accumulated whiteness or even natural position of whiteness by positioning whiteness is overshadowed (Hage, 1998). Aboriginal people as true Australians. In this data we can see that whiteness in However, he then moves and positions Australia operates as a ‘race’ construct – it is in Aboriginals and British descendents equally. part based on skin colour. However, being This example demonstrates how whiteness is white is not sufficient to access whiteness. This negotiated however, whiteness is not makes whiteness something beyond biological problematised and white privilege is not understandings of race. Whiteness is not just challenged. about being white, but also about belonging to a Discussion certain ethno-religious group. Consistent with The discourses discussed in this article Imtoual (2007), Muslim identity is positioned as demonstrate that the Cypriot Turkish identity the other to the real white Christian Australian. like many other identities in Australia are However, from these examples we see that you positioned in relation to what Frankenberg do not need to be identified as a Muslim to feel (1993) explains a privileged group that is that you are excluded from being Australian. centred as normative and unquestionable, in By creating the ethnic identity and

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delegating it as the other, patterns of privilege (2005) showed, this leaves behind feelings of and power remain invisible and undisrupted being uncomfortable in their everyday (Hage, 1998; Vasta, 1993). Whiteness is surroundings and not feeling at home. Noble, maintained through national identity and following Giddens, describes this as belonging by othering groups that vary from ontological security. Comfort and ontological the white category and positioning them on the security is not ascertained due to the lack of margins of citizenship (Green & Sonn, 2005). fit between the self and society, but requires Frankenberg (1993) and Green and Sonn that others recognise and accept you as (2005) explain that in countries people who rightfully belonging (Noble, 2005). hold power provide the categories that are used In summary, whiteness theory allows us to include and exclude people. to explore processes of inclusion-exclusion Discursive strategies are employed to by focusing on the “dynamics of cultural create and maintain power structures and to racism, those symbolic and cultural resources marginalise others by drawing distinctions and and practices that may be everyday and often hierarchies between the privileged group and invisible to those close to the centre of others (Van Dijk, 1997). White privilege is power” (Fisher & Sonn, 2007, p. 31). The protected by constructing the other in terms of vantage point of the other is a lens into religion and phenotype. In doing so whiteness whiteness. In this case we have looked at how maintains its privilege as it is positioned as the racism has been mapped onto ethnicity and normative and as the real Australians. White religion. We have also identified practices of people are made to feel comfortable and at resistance and dominance through the home with their nation and minority groups are experiences of the second generation Cypriot uncomfortable and as aliens in their nation Turkish. In our view critical whiteness (Hage, 1998). This “Illusion of truth serves to studies from the vantage point of those who warrant claims to white belonging in have differential access to race privilege Australia” (Riggs, 2007b, p. 8). provides a useful lens for making visible and In Australia, these discourses and the challenging cultural racism because of its implications of being positioned as an other are focus on dominance and normativity. much more covert because they operate under References the discourses of multiculturalism. Ahmed, S. (2004). Declaration of whiteness: Multiculturalism to some extent has created The non-performativity of anti-racism. space for migrant descendants. However, their Borderlands ejournal, 3(2). Retrieved integration is supervised; where the white February 10th, from http:// Australian subject is the supervisor of the www.borderlandsejournal.adelaide.edu. integration (Hage, 1998). au/vol3no2_2004/ There are very real implications that ahmed_declarations.htm arise out of racism and whiteness. Ethnic social Ali, L. (2006). Identity construction of second minorities express uncertainty about their generation Cypriot Turkish. belongingness (Ang et al., 2006) as the Unpublished Honours Thesis. Victoria national representations do not extend to them University, Melbourne, Australia. completely because national belonging is Ali, L. & Sonn, C. C. (in press). Constructing aligned with whiteness. The participants’ identity as a second generation Cypriot experiences of exclusion at times have been Turkish Australian: The multi- clearly racially motivated or related to the hyphenated other. Culture and socio-political climate around Muslims and Psychology. Islam, however most of the time they Aly, A. (2007). Australian Muslim responses experienced banal forms of racism. As Noble to the discourse on terrorism in the

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Australian popular media. Australian united_diversity.pdf Journal of Social Issues, 42(1), 27-40. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Ang, I., Brand, J., Noble, G., & Sternberg, J. (2007). Fact Sheet 8: Abolition of the (2006). Connecting diversity: Paradoxes White Australia Policy. Retrieved 28th of of multicultural Australia. Artarmon, April from: http://www.immi.gov.au/ NSW: Special Broadcasting Service media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm Cooperation. Elley, J. (1993). “I see myself as Australian- Bamanie, N. (2002). Cyprus’ forgotten Turks. Turkish”: The identity of second- Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, generation Turk migrants in Australia. In 22(2), 443-449. R. Arcelik (Ed.), Turkish youth in Barker, C., & Galasinski, D. (2001). Cultural Australia (pp.54-76). Melbourne: studies and discourse analysis: A Australian-Turkish Friendship Society dialogue on language and identity. Publications. London: Sage. Fijac, B. M., & Sonn, C. C. (2004). Pakistani- Burgess-Limerick, T., & Burgess-Limerick, R. Muslim immigrant women in Western (1998). Conversational interviews and Australia: Perceptions of identity and multiple-case research in psychology. community. Network, 16(1), 18-27. Australian Journal of Psychology, 50(2), Fisher, A., & Sonn, C. C. (2007). Sense of 63-70. community and dynamics of inclusion- Burr, V. (1995). An introduction to social exclusion by receiving communities. The constructionism. London: Routledge. Australian Community Psychologist, 19 Casimiro, S., Hancock. P., & Nortcote, J. (2), 26-34. (2007). Isolation and insecurity: Frankenberg, R. (1993). White women, race Resettlement issues among Muslim matters: The social construction of refugee women in Perth, Western whiteness. London UK: Routledge. Australia. Australian Journal of Social Gorvett, J. (1999). A 25 Year Impasse: UN Issues, 42(1), 55-69. peace initiatives in Cyprus. The Middle Canefe, N. (2002). Makers of Turkish Cypriot East, 292, 15-17. history in the Diaspora. Rethinking Green, M. J., & Sonn, C. C. (2005). Examining History, 6(1), 57-76. discourses of whiteness and the potential Castles, S., & Vasta, E. (1996). Introduction: for reconciliation. Journal of Community Multicultural or multi-racist Australia? In and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 487- E. Vasta & S. Castles (Eds.), The teeth 492. are smiling: The persistence of racism in Green, M. J., Sonn, C. C., & Matsebula, J. multicultural Australia (pp. 1-16). (2007). Reviewing whiteness: Theory, Australia: Allen & Unwin. research and possibilities. South African Collins, A. (2004). Social psychology and Journal, 37(3), 389-419. research methods. In K. Ratele, N. Grosfoguel, R., & Georas, C. S. (2000). Duncan, D. Hook, N. Mkhize, P. “Coloniality of power” and racial Kiguwa, & A. Collins (Eds.), Self, dynamics: Notes toward a reinterpretation community and psychology (pp. 3-3.20). of Latino Caribbeans in New York city. Lansdowne: UCT Press. Identities, 7(1), 85-125. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Hage, G. (1998). White nation: Fantasies of (2003). Multicultural Australia: United white supremacy in a multicultural in diversity. Retrieved 18th of May society. Australia, NSW: Routledge. (2009) from: http://www.immi.gov.au/ Hage, G. (2003). Against paranoid nationalism: media/publications/settle/pdf/ Searching for hope in a shrinking society.

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NSW: Pluto Press Australia: NSW. Riggs (Ed.), Taking up the challenge: Hook, D. (2003). Frantz Fanon and racial Critical race and whiteness studies in a identity in post-colonial context. In K. postcolonising nation. (pp. 207-224). Ratele & N. Duncan (Eds.), Social Adelaide: Crawford House Publishing. psychology: Identities and relationships Mubarak, F. (1997). Muslim women and (pp. 107-128). Lansdowne, RSA: religious identification: Women and the University of Cape Town Press. veil. In G. D. Bouma (Ed.), Many Hugg, P. R. (2001). Cyprus in Europe: Seizing religions, all Australians: Religious the momentum of Nice. Vanderbilt settlement, identity and cultural diversity. Journal of Transitional Law, 34(5), Victoria: The Christian Research 1293-1362. Association. Humphrey, M. (2007). Culturalising the Nagel, J. (1994). Constructing ethnicity: Abject: Islam, law and moral panic in the Creating and recreating ethnic identity West. Australian Journal of Social and culture. Social Problems, 41(1), 152- Issues, 42(1), 9-25. 176. Imtoual, A. (2007). ‘Is being Australian about Noble, D. (2005). The discomfort of strangers: being white?’ Australian whiteness, Racism, incivility and ontological security national identity and Muslim women. In in a relaxed and comfortable nation. D. W. Riggs (Ed.), Taking up the Journal of Intercultural Studies, 26(1), challenge: Critical race and whiteness 107-120. studies in a postcolonising nation. Parker, I. (1992). Discourse dynamics: Critical (pp.191-206). Adelaide: Crawford House analysis for social and individual Publishing. psychology. London, UK: Routledge. Karim, K. H. (1997). The historical resilience Peggs, S. (1998). International society and de of primary stereotypes: Core images of facto state. Brookfield: Ashgate. the Muslim Other. In S. H. Riggins (Ed.), Poynting, S. & Noble, G. (2004). Living with The language and politics of exclusion: racism: The experience and reporting by Others in discourse (pp. 153-182). Arab & Muslim Australians of London: Sage. discrimination, abuse and violence since Ladson-Billings, G. (2003). It’s your world, September 11. The Human Rights and I'm just trying to explain it: Equal Opportunity Commission. Understanding our epistemological and Riggins, S. H. (1997). The rhetoric of Othering. methodological challenges. Qualitative In S. H. Riggins (Ed.) The language and Inquiry, 1, 5-12. politics of exclusion: Others in discourse Larbalestier, J. (2004). White over black: (pp. 1-30). London, UK: Sage. Discourses of whiteness in Australian Riggs, D. W. (2007a). Psychoanalysis as a culture. Borderlands ejournal, 3(2). ‘post-colonising’ reading practice: Retrieved February 10th, from http:// Towards a discursive psychological www.borderlandsejournal.adelaide.edu.a understanding of racism-as-repression. In u/vol3no2_2004/larbalestier_white.htm D. W. Riggs (Ed.), Taking up the Mama, A. (1995). Beyond the masks: Race, challenge: Critical race and whiteness gender, and subjectivity. London, UK: studies in a postcolonising nation. (pp. Routledge. 347-365). Adelaide: Crawford House Moran, S. (2007). White Australian Publishing. subjectivities, social praxis and the Riggs, D. W. (2007b). Introduction: Critical cultural reproduction of racialist race and whiteness studies in a privilege in a colonial nation. In D. W. postcolonising nation. In D. W. Riggs

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(Ed.), Taking up the challenge: Critical Steyn, M. (2007). As the postcolonial moment race and whiteness studies in a deepens: A response to Green, Sonn, and postcolonising nation. (pp.1-16). Matsebula. South African Journal of Adelaide: Crawford House Publishing. Psychology, 37, 420-424. Robins, K., & Aksoy, A. (2001). From spaces Van Dijk, T. (1997). Political discourses and of identity to mental spaces: Lessons racism: Describing others in a Western from Turkish Cypriot cultural experience parliament. In S. H. Riggins (Ed), The in Britain. Journal of Ethics and language and politics of exclusion: Others Migration Studies, 27(4), 685-712. in discourse (pp. 31-64). London, UK: Rotberg, R. (2003). The Cyprus crucible: The Sage. importance of good timing. International Vasta, E. (1992). The second generation. In S. Harvard Review, 25(3), 70-75. Castles, C. Alcorso, G. Rando & E. Vasta Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: (Eds.), Australia’s Italians: Culture and Vintage Books. community in a changing society (pp.155- Sayar, H. (1988). Turkish Australians and 168). North Sydney: Allen & Unwin. education in Australia. In R. Akcelik & J. Vasta, E. (1993). Multiculturalism and ethnic Elley (Eds.) Turkish community in identity: The relationship between racism Australia: Conference papers (pp. 101- and resistance. Australian and New 110). Melbourne: Australian-Turkish Zealand Journal of Sociology, 29(2), 209- Friendship Society Publications. 225. Sonn, C. C. (2004). Negotiating identities Verkuyten, M. (2005). The social psychology of across cultural boundaries: Complicating ethnic identity. Sussex: Psychology Press. cultural competence with power and Watts, R. J., & Serrano-García, I. (2003). The privilege. Critical Psychology: quest for a liberating community International Journal of Critical psychology: An overview. American Psychology, 11, 134-149. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, Sonn, C. C. & Fisher, A. T. (2005). Immigrant 73-78. Adaptation: Complicating our Yasmeen, S. (2007). Muslim women as citizens understanding of responses to intergroup in Australia: Diverse notions and experiences. In G. Nelson and practices. Australian Journal of Social Prilleltensky, I. (Eds), Community Issues, 42(1), 41-54. psychology (pp. 348-363). London, UK: Zevallos, Z (2003). ‘That’s my Australian side’: McMillan, Palgrave. The ethnicity, gender and sexuality of Sonn, C. C., & Lewis, R. (2009). Immigration young Australian women of South and and identity: The ongoing struggle for Central American origin. Journal of liberation. In M. Montero & C. C. Sonn Sociology, 39(1), 81-98. (Eds.), Psychology of liberation: Theory Zevallos, Z., & Gilding, M. (2003). “I'm not and applications (115-133). New York: your typical blond-haired, blue-eyed Springer. Skippy”: Second generation Australians Standfield, R. (2007). ‘A remarkably tolerant and multiculturalism. In D. Weiss (Ed), nation?’ Constructions of benign Social exclusion: An approach to the whiteness in Australian political Australian case. Frankfurt, Germany: discourse. In D. W. Riggs (Ed.), Taking Peter Lang Verlag. up the challenge: Critical race and Note whiteness studies in a postcolonising 1 The Anglo Saxon category in Australia is nation. (pp.168-189). Adelaide: socially and politically contingent. We use this Crawford House Publishing. category to refer to not only British descendents

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but also Irish and Scottish descendents who were once omitted from the privileged category.

Author Note A version of this paper was presented at the annual conference of the Australian Critical Race and Whiteness Studies conference held in Adelaide in December 2007.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank the participants of this study who took time out to share their experiences. We also want to thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for the feedback they provided on an earlier draft.

Address correspondence to Lütfiye Ali School of Social Sciences and Psychology Victoria University PO Box 14428 Melbourne City MC Melbourne 8001 Phone +61 3 99199588 Fax +61 3 99194324 email [email protected]

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 39 Accessing ‘Authentic’ Knowledge: Being and Doing with the Sudanese

Community

Jay M. Marlowe Flinders University

Coming from backgrounds where issues of trust have often been violated, accessing reliable information from resettling refugee populations can be fraught with dilemmas. Those trying to document these people’s lives without recognising the politics of memory and the danger of re-traumatisation can potentially serve to further silence the narratives of those who have experienced difficulties associated with forced migration. This paper reports on the research process and the necessity of elevating the voices of Southern Sudanese men resettling in Adelaide, Australia to better understand how they have responded to traumatic experiences. Finding empowering approaches that assist these men in expressing their lived experience and future aspirations in sensitive and respectful ways can make progress towards further realising the liberation and well being of those beginning to create a new life far from home. The process of accessing ‘authentic’ knowledge is discussed by forwarding an imperative to establish a relationship with the refugee community. This relationship is further qualified by differentiating ‘being’ and ‘doing’ for those wanting to support and better understand resettling refugee populations.

“You cannot fix a leaking roof in the between a lizard and a crocodile? night.” (Interview participant) JM Yes, there is a big difference. Sudanese resettlement and successful Isaiah integration in Australia remains a controversial That was what Kevin Andrews was and topical issue within current political and doing. He said those things because social debates. During October 2007, the then it is his country. Immigration Minister Kevin Andrews argued While there is a growing body of that Sudanese people were failing to integrate knowledge, little is still known about the into the fabric of Australian society. He stated experiences, hopes and aspirations of Sudanese his concern that some groups of refugees "don't refugees resettling within Australia. Those who seem to be settling and adjusting into the have experienced forced migration have often Australian way of life as quickly as we would lived through dangerous and traumatic hope" (Hart & Maiden, 2007). These situations where distrusting others could be comments angered and frustrated the Sudanese seen as functionally adaptive survival strategy community and many support organisations (see Kohli, 2006). Thus, it is perhaps not too working to assist them. The evidence used by surprising that accessing reliable information Andrews was questionable and illustrated a from those resettling can be fraught with Sudanese Dinka proverb, “You can not fix a challenges acknowledging the power disparity leaking roof in the night.” A participant in this between crocodiles and lizards. study noted the limited voice that the Sudanese Telling stories are a universally shared community had to respond: human experience. However, the ‘type’ of Isaiah story that is told may vary depending upon the Kevin Andrews’s comments relate audience, sociocultural norms, time, place and to a Sudanese saying that says, notions of power. Further, the inherent fluidity “While you are a crocodile in your of story and expression brings forth country, when you go to another controversial and contested notions of what peoples’ country, you will be a ‘truth’ and ‘authenticity’ might actually lizard.” Can you see the difference represent. Acknowledging this difficulty, there

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is a growing recognition that taking an emic or beyond the war and the warrior. It insiders view that considers important is the story that outlives the sound of elements in a person’s life such as culture, war-drums and the exploits of brave language, spirituality, etc are essential to fighters. It is the story...that saves understand how refugees have made sense of our progeny from blundering like their lives after experiences of forced blind beggars into the spikes of the migration (Blackburn, 2005; Goodkind, 2006; cactus fence. The story is our Miller, Kulkarni, & Kushner, 2006; Ryan, escort; without it, we are blind. Dooley, & Benson, 2008; UNHCR, 2002; Yu- Does the blind man own his escort? Wen, Phillip, Xiulan, & Larke, 1997). These No, neither do we the story; rather it accounts allow us to delve into the thick is the story that owns us and directs descriptions (Geertz, 1973) of these people’s us.” (Achebe, 1987, p. 124) lives. However, such rich understandings do There is a rich body of literature that has not happen magically. They can even evolve documented the resulting sequelae of those who and change significantly over time (Guerin & bared witness and experienced the atrocities of Guerin, 2007); and thus, issues of gaining civil war, conflict, and oppressive regimes entry into the Sudanese community and (Cienfuegos & Monelli, 1983; Coker, 2004; accessing reliable knowledge come to the fore. Fazel, Wheeler, & Danesh, 2005; Goodman, This paper discusses the experience of 2004; Jeppsson & Hjern, 2005; Khawaja, White, working with the Sudanese community in two Schweitzer, & Greenslade, 2008; Mollica, capacities: as a former social worker and Caridad, & Massagli, 2007; Silove, 1999). current doctoral researcher. The research Others have directly related their personal study involved understanding Sudanese male’s experiences as refugees or internally displaced responses to traumatic experience from forced persons in autobiographical or other written migration as distinct from the effects from works (Deng, Deng, Ajak, & Bernstein, 2005; trauma. Such a research question has Eggers, 2006; Menchu, 1983). However, the presented many challenging questions about veracity of past accounts can be contested noting how to engage, interpret and disseminate such the difficulties in establishing or proving these sensitive and privileged information with this people’s claims of lived experience. These resettling community. The following methods challenges bring forth serious debates about the for this study were used: (1) conducting politics of memory and the medium through multiple semi-structured individual interviews which it is expressed: one’s story. with 24 English speaking Sudanese men and Any story requires a minimum of two (2) participating in community celebrations, people: a story-teller and a listener. However, mournings and important events all through this premise becomes far more complex as the invitation. The men who participated were story is inter-woven within the threads of the from Southern Sudan and had been resettled in social, historical, cultural and political Australia at least two years. Informed consent backdrops amongst the narrator and audience. was obtained through a process of meeting While it is acknowledged that immigration with participants on several occasions to officials, embassies, and those processing explain the research focus, which often requests for refugee status need to distinguish required an engaged interaction of several between actual and fabricated accounts of months. This project received ethics approval experience, making such a differentiation is from the relevant academic institution. more difficult than establishing a dichotomy The power of story, memory and between fact and fiction. A participant in this representation study stated, “Only the story...can continue Today we are making a story of

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Sudanese people. It is a series or a understanding and documenting refugees in story of a journey between two resettlement contexts. What then should we worlds. Because our people came take from a person’s story if it is clouded by from a first world to a second notions of power, opportunity, meaning and world, you can say. Yes, you can context? Kelley (1996) provides an say it is a journey between two important distinction in documenting such worlds and this journey between people’s lives noting that a person’s story two worlds- some people will not may not necessarily accurately portray the understand. past but it does say something about his or Indeed, a refugee may be very cautious her present situation. Such a perspective about what they say to another person- not allows a person’s narrative to be explored because they are inherently dishonest or being beyond a false dichotomy between truth and devious, but rather because of the very real fiction as it thrusts the imperfections of consequences of a statement being memory into a context situated within a misinterpreted or taken out of context person’s present and future. Embracing this (Jacobsen & Landau, 2003; McKelvey, 1994). concept allows the listener to grapple with In addition, refugee accounts of ‘hard’ facts and explore the hopes, dreams and aspirations may not represent ‘objective’ reality or of those who have made a journey between possibly presented in conflicting ways two worlds. (Kirmayer, 2007). Several men in this study A political exercise- Gaining access and have spoken about their perilous journey entry fleeing civil war and walking hundreds if not “How stories are told, by whom, to whom, thousands of kilometres across Sudan seeking under what circumstances, and for what safe haven. Hearing such stories, I have specific purpose – vary according to occasionally noted time and date discrepancies sociocultural prescriptions.” (Carter-Black, between their stories. Does one account negate 2007, p.32) the other? Arguably not as both stories support Conducting research with the Sudanese an understanding of a long and difficult community, it was recognised that my role journey where time as measured by days or in needed to be as transparent as possible. To other terms becomes obscured through establish this position, a number of several experiences of hardship and survival. As key elders and gate keepers provided advice Eastmond (2007, p.260) maintains: about conducting the study in a sensitive and Stories are never transparent respectful manner resonant with Sudanese renditions of reality, but partial values. These elders emphasised active and selective versions of it, arising engagement with the community, and offered out of social interaction. myself the opportunity to make public ‘Narrative truth’ refers to the announcements at church and other inescapably imperfect and fluid community events. They spoke of the work of memory, organization and importance of not only talking about the past meaning. Narration as purposive but also to ascertain these people’s action also relies on a certain experiences of resettlement and current vision measure of control and a situation today. However, I was expected to make a in which… the criteria of stand. Almost without exception, I have had credibility and plausibility are to address my opinions about Kevin known to both narrator and Andrew’s comments regarding Sudanese audience, if not shared by them. resettlement and often my perspective on the This quote illustrates the complexities of two civil wars that raged for decades between

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Northern and Southern Sudan. My own water, clothes, shelter, and what person had to become political. you are doing. That is part of the While consulting several Sudanese history that we share. But we have community leaders and elders to better develop not gone deeply [talking about their the research question, they stated the experiences]. difficulties of accessing what they called ‘Going deeply’ and accessing more ‘authentic knowledge.’ From this cautionary authentic accounts is easier said than done. As tone, they spoke of how their own stories while researchers and oftentimes strangers entering living in Kenya’s Kakuma refugee camp had into the lived experiences of refugee lives, it is been used to benefit or elevate the status of the important to recognise that these people may researcher often with little or no benefit to the have learned a level of functional distrust that teller. They also spoke how they never heard may assist them in what might possibly be a from this person again after they disclosed hostile encounter with the unknown (Kohli, their experiences. These accounts are further 2006). Further, it must be recognised that buttressed in refugee-related examples where refugees may feel hesitant in telling their stories an outsider’s analysis and resulting of forced migration due to associated feelings of dissemination was incorrect, unfounded or shame, guilt or humiliation. Others may be worse- lead to negative outcomes for the fearful of reprisals from cultural, societal and/or participants (see Mackenzie, McDowell, & government responses if they were to speak of Pittaway, 2007). Miller (2004) notes that their past experiences. While it is certainly initial information from refugees can often be arguable that most practitioners and researchers ‘front-stage’ responses, which may be highly working with refugee populations have good rehearsed and of limited accuracy but serves to intentions; misinterpretation, misrepresentation protect the community from outsiders. He then and the potential for re-traumatisation can discusses the importance of trying to ascertain certainly have hostile implications. ‘backstage’ information, which is more Implications of going deeply difficult to obtain but more likely to have a “Some of the things I am telling you, they are higher degree of authenticity. One interviewee not out of nowhere. They are out of experience. spoke of his experiences sharing his story in The issues that have happened... I could tell Kenyan and Ethiopian refugee camps: you more but I don’t want to. I don’t want to go JM And have you shared your into that.” (Interview participant) story many times? Have you had a Those displaced through forced migration chance to share your story? have often been exposed to harrowing Deng experiences of psychological, physical and/or No. You see, I haven’t had the time emotional form of trauma (Momartin, Silove, to share my story with some Manicavasagar, & Steel, 2003; Silove, 1999; people. During the time I was in Steel, Silove, Phan, & Bauman, 2002; Weine, the refugee camp, sometimes Becker, McGlashan, & Laub, 1995). Thus, it is people go and ask me from imperative that we understand the backgrounds agencies like UNHCR; sometimes that these people are coming and have an they meet you and they ask you awareness of the potential dangers that a what happened and you tell them. refugee might expose his or herself by telling This is not a very long story; they their story. For example, Goodman’s (2004, ask what you are facing now- they p.1184) study of Sudanese youths resettling in ask you about the food, have you the United States found that suppression and got anything, if you are tired of distraction was a major coping strategy noting a living, where you are getting young man’s comment, “thinking a lot can give

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you trouble”. In my work with Sudanese it yeah. people resettling in Adelaide, trying to Recognising the injustices of these ascertain the responses to trauma was people’s past, there is a danger that a person’s something that had to be done carefully and story can easily become a one dimensional patiently. It necessitated prioritising the trauma-focussed history whereby other comfort and safety of the story teller well stories of healing, identity or resistance to the beyond the needs of the research question or trauma itself can be hidden. Thus, the story any intellectual curiosities. An interviewee of a person’s experience(s) of trauma and related his experience of fleeing Sudan: how it has negatively influenced his/her life Robert can easily overpower another story which I came to Egypt. I ran to Egypt. might emphasise something very different [He looks at the map of Sudan] about what this person values. The preferred Difficulties... Very very very bad. story that an individual might have about Sometimes if I recall what their life can become subordinate to the one happened, sometimes it is hard. about trauma, which often focuses upon Sometimes tears come out. deficit, pathology and loss (White, 2006; JM You said that tears come out? White & Epston, 1990). From this limited Robert understanding of a person’s experience, a thin Yeah, sometimes it is tough- like if description of the individual situated within you talk to me, I can listen to what the purviews of trauma is further ensconced you are talking but here [touches where other important considerations of his head] there is nothing… identity can easily be obscured. Because everything has been blown Through collaboration and the out... So, I don’t go to touch that recognition that there are powerful much because I am afraid. It will understandings of people’s lives beyond the disturb our research. consequences of trauma, a richer sense of a Some of the men interviewed for this person’s life can become privileged. Such a study did not agree to participate until we had mutual exploration for alternative known each other for more than 18 months. understandings can even possibly lead to By establishing their responses to trauma and what Rappaport (2000, p.1) refers to as ‘tales what has been helpful to them in wake of of joy’. An interesting aspect of this research traumatic experiences, these men were able to and community engagement has been that by express their stories about sustenance, hope establishing these men’s responses to trauma, and survival. Time was something that needed they then often felt more comfortable to talk to be embraced and nurtured. Hasty interviews about their experiences of forced migration would have likely lead to front stage responses. without being prompted. By asking them to JM Would you say are there any speak further about their parent teachings, ongoing effects in your life today culture, spirituality and other forms of from these experiences? identity, these men noticeably became more Desmond animated and enthusiastic as the interview Yeah, there are some effects. continued. Indeed, finding ways to move Because yes, there are some really slowly, safely and appropriately into such difficult things and it is really hard powerful stories can help access the deeper to forget it. So, it is still in my and more authentic meanings that these mind and it is still in my emotion, people ascribe. Rather than asking for a so it is still really hard to forget. detailed account of torture, forced marches So I have just to go slowly through and other stories of despair; privileging the

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person’s response to such forms of adversity communities. provided scaffolding towards understanding Being what has provided sustenance and strength in During the early stages of the research this person’s past and present. As these process, I always walked into community participants spoke of their values, hopes, skills events with my satchel armed with information and actions that acknowledged forms of about the study, a notebook, diary and other healing and resistance to the trauma story various items that would help me collect and itself, this discussion then often provided an organise data. However, it quickly became entry point to discuss experiences of adversity. apparent that I the guy who always attended There is value in both the response and trauma Sudanese events with a satchel tossed over one stories, and embracing cautious and non- shoulder. While aware that my role as pathologising processes allows the teller to researcher needed to be transparent; once I decide when and if it is appropriate to share dropped the satchel and allowed myself to such experiences. participate more fully with the participants, this The construction of ‘authentic’ knowledge: being seemed to break down several barriers as Being and doing others started to communicate and interact more “I think there are times people freely. Indeed, the informal and everyday don’t want to talk about their interactions proved crucial in being able to go background in full detail simply beyond the rehearsed front-stage responses that because I think we are sometimes Miller (2004) writes. compared between the primitive A particular challenge of working with and the civilised world. And the Sudanese community required a different sometimes people make unfair way of conceptualising time. The idea that it comparisons. It knocks some was possible to conduct a two hour interview on people back. But, I think to be a rigidly set schedule was unlikely to happen. civilised is to be true to yourself. More than half of the scheduled interviews and And I strongly believe that if I was consultations were cancelled, rescheduled or born into the Dinka family, then started significantly later. After telling a that is my heritage. And I have to Sudanese colleague about these experiences, he be proud of it. That is a good thing joked about what he called ‘AST’ or African and that is who I am.” (Interview Standard Time. This intended light-hearted Participant) acronym demonstrated the different social A Sudanese elder who has supported constructions placed between Sudanese and this research as a cultural consultant stated, mainstream Australian understandings of time. “The only way to get the community to talk to However, these differing conceptions can you is to get to know them. They must see you present dilemmas for those working as as a person and one who is committed not only researchers and practitioners where Western to helping yourself but to helping them.” This understandings of AST often do not exist in elder’s valuable insight introduces a helpful professional or personal contexts. Thus where distinction between being and doing that can possible, the concept of being is helpful here. assist both researchers and practitioners Opening oneself to embrace AST may leave the towards accessing deeper levels of authenticity listener receptive to new insights and ways of in respectful and collaborative ways. This being that go beyond a snapshot of a particular distinction is partly taken from Gorman’s issue (see Guerin & Guerin, 2007; Rodgers, (1995) discussion on the inherent tension 2004). Being with the community permits the between being and doing as a practitioner and listener to greater establish trust and rapport in a researcher working with marginalised way that is more highly resonant for the

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participants involved (without the satchel context (see Rappaport, 1977). Such tossed over one’s shoulder). There is an perspectives can help facilitate more inherent value in being able to meet these sophisticated and reciprocal forms of research people on their terms in both time and place and action. rather than from territory of the often more Bringing the two together powerful positions and perspectives that we To further comprehend the profundity of command and enjoy. resettling peoples’ lived experience, there is a Doing greater call for research methodologies that There are many ways of conducting and allow for these people to have collaborative disseminating research. It is argued here that roles in research and action. Inherent within the doing of refugee-related research in this framework includes a level of community resettlement contexts should endeavour where engagement that goes beyond what might possible to areas of reciprocity. As initially be seen as the research agenda. This Mackenzie, McDowell & Pittaway (2007) immersion though, will help shape and fashion argue, refugee-related research should aspire the research question by rendering it in a way beyond harm minimisation as a standard for that will likely have higher resonance with ethical research and try to achieve reciprocal those who inform it. Guerin & Guerin (2007) benefits to both the researcher and the discuss their experience of working with the researched. Indeed, there were many times the Somali community over several years in New ‘official’ research was put on hold to help Zealand stating, “Many times we felt like our someone with their taxes, driving them places, research was going around in a circle, but more informing them about what house inspections often, we found that the research was on a entailed and connecting them to tutors for their spiral, still going around in circles, but respective academic courses. One man asked progressing for the better” (p.150). Visualising what it meant that he had just ‘won’ $500,000 the research and consultation process beyond from Readers Digest. Another wanted to know the perspective of a two dimensional circle to if he was in trouble because he had been three dimensions shows the complex layering selected for jury duty. Because my previous and necessary journey towards further role as a social worker included counselling understanding resettling populations (Ghorashi, refugees and also organising an annual 2008). While this spiralling process continues, activities summer program for refugee children it will become apparent that the reciprocity of (see Hallahan & Irizarry, 2008), a nascent doing and active engagement with the reputation and rapport within this community community provides a higher likelihood of had already been established. This reciprocity gaining access to the more authentic backstage of doing over time showed a commitment responses. beyond a complete self directed and singular As deeper levels of access are granted, it interest in obtaining a PhD. is important to recognise the politics of memory Collaborative research requires a and research. Being with these people can help commitment towards doing and a sincere overcome many potential obstacles in the engagement with process that may need to step spiralling journey as the foundations of rapport outside the researcher’s initially established create greater spaces of trust and safety. timelines and scheduled milestones. However, research with such groups of people Acknowledging the unanticipated twists and often marginalised and pushed to the turns of collaborative processes, the research peripheries of society is not a neutral exercise. question becomes further grounded within an And nor should it be. The person is political ecological perspective that considers a broader and as professionals involved in research, focus upon the person in environment and interpersonal practice, community engagement

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or policy; we play an integral role in elevating College Commencement Address people’s voices in a collaborative manner that (Achebe, 1996) acknowledges who these people are and There are many challenges and obstacles importantly, who they want to be. towards garnering people’s stories of lived Finding ways to capture research experience. However, we need to continue to participant’s lived experience and future look for ways of relating to these people by aspirations in a sensitive and respectful way embracing respectful and sensitive approaches can make progress towards further realising the towards documenting such stories. Through liberation and well being of those beginning to being and doing, we allow ourselves the create a new life far from home. Embodying opportunity to traverse beyond ‘front stage’ such values as inherent in the research process responses and hopefully develop a stronger connects us to the ‘why’ of being and doing. If sense of trust and rapport that will aid us in we want to illuminate the depths of resettling incorporating reciprocity within our work. people’s backgrounds and aspirations, Sadly, the refugee journey is often one that has embracing the concepts being and doing can commanding elements of hardship and exposure help lift our eyes to such relevant concerns in to traumatic experiences. Engaging with these appropriate ways. It is argued here that more histories highlights the importance of highly authentic information is not surprisingly proceeding at the story-tellers chosen pace to derived from authentic relationships. reduce the likelihood of re-traumatisation. Accessing rich stories from refugees requires Is there one authentic story? Arguably both being and doing. The being element not, the story of lived experience is inherently connects people to our common bond of imperfect as it must elevate and amplify certain humanity and can help establish necessary events, moments and memories at the expense relationships to gain entry and engage with the of others. However, it is possible to elicit the rich descriptions of these peoples’ lives. The deeper and more profound levels of ‘authentic’ reciprocity of doing can help such experience or the ‘backstage’ responses that communities address relevant resettlement Miller (2004) writes. Resettlement from Africa concerns, speak for themselves and also drive a to Australia is often a journey between two better informed research agenda. worlds where one must forge a workable Conclusion synthesis of the past with the present. The “The world is big. Some people are being with these people and the reciprocity of unable to comprehend that simple doing allow for a stronger degree of mutuality fact. They want the world on their and collaboration when it is appropriate to share own terms, its peoples just like such powerful stories. We would do well to them and their friends, its places participate and listen; otherwise, refugee voices like the manicured little patch on and their associated stories can be further which they live. But this is a foolish marginalised or worse- silenced all together. and blind wish. Diversity is not an References abnormality but the very reality of Achebe, C. (1987) Anthills of the savannah. our planet. The human world London, Heinemann. manifests the same reality and will Achebe, C. (1996) The Address of Chinua not seek our permission to Achebe. Bates College Commencement celebrate itself in the magnificence Speech, May 27. Accessed online on Mar 2003 of its endless varieties. Civility is a at http://abacus.bates.edu/pubs/ sensible attribute in this kind of newsletter/sum96/commencement.html world we have; narrowness of 501 heart and mind is not.” Bates Blackburn, P. (2005). Speaking the

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unspeakable: bearing witness to the learning: Valuing knowledge, culture, stories of political violence, war and and experience. American Journal of terror. The International Journal of Community Psychology, 37(1-2), 77-93. Narrative Therapy and Community Goodman, J. H. (2004). Coping with trauma Work, 3 & 4, 97-105. and hardship among unaccompanied Carter-Black, J. (2007). Teaching cultural refugee youths from Sudan. Qualitative competence: An innovative strategy Health Research, 14(9), 1177-1196. grounded in the universality of Gorman, J. (1995). Being and doing: Practicing storytelling as depicted in African and a secret profession. Reflections, 4(1), 35- African American storytelling 40. traditions. Journal of Social Work Guerin, P., & Guerin, B. (2007). Research with Education, 43(1), 31-50. refugee communities: Going around in Cienfuegos, A., & Monelli, C. (1983). The circles with methodology. The Australian testimony of political repression as a Community Pyschologist, 19(1), 150-162. therapeutic instrument. American Hallahan, L., & Irizarry, C. (2008). Fun days Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 53(1), out: Normalising social experiences for 43-51. refugee children. Journal of family Coker, E. M. (2004). "Traveling pains": Studies, 14(1), 124-130. Embodied metaphors of suffering Hart, C. & Maiden, S. (2007) Race to point among Southern Sudanese refugees in finger of blame. The Australian. Accessed Cairo. Culture, Medicine and online on Dec 2008 at: Psychiatry, 28(1), 15-39. http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/ Deng, A., Deng, B., Ajak, B., & Bernstein, story/0,25197,22538228-28737,00.html J. (2005). They poured fire on us from Jacobsen, K., & Landau, L. (2003). the sky: The true story of three lost Researching refugees: Some boys from Sudan. New York: Public methodological and ethical Affairs. considerations in social science and Eastmond, M. (2007) Stories as lived forced migration. Geneva: United Nations experience: Narratives in forced High Commisioner for Refugees: migration research. Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit. Journal of Refugee Studies, 20, 248- Jeppsson, O., & Hjern, A. (2005). Traumatic 264. stress in context: A study of Eggers, D. (2006). What is the what. New unaccompanied minors from Southern York: Vintage Books. Sudan. In D. Ingleby (Ed.), Forced Fazel, M., Wheeler, J., & Danesh, J. (2005). migration and mental health (pp. 67-80). Prevalence of serious mental disorder New York: Springer. in 7000 refugees resettled in western Kelley, P. (1996). Narrative theory and social countries: a systematic review. The work treatment. In F. J. Turner (Ed.), Lancet, 365(9467), 1309-1314. Social work treatment: Interlocking Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of theoretical approaches. New York: The cultures. New York: Basic Books. Free Press. Ghorashi, H. (2008). Giving silence a Khawaja, N. G., White, K. M., Schweitzer, R., chance: The importance of life stories & Greenslade, J. (2008). Difficulties and for research on refugees. Journal of coping strategies of Sudanese refugees: A Refugee Studies, 21(1), 117-132. qualitative approach. Transcultural Goodkind, J. R. (2006). Promoting Hmong Psychiatry, 45(3), 489-512. refugees' well-Being through mutual Kirmayer, L. J. (2007). Failures of imagination:

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The refugee's predicament. In L. J. 781. Kirmayer, R. Lemelson & M. Barad Rappaport, J. (1977). Community psychology : (Eds.), Understanding trauma: Values, research, and action. New York: Integrating biological, clinical, and Holt, Rinehart and Winston. cultural perspectives (pp. 363-380). New Rappaport, J. (2000). Community narratives: York: Cambridge University Press. Tales of terror and joy. American Journal Kohli, R. (2006). The sound of silence: of Community Psychology, 28(1), 1-24. Listening to what unaccompanied Rodgers, G. (2004). 'Hanging out' with forced asylum-seeking children say and do not migrants: Methodological and ethical say. British Journal of Social Work, 36, challenges. Forced Migration Review, 21, 707-721. 48-49. Mackenzie, C., McDowell, C., & Pittaway, E. Ryan, D., Dooley, B., & Benson, C. (2008). (2007). Beyond 'do no harm': The Theoretical perspectives on post- challenge of constructing ethical migration adaptation and psychological relationships in refugee research. Journal well-being among refugees: Towards a of Refugee Studies, 20(2), 299-319. resource-based model. Journal of Refugee McKelvey, R. S. (1994). Refugee patients and Studies, 21(1), 1-18. the practice of deception. American Silove, D. (1999). The psychosocial effects of Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64(3), 368- torture, mass human rights violations, and 375. refugee trauma: Toward an integrated Menchu, R. (1983). I, Rigoberta Menchu (A. conceptual framework. Journal of Wright, Trans.). London: Verso Editions. Nervous & Mental Disease, 187(4), 200- Miller, K. (2004). Beyond the frontstage: 207. Trust, access, and the relational context Steel, Z., Silove, D., Phan, T., & Bauman, A. in research with refugee communities. (2002). Long-term effect of psychological American Journal of Community trauma on the mental health of Psychology, 33(3/4), 217-227. Vietnamese refugees resettled in Miller, K., Kulkarni, M., & Kushner, H. Australia: A population-based study. (2006). Beyond trauma focused Lancet, 360(9339), 1056-1062. psychiatric epidemiology: Bridging UNHCR. (2002). Refugee resettlement: An research and practice with war affected international handbook to guide reception populations. American Journal of and integration [Electronic Version]. Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 409-422. Retrieved 22 June, 2007 from Mollica, R. F., Caridad, K. R., & Massagli, M. www.unhcr.org P. (2007). Longitudinal study of Weine, S. M., Becker, D. F., McGlashan, T. H., posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, & Laub, D. (1995). Psychiatric and changes in traumatic memories over consequences of "ethnic cleansing": time in Bosnian refugees. Journal of Clinical assessments and trauma Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(7), testimonies of newly resettled Bosnian 572-579. refugees. The American Journal of Momartin, S., Silove, D., Manicavasagar, V., Psychiatry, 152(4), 536-542. & Steel, Z. (2003). Dimensions of White, M. (2006). Working with people who trauma associated with posttraumatic are suffering the consequences of multiple stress disorder (PTSD) caseness, severity trauma: a narrative perspective. In D. and functional impairment: a study of Denborough (Ed.), Trauma - Narrative Bosnian refugees resettled in Australia. responses to traumatic experience (pp. Social Science & Medicine, 57(5), 775- 25-85). Adelaide: Dulwich Centre

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Publication. White, M., & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends. New York: Norton. Yu-Wen, Y., Phillip, D. A., Xiulan, Z., & Larke, N. H. (1997). Psychological dysfunction in Southeast Asian refugees as mediated by sense of coherence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25(6), 839-859.

Acknowledgments This research is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Scholarship.

Short Biography of Author Jay Marlowe is an associate lecturer and PhD candidate within the School of Social Work at Flinders University. He has worked with disadvantaged communities and at risk youths in Australia, Guatemala, Ecuador and the United States.

Address Correspondence to Jay M. Marlowe School of Social Work Flinders University GPO Box 2100 Adelaide 5001 South Australia Australia Phone (61 8) 8201 3956 Fax (61 8) 8201 3760 email [email protected]

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 50 Differences in Resilience and University Adjustment Between School Leaver and Mature Entry University Students

Brent Munro Julie Ann Pooley Edith Cowan University

Research shows that mature entry and school leaver students have vastly different experiences when transitioning to the university environment. It is suggested that the transition to university is a major life transition and thus is a period of great stress. For mature entry students and school leaver students, the impacts upon adjustment to university are varied during the transition to university study. It has been proposed that for successful university adjustment, high levels of resilience are needed. Three hypotheses were tested with a sample of undergraduate students (n = 63). Hypothesis one, that there is a relationship between resilience and adjustment was supported. This indicates that 31.9 percent of the variance in adjustment can be accounted for by resilience. Hypothesis two, that there is a difference in university adjustment between school leaver and mature entry students, and hypothesis three, that mature entry students would exhibit higher levels of resilience than school leavers, were both not supported. These findings imply that individual differences are more important in adjustment to university than group differences, and have the implication that universities may be better off considering these individual differences when accommodating new students. It is thought that mature entry and school students are different to that of mature entry leaver students both have very different university students. This was recently shown in experiences when embarking upon their a qualitative inquiry that aimed to understand academic careers at the university level. the adjustments of students to university. The Figures suggest that the composition of the study found that the adjustments for students university student body is changing in terms of was first dependent upon the type of student mature entry and school leaver student they were, namely, being a school leaver or a numbers. Statistics indicate that in 1980, 24 mature entry student (Urquhart & Pooley, percent of full time students were over the age 2007). In particular it was determined that of 21 and this figure rose to 33 percent by 1996 mature entry students entered university with (Merril, 1999). However, within specific different experiences which set them apart from university contexts (i.e., ‘Sandstone’ their school leaver counterparts, these include: universities or New Generation Universities) giving up full-time employment, supporting a these figures vary. For example, in a new family, and reintegrating into an academic generation Western Australian university, only context (Urquhart & Pooley, 2007). School 13 percent of students enrolled were within the leavers were not as clear in communicating why mature entry students category (Edith Cowan they wanted a degree as the mature entry University, 2007). students were, and they also showed less Mature entry and school leaver students enthusiasm in these communications. School both have their own distinctive experiences leaver students did not see commencing study at and backgrounds, including work experience university as presenting many difficulties, and previous academic pursuits, from which to however, any problems they did mention draw upon when entering the university revolved around social pressures or other environment. Therefore, it is argued that the people’s expectations. What was clear from experiences of school leaver university Urquhart and Pooley’s (2007) research was that

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the issues and challenges expressed by both there are several factors that facilitate or deter groups were primarily arising from the process mature entry students from completing their of change as a function of transitioning into undergraduate degrees. In contrast to Justice and tertiary study. Dornan’s (2001) findings that strategies for The findings from Urquhart and Pooley learning increase with age, Taniguchi and (2007) concur with a study conducted by Kaufman found that being relatively young Cantwell, Archer and Bourke (2001) facilitated college completion. Other factors comparing the academic achievement and they found that facilitated completion included experiences of students entering university via the number of prior enrolments a student had, traditional and non-traditional means. They having high cognitive ability, and a high-status found that age, gender and prior qualifications occupational background, though these factors were predictive of academic achievement. The were observed for men more than for women. results indicate that there is a marginal The authors suggest that the gender difference disadvantage in academic performance as occurs as a function of factors commonly indicated by Grade Point Average (GPA) for associated with women’s socio-economic status, students entering via non-traditional modes such as being divorced and having young such as open foundation courses. However, children. Marital status does not affect there is a positive effect on adjustment and adjustment; however, the major life event of a academic performance as measured by GPA divorce has been shown to be obstructive to for mature entry students, specifically, female adjustment. The need and desire to spend time mature entry students. The students most with her children may be the pivotal factor in a affected by the adversities faced on entry to mother’s decision to discontinue her university were those younger students undergraduate degrees. Indeed, these effects entering via non-traditional modes. The were found for both genders indicating that they authors argue that the significant variable is are just as important in influencing males’ not mode of entry itself, rather it is the nature course completion and that there is less of a of non-traditional students’ differing abilities, difference between genders as previously such as individual motivational goals, self- thought. regulatory behaviours, self efficacy and verbal Mature entry students also bring with abilities (Cantwell et al., 2001). However, them many variations in their abilities and mature entry students who discontinued their previous experiences. Each student has their undergraduate studies had slightly higher own background and will thus have variations in scores on academic achievement indices than the resources available to them, which of course those mature entry students who remained. can highly influence their university experience This suggests that it is not only academic socially and academically. In terms of academic factors that influence mature entry students’ strengths, students with high-status vocational attrition from university courses. Mature entry experience and increased cognitive ability are students may be discontinuing their studies due significantly more likely than those with low to external factors, more than school leaver ability and low-status vocational experience to students. complete their academic pursuits (Taniguchi & Further to this, for mature entry Kaufman, 2005). Differences in cognitive students, adjustment to university has also functioning significantly differentiate between been linked to degree completion and attrition mature entry and school leaver students (Justice rates at university (Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, & Dornan, 2001) and on average mature entry 1994). In their study Taniguchi and Kaufman students scored lower on standardised tests (2005) looked at degree completion among (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). The differences non-traditional college students and found that and hardships faced by school leaver and mature

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entry students are many and varied. Martin (2003) examined direct effects and buffering (2002) suggests that resilience plays an models in relation to cognitive hardiness and important role in scholastic achievement. coping for health and psychological functioning. Resilience could be a factor that helps to In their study, mature entry university students mediate the adversities experienced in higher completed measures assessing life event stress education contexts and may lead to greater and traumatic life experiences, cognitive academic success and adjustment for both hardiness and coping style, and general health, mature entry and school leaver students. anxiety, and depression. Their results generally Resilience has been a widely researched suggest that a direct effects model of the topic in developmental psychology and this relationship between life stress and research is increasingly shifting toward psychological health exists. Specifically, the adolescent and adult populations (Beasley, authors suggest that cognitive hardiness, aspects Thompson, & Davidson, 2003; Campbell-Sills, of coping style and negative life events directly Cohan, & Stein, 2006; Raphael, 1993). impacted measures of psychological and somatic Resilience can be broadly defined as , “the distress. There was also support for a buffering capacity to respond and endure, or develop and model in which cognitive hardiness moderated master in spite of life stressors and the effects of emotional coping of adverse life adversity” (Mandleco & Peery, 2000, p. 99). It events on psychological distress. This research has been noted that resilience is indicative of conducted specifically using mature entry resources that guard against the development students suggests that resilience has a large of psychiatric disturbances, and is an important impact on this population. influence in the healthy adjustment to life Further to this, Walker, Gleaves, and stresses (Friborg, Hjemdal, Rosenvinge, & Grey (2006) argue for the importance of Martinussen, 2003). Werner (1990) also notes resilience in higher educational contexts when that resilient individuals easily adapt and adjust considering the enduring demands placed upon quickly to major life events. students entering university, namely, increases Resilience is shown to be evident in in cognitive complexity, comprehension of times of transition where there is a great deal uncomfortable and unfamiliar ideas, and the of stress (Beasley et al., 2003). In terms of questioning of accepted attitudes and different developmental and life stages where behaviours. The importance of resilience in resilience is evident, some examples of high higher education contexts is debated (Gardynik stress transitions are parental avoidance during & McDonald, 2005; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; adolescence, divorce, and university Raphael, 1993; Tusaie & Dyer, 2004). commencement (Campbell-Sills et al., 2006; Walker et al. (2006) provide several Tusaie & Dyer, 2004; Urquhart & Pooley, conceptual differences in resilience in terms of 2007). Unexpected transitions also can university students in their academic pursuits. contribute a great deal of stress such as They argue that resilience is often associated disaster, unemployment or family disruption. with the capacity to persevere and continue in The individuals who experience these stressors the face of seemingly overwhelming adversity. and manage to overcome them reportedly It is assumed that older adults will inherently achieve above average levels of psychosocial have the resources needed to maintain their functioning, academic success, career course of action as they have had longer to development and physical well-being are develop those resources (Feinstein & Hammond, considered resilient (Tusaie & Dyer, 2004). 2004). Thus, adults have been through multiple These four factors are inherently important, in counts of adversity before and have built up varying levels, for studying at university. ‘identity capital’ to draw upon (Cote, 2002), Beasley, Thompson, and Davidson thereby supporting the proposal that resilience is

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an individual quality stemming from the for learning, are often alluded to in higher individuals reaction to external circumstances. education literature as being important for Another view expressed by Walker et al. successful adjustment to the university (2006) is the ‘adaptability’ stance that suggests environment (e.g., Gardynik & McDonald, that resilience is a result of strategy building 2005; Parker, Summerfeldt, Hogan, & Majeski, and cognitive behavioural processes that can 2004; Perry, Hladkyj, Pekrun, & Pelletier, 2004; be created and used to adjust to change in a Walker et al., 2006). Therefore, one could argue constructive way. An example of how this it is throughout the time of transitioning into the view applies to the university context is that university environment that successful tertiary study is simply part of life and adjustment is critical for individuals to attain therefore choosing to leave is not a major academic success, and, as suggested by Martin lifelong disaster, but is rather a learning curve (2002), successful adjustment is somewhat along which skills and understanding are mediated by resilience. attained. The final conceptual difference comes On entering university greater self- from Rutter (1990, cited in Walker et al., 2006) discipline is required in managing academic who suggests that resilience is the positive end progress, taking initiative, and making decisions of a continuum of developmental outcomes about the future (Lapsley & Edgerton, 2002; among individuals at high risk of Larose, Bernier, & Tarabulsy, 2005). These psychological disturbance. Rutter suggests that tasks contribute to the instability of the risk is inherent in the context of university university environment. Research shows a study and that resilience can be predicted if a decline in social and emotional adjustment satisfactory risk algorithm can be developed. It during the transition to university (Hays & is these apparent ambiguities amongst the Oxley, 1986) where students must deal with the definitions of resilience that can lead to the first major separation from parents, changes in perception that adults have certain qualities their network of friends, and perhaps painful associated with resilience as a function of their separation from their significant others (Larose chronological age due to their life experiences. et al., 2005). Urquhart and Pooley (2007) posit Martin (2002) defines academic that there are a number of equally important resilience as a student’s ability to successfully factors that contribute to successful adjustment cope with scholastic setbacks, stress and study to university for any student, including (a) social pressures. This construct has received little support, (b) personal/emotional support, (c) attention in the research literature, and a lot of expectations, and (d) academic adjustment. the research that has been conducted uses These four factors have been consistently shown minority groups as the main focus (e.g., in the research literature to play a part in Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; Sennett, adjustment (Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994; Finchilescu, Gibson, & Strauss, 2003). Studies Schwitzer, Griffin, Ancis, & Thomas, 1999). tend to look at resilience in terms of mental Urquhart and Pooley suggest that there may be a health and well-being, and it is suggested that difference in the experiences between mature an increase in the protective factors associated entry and school leaver students in their with general resilience will enhance academic adjustment to university. resilience. This research is specifically Pike, Cohen, and Pooley (2008) argue that designed to enhance primary and high school in promoting the development of resilience in resilience, however many of the aspects secondary school students it is important to mentioned by Martin, such as improvements in recognise that a prerequisite for successful the students approach to academic work, academic achievement is an individual’s personal beliefs, attitudes towards learning and capacity to rebound from or adjust to adversity outcomes, personal study skills, and reasons and in doing so cultivate social and emotional

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competence (NIFTeY Vision for Children in satisfying sense of support in the university Western Australia, 2003). In line with this is environment. Differences between school leaver the notion that the transition to university and mature entry students may be partially represents a time of difficulty for individuals. explained by the quantity and kind of life The unfamiliarity in university settings transformations experienced and the size and heightens the vulnerability students are helpfulness of student’s social support systems. exposed to as they try to regain some stability The factors mentioned thus far that in the new environment by means of strongly influence adjustment to university have negotiation (Compas, Wagner, Slavin, & been at the individual level. However, Vannatta, 1986). Longitudinal research has environmental factors may also have a role in shown that acute stress is particularly adjustment. Brooks and DuBois (1995) prominent in this period for mature entry conducted research into the individual and females (Gall, Evans, & Bellerose, 2000). In environmental predictors of adjustment during accordance with the definition of resilience the first year of college. They found that used above, to achieve some stability or to although individual variables were related most adjust to university life, an individual must strongly to adjustment, environmental variables have a high level of resilience in order to made significant incremental contributions to overcome the obstacles present in this the prediction of several adjustment indices. The transition period. significant individual predictors included: In a study examining stressful life events, emotional stability, intellect, and problem perceived social support and psychological solving. The ability to engage in problem- symptoms in a sample of seniors at high school focused coping, personality tendencies toward and then the same students during their first extroversion and intellect, and academic skills year at university, it was found that the time of were found to be influential in facilitating the most vulnerability was two weeks after adaptation to university for first year students. It commencing university study (Compas et al., is also noted that for most adolescents the 1986). It is suggested that adjustment is a commencement of tertiary education is their first dynamic process (Gall et al., 2000). It is also major life transition. Knowledge of the abilities suggested that the quantity and kind of life and traits that lead to better adaptation has transformations experienced and the size and implications for counselling this group of helpfulness of student’s social support systems students and ensuring adequate adaptation to the have been found to have an influence on the university setting. adjustment process (Gall et al., 2000). Life The purpose of the present study was to events and social support were predictive of examine the role of resilience in mature entry psychological symptoms in the Compas et al. and school leaver students in terms of their (1986) study. Compas et al. (1986) suggest that adjustment to university. Specifically it was these findings are important because 64 hypothesised that there would be a relationship percent of the variance in psychological between resilience and university adjustment. symptoms at the time of entrance to university Second, it was hypothesised that there would be could be accounted for by measures taken a difference in university adjustment between three months earlier during university school leaver and mature entry students, and orientation programmes. These disturbances third, that mature entry students would exhibit include anxiety, depression, and somatic higher levels of resilience than school leavers. problems. It is shown that social support Method mediates these disturbances; however, the Participants presence of these symptoms may interfere with Participants (n = 63) were sought from a the skills necessary to generate a new Western Australian university, and self-

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identified as a school leaver or mature entry adjustment to university was the Student student. In this study mature entry students Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ) were defined as those who have used alternate developed by Baker and Siryk (1984). This is a pathways to gain entry into university (e.g., the Likert type self-rating instrument with 67 items Special Tertiary Admissions Test (STAT; that measure the different facets of the Australian Council for Educational Research, experience of adjusting to college, and the n.d.) test or TAFE qualifications) and were participant is instructed to assess how well they over 20 years of age on entry to university. are coping with the facet in question out of a School leaver students were defined as those score of 9 (i.e. –4 to +4). There are four who gained entry into university by means of subscales of the SACQ. These are academic, the Tertiary Entrance Examinations (TEE). social, personal-emotional, and goal This condition included participants who commitment - institutional attachment. An gained entry to university through the TEE example question from the academic adjustment system and deferred no more than one year subscale is, “Recently I have been having before undertaking their studies, thus on trouble concentrating when I study” (reverse admission into university, were no more than scored). “I am very involved with social 20 years old. activities at college”, is an example from the Materials social adjustment subscale. From the personal- The questionnaire administered for this emotional adjustment scale, “I have been feeling study contained two scales. These scales were tense and nervous lately” is an example, and the Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA; Friborg finally from the goal commitment – institutional et al., 2003) and the Student Adaptation to attachment subscale an example is, “I feel I fit in College Questionnaire (SACQ; Baker & Siryk, well as part of the…environment”, (Baker & 1984). In validation studies Friborg et al. Siryk, 1984). The coefficient alpha for the full (2003) noted that the RSA comprises 33 items scale is between .93 and .95. For the subscales covering five dimensions: personal the coefficient alphas range between .84 and .88 competence, social competence, family for the academic adjustment subscale, coherence, social support and personal between .90 and .91 for the social adjustment structure. The respective dimensions had subscale, between .81 and .85 for the personal/ Cronbach's alphas of 0.90, 0.83, 0.87, 0.83 and emotional adjustment subscale, and between .90 0.67, and four-month test-retest correlations of and .91 for the attachment subscale. This data 0.79, 0.84, 0.77, 0.69 and 0.74 (Friborg et al., comes from three different samples in two 2003). Construct validity was confirmed with colleges as investigated by Baker, McNeil and positive correlations with the Sense of Siryk (1985). Scoring for the SACQ is the same Coherence scale (SOC) (Antonovsky, 1993) as for the RSA. That is, scores are calculated by and negative correlations with the Hopkins summing each item’s score, including those that Symptom Checklist (HSCL; Derogatis, are reversed. This leads to higher scores Lipman, Rickels, Uhlenhuth, & Covi, 1974). equalling higher adaptation to college. Discriminant validity was indicated by Procedure differential positive correlations between RSA Participants were obtained from a subscales and the SOC (Friborg et al., 2003). participant register, and from the wider The end score is obtained by summing the total university environment on a Western Australian score of the numeric answers given on a Likert university campus. Both questionnaires were scale. Some questions are reversed scored. The administered to participants consenting to take higher the total score, the higher the part in the study together, and participants were individual’s resilience. instructed to complete the demographic The instrument used to measure questions on the SACQ, including their self-

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reported student type (i.e,. mature entry or assumptions of MANOVA, and all assumptions school leaver). The definitions of mature entry were met. and school leaver students were explained to MANOVA was conducted to determine if participants to ensure they assigned themselves there was a difference between mature entry and to the correct group. Participants were then school leaver students on the RSA and SACQ. instructed to record a participant number on The MANOVA was non significant, Pillai’s both the RSA and SACQ so as these could be Trace = 0.009, F(2, 60) = 0.99, p = 0.774, matched in analysis. indicating no difference between school leaver Results students and mature entry students on both RSA In order to address the research questions and SACQ scores. However, post hoc power data analysis proceeded in two stages. analysis suggests that power for this MANOVA Statistics were computed to determine if there was quite low (h2 = 0.009, power = 0.09). was a difference between student types on both Discussion adjustment and resilience scores. This This study supported the hypothesis that procedure was a multivariate analysis of there would be a relationship between resilience variance (MANOVA). To determine if there and university adjustment, shown by the was a relationship between resilience and moderate positive correlation between scores on adjustment, irrespective of student type, the the SACQ and RSA. This positive correlation correlation between scores on the RSA and indicates that 31.9 percent of the variance in SACQ was computed. each of the scales is accounted for by the other. The first hypothesis was that there is a Considering the research examining the RSA relationship between adjustment and resilience; (Friborg et al., 2003), it is not surprising that this this is irrespective of student type (mature effect was shown in the current study when in entry or school leaver). This relationship was their definition of resilience Friborg et al. (2003) tested using Pearson’s correlation coefficient note that resilience is an important influence in to determine if scores on the SACQ (M = the healthy adjustment to life stresses. Tusaie 463.59, SD = 58.86) and RSA (M = 183.41, SD and Dyer (2004) further noted that individuals = 26.03) were correlated, r(63) = 0.565, p < who manage to overcome adversity, such as that 0.001. This was significant, indicating a experienced in the transition to university, and moderate positive relationship between the become academically successful and well SACQ and RSA scores. The coefficient of adjusted are considered resilient. This is well determination, R2 = 0.319, indicates that 31.9 documented elsewhere in the literature (e.g., percent of the variance in SACQ scores can be Compas et al., 1986; Gall et al., 2000; Pike et accounted for by scores on the RSA. Post hoc al., 2008). This relationship fits with the theory power analysis indicated that this test had very informing the development of both scales. Upon high power (r = 0.565, power (1-b) = 0.9987), examination of the subscales of the two suggesting this correlation reflects a true measures this becomes clearer. SACQ subscales relationship. include: academic, social, personal-emotional, Both the second hypothesis, that there and goal commitment/institutional attachment. would be a difference in university adjustment RSA subscales include personal competence, between school leaver and mature entry social competence, family coherence, social students, and the third hypothesis, that mature support and personal structure. That is, both entry students would exhibit higher levels of scales measure factors regarding social support, resilience than school leavers, were analysed personal adjustment and structure, and have using Multivariate Analysis of Variance measures of competence ingratiated throughout. (MANOVA), so as to limit the effects of Though very different, the two scales are shown familywise error. Data was screened to test the by the current study to be somewhat related.

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An explanation of the moderate explanations for the finding that there is no correlation between the SACQ and the RSA difference between school leaver and mature may be explained by the findings of Compas et entry students’ adjustments to university come al. (1986), that the time of most vulnerability from existing research. Urquhart and Pooley when transitioning to university is two weeks (2007) argue that there are differences between after commencing study. In the present study mature entry and school leavers experiences in participants were drawn from a sample of terms of adjustment to university, however, they students at varying stages of their also highlight that there are many individual undergraduate studies. It may be that resilience differences. In this sample the individual has a greater impact on adjustment to differences outweigh the group differences. university throughout these initial two weeks Cantwell et al. (2001) say that there is a than the current findings suggest. However, marginal disadvantage for non-traditional Compas et al. (1986) also show that 64 percent students (i.e., mature entry students) studying at of the variance in psychological problems on university in terms of achievement and entry to university could be predicted three adjustment, though there is a positive effect on months prior, suggesting that adjustment, adjustment for older non-traditional students, although fluid, is relatively constant. Follow up particularly females. This may help explain the research may compare the correlation between current findings as chronological age was not SACQ and RSA scores from students the focus in this study. Those mature entry throughout this two week period with the students that are chronologically older may have results from the current study. This would positively skewed the results, and the younger allow conclusions to be drawn about the aged mature entry students may in fact be less impact that resilience has on adjustment for adjusted than the general university population. new students, and whether applications of the Brooks and DuBois (1995) suggest in their findings from the current study may be applied research that in comparison to environmental to the cohort of subsequent students. variables, individual variables were related most The second hypothesis, that there is a strongly to adjustment. Therefore the individual difference between school leaver and mature variables may seem to explain why there is little entry students adjustment to university, was difference shown between school leavers and not supported. This indicates that there may mature entry students in the current sample. This not be as much of a difference between these lack of differences between groups is further two student groups as research previously supported by Taniguchi and Kaufman’s (2005) suggested (Cantwell et al., 2001; Justice & research, suggesting that being young facilitates Dornan, 2001; Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005), academic adjustment and success, which particularly in terms of adjusting to the contradicts the findings from Cantwell et al. university environment. These findings may (2001) who suggest there is a positive effect on also suggest that the adversities experienced by adjustment for older non-traditional students. both groups do not affect the specific construct Taniguchi and Kaufman (2005) suggest that of adjustment, or that their varying adversities more important variables than mode of entry lead to similar levels of adjustment. It is likely facilitate adjustment, such as the number of that school leaver students are increasingly prior enrolments and high status vocational finding it necessary to find employment to background. It is these types of individual support themselves whist studying. This cohort differences that seem to influence one’s of students may be experiencing time adjustment to university. constraints similar to those of mature entry The non support for hypothesis three, that students. mature entry students would exhibit higher However, some other possible levels of resilience than school leavers, suggests

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that the particular experiences that set mature items in particular ask about on-campus living entry students apart from their school leaver (which are to be omitted if the participant does counterparts, including: giving up full-time not reside on campus). Living on campus is employment, supporting a family, and quite common within American university reintegrating into an academic context (Challis, populations and is less common within the 1976), do not impact resilience. That is, mature Australian universities, particularly at the new entry students who are currently attending age university where participants were sought university are not exhibiting greater levels of for the current study. Future research may focus resilience than school leaver students in on adjusting the instrument for an Australian adapting to the university environment. context. Finally, research using larger samples Feinstein and Hammond (2004) suggested that would also increase the statistical power of these higher levels of resilience occur as a function types of studies. of age, because older adults have the necessary Future research may look at being resources needed to maintain their course of conducted within the first two weeks of study to action as they have had longer to develop those examine whether resilience and adjustment are resources. Although age was not specifically important earlier in the transition process. An analysed in the current study, it must be important variable to include in follow up highlighted that mature entry students are, by studies is academic success. Academic success definition, 20 years old or over upon entry, and has been tied in with adjustment (Baker & Siryk, school leavers are under 20 years old on entry. 1986), and it may be of interest to determine to Therefore although the current study what extent this is so. It would also be contradicts Feinstein and Hammond’s (2004) interesting to find whether resilience has any findings, it is likely that the results from impact on academic success as well. Academic Feinstein and Hammond (2004) support the success or at least course completion is, idea that the university environment in which naturally, most students end goal of studying at the sample was obtained is particularly well university. equipped for non-traditional students of Conclusion diverse backgrounds (Pooley, Young, The most pertinent point arising from the Haunold, Pike, & O'Donnell, 2000) and thus findings suggesting a lack of differences diverse levels of resilience. between school leaver and mature entry students Further to this, Beasley et al. (2003) in terms of adjustment and resilience is that suggest that resilience predominantly has a students need to be considered on an individual large impact on mature entry students. The rather than a group basis. It is surprising that current study supports the notion that resilience mature entry students and school leaver students does have a large impact on mature entry do not differ in their levels of resilience and students’ adjustment to university; however, it adaptation, however, it is not unlikely that this is does not suggest that resilience predominantly truly the case. These two cohorts are affects mature entry students over school increasingly put under various and probably leaver students. The current research is not equal pressures when embarking on, and suggesting that mature entry students and throughout, their university studies. Given the school leaver students have the same disparity in previous research indicating experiences in transitioning to university, but differences between these two groups (e.g., rather, the two groups face different adversities Compas et al., 1986; Feinstein & Hammond, that may culminate in a similar need for 2004; Justice & Dornan, 2001; Taniguchi & resilience to adjust to the university Kaufman, 2005) it seems it is even more likely environment. that there is no difference between the two The SACQ is Americanised in that two groups. This ties in with findings from Urquhart

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and Pooley (2007) suggesting that university Campbell-Sills, L., Cohan, S. L., & Stein, M. B. adjustment is dependent on a number of (2006). Relationship of resilience to individual factors, and is supported by Gall et personality, coping, and psychiatric al. (2000) who express that the quantity and symptoms in young adults. Behaviour kind of life transformations experienced and Research and Therapy, 44, 585-599. the size and helpfulness of students’ social Cantwell, R., Archer, J., & Bourke, S. (2001). A support systems influence the adjustment comparison of the academic experiences and process. Different people experience many achievement of university students entering different life transformations and these factors by traditional and non-traditional means. are highly individual, thus necessitating the Assessment & Evaluation in Higher need for an individual approach to helping Education, 26, 221-234. students of any type adjust to the university Challis, R. (1976). The experience of mature environment. students. Studies in Higher Education, 1, However, the finding that adjustment and 209-222. resilience are related is encouraging, especially Compas, B. E., Wagner, B. M., Slavin, L. A., & in terms of the practical implication of Vannatta, K. (1986). A prospective study of detecting those at risk of not adjusting life events, social support, and psychological successfully to university when embarking symptomatology during the transition from upon an undergraduate course of study. high school to college. American Journal of References Community Psychology, 14, 241-257. Antonovsky, A. (1993). The structure and Cote, J. E. (2002). The role of identity capital in properties of the sense of coherence scale. the transition to adulthood: The Social Science & Medicine, 36, 725-733. individualisation thesis examined. Journal of Australian Council for Educational Research. Youth Studies, 5, 117-134. (n.d.). Special tertiary admissions test. Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R., Rickels, K., Retrieved January 6, 2009, from Uhlenhuth, E. H., & Covi, L. (1974). The http://www.acer.edu.au/stat/index.html Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A Baker, R. W., McNeil, O. V., & Siryk, B. (1985). self-report symptom inventory. Behavioural Expectation and reality in freshman Science, 19, 1-15. adjustment to college. Journal of Edith Cowan University. (2007). Strategic Counseling Psychology, 32, 94-103. information services student statistics: First Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1984). Measuring semester 2007. Retrieved June 20, 2007, adjustment to college. Journal of from Restricted Access Counseling Psychology, 31, 179-189. http://www.ecu.edu.au:80/IRS/ecuonly/offici Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1986). Exploratory al_data/2007s1.zip intervention with a scale measuring Feinstein, L., & Hammond, C. (2004). The adjustment to college. Journal of contribution of adult learning to health and Counseling Psychology, 33, 31-38. social capital. Oxford Review of Education, Beasley, M., Thompson, T., & Davidson, J. 30, 199-221. (2003). Resilience in response to life stress: Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., & The effects of coping style and cognitive Martinussen, M. (2003). A new rating scale hardiness. Personality and Individual for adult resilience: What are the central Differences, 34, 77-95. protective resources behind healthy Brooks, J. H., & DuBois, D. L. (1995). Individual adjustment? International Journal of and environmental predictors of adjustment Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12, 65-76. during the first year of college. Journal of Gall, T. R., Evans, D. R., & Bellerose, S. (2000). College Student Development, 36, 347-360. Transition to first-year university: Patterns of

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change in adjustment across life domains Australia. (2003). National investment for and time. Journal of Social and Clinical the early years. Retrieved June 20, 2007, Psychology, 19, 544-567. from http://www.niftey.cyh.com Gardynik, U. M., & McDonald, L. (2005). Parker, J. D. A., Summerfeldt, L. J., Hogan, M. J., Implications of risk and resilience in the & Majeski, S. (2004). Emotional intelligence life of the individual who is gifted/learning and academic success: Examining the disabled. Roeper Review, 27, 206-214. transition from high school to university. Gerdes, H., & Mallinckrodt, B. (1994). Personality and Individual Differences, 36, Emotional, social and academic adjustment 163-172. of college students: A longitudinal study of Perry, R. P., Hladkyj, S., Pekrun, R. H., & retention. Journal of Counseling and Pelletier, S. T. (2004). Academic control and Development, 72, 281-288. action control in the achievement of college Gonzalez, R., & Padilla, A. M. (1997). The students: A longitudinal field study. Journal academic resilience of Mexican American of Educational Psychology, 93, 776-789. high school students. Hispanic Journal of Pike, L. T., Cohen, L., & Pooley, J. A. (2008). Behavioral Sciences, 19, 301-317. Australian approaches to understanding and Hays, R. B., & Oxley, P. (1986). Social network building resilience in at risk populations. In L. development and functioning during a life Liebenberg & M. Unger (Eds.), Resilience in transition. Journal of Personality and Action (pp. 264-285): University of Toronto Social Psychology, 50, 305-313. Press. Justice, E. M., & Dornan, T. M. (2001). Pooley, J. A., Young, A., Haunold, S., Pike, L. T., Metacognitive differences between & O'Donnell, J. (2000). Peer mentoring traditional-age and nontraditional-age program manual: 10 steps to helping students college students. Adult Education successfully adjust to university. Perth, Quarterly, 2001(51), 236-249. Australia: Edith Cowan University. Lapsley, D. K., & Edgerton, J. (2002). Raphael, B. (1993). Adolescent resilience: The Separation-individuation, adult attachment potential impact of personal development in style, and college adjustment. Journal of schools. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Counseling and Development, 80, 484-492. Health, 29, S31-S36. Larose, S., Bernier, A., & Tarabulsy, G. M. Schwitzer, A. M., Griffin, O. T., Ancis, J. R., & (2005). Attachment state of mind, learning Thomas, C. R. (1999). Social adjustment dispositions, and academic performance experiences of African American college during the college transition. students. Journal of Counseling and Developmental Psychology, 41, 281-289. Development, 77, 189-197. Mandleco, B. L., & Peery, J. C. (2000). An Sennett, J., Finchilescu, G., Gibson, K., & Strauss, organizational framework for R. (2003). Adjustment of black students at a conceptualizing resilience in children. historically white South African university. Journal of Child and Adolescent Educational Psychology, 23, 107-116. Psychiatric Nursing, 13, 99-111. Taniguchi, H., & Kaufman, G. (2005). Degree Martin, A. (2002). Motivation and academic completion among nontraditional college resilience: Developing a model for student students. Social Science Quarterly, 86, 912- enhancement. Australian Journal of 927. Education, 46, 34-49. Tusaie, K., & Dyer, J. (2004). Resilience: A Merril, B. (1999). Gender, change and identity: historical review of the construct. Holistic Mature women students in universities. Nursing Practice, 18, 3-10. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Ashgate. Urquhart, B., & Pooley, J. A. (2007). The NIFTeY Vision for Children in Western transition experience of Australian students to

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university: The importance of social support. Australian Community Psychologist, 19(2), 78-91. Walker, C., Gleaves, A., & Grey, J. (2006). Can students within higher education learn to be resilient and, educationally speaking, does it matter? Educational Studies, 32(3), 251- 264. Werner, E. E. (1990). Protective factors and individual resilience. In S. J. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early intervention: Theory, practice and analysis (pp. 97-116). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

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The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 62 Understanding and Assisting Excessive Players of Video Games:

A Community Psychology Perspective

Daniel King Paul Delfabbro The University of Adelaide

Research has shown that a small but significant minority of video game players play excessively. Excessive play has been linked to fatigue, diminished productivity in work and school, and poor social relationships. The present study investigated the psychological and social context of video game playing in order to understand the phenomenon of excessive video game play. A group interview method was employed using a sample of 38 participants, including 23 adolescents and 15 adults. The analysis of results revealed several salient themes, including those related to player empowerment, recognition (feeling recognised for skilful playing), control (mastery of the game mechanics), and completion (obtaining all in-game rewards). The implications for community psychologists attempting to help excessive video game players are discussed.

The question of why some people play years (Fisher, 1994; Griffiths, 2008; Griffiths & video games excessively is a current subject of Davies, 2005). Some theorists argue that the debate among mental health professionals. construct validity of technological addictions, Over the last decade, studies have investigated including dependency on video games and the the role of players’ personality and other Internet, has yet to emerge and thus the term individual factors in explaining why some ‘addiction’ should not be used (Jaffe, 1990; players play to excess (Douse & McManus, Shaffer, Hall & Vander Bilt, 2000). On the 1993; Griffiths & Dancaster, 1995; Black, other hand, it has been argued that any activity Belsare & Schlosser, 1999; Yang, 2001). may be considered as potentially addictive if an These studies have tended to approach the individual presents with all six criteria of the study of excessive video game play from a components addiction model: salience, mood person-focussed, clinically-oriented modification, withdrawal, tolerance, relapse, perspective, referring to addiction and social and conflict (Griffiths & Davies, 2005). learning models, rather than examining the Charlton and Danforth (2007) have argued that psychological context of video game playing. salience and euphoria associated with video This study takes an alternate approach by game playing should not be considered as adopting a community psychology perspective, inherently problematic because these symptoms and considers the psychosocial context and the may simply characterise’high engagement’ in role of structural elements of video games video games (i.e., a healthy enthusiasm for which may lead a person to play video games playing video games). to excess. Given these conflicting views on Before attempting to explain why some ‘problem’ video game playing or video game individuals play video excessively, it is ‘addiction’, there exists some degree of necessary to qualify what it meant by the term conceptual confusion regarding excessive video ‘excessive’ and how this definition fits within game playing as a problematic activity in its the current discourse on technological own right. For the purpose of parsimony, this addictions. The notion that video game playing paper employs a simple definition that may be considered a form of behavioural considers video game playing to be ‘excessive’ addiction, like problem gambling, has been an when it creates adverse personal and social ongoing subject of debate for over twenty-five consequences in a person’s life. This definition

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allows for some flexibility in its interpretation, defined by the video game context, most as well as the capacity to identify persons notably within online games but this is also whose playing may be more excessive than applicable to offline, ‘stand alone’ games) and others. It is not intended as a tool for the can become an integral part of the social diagnosis of ‘excessive’ players, but as a network associated with the video game general guide for considering issues that may (Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004; Jansz & Tanis, relate to excessive video game play in 2007; Valentine & Holloway, 2002). A social significant ways. role in the video game may grant a person a Community psychology is concerned temporary release from stressful life events. As with the study of people within the context of a player’s video game status increases (i.e., their own settings and social systems. Orford becomes more powerful and recognised by (1992) has argued that individuals are in a state others), it may be perceived as more important of continuing transaction with the various than the player’s social class in the real world settings in which they spend time as part of (which may be less upwardly mobile). It is their everyday lives. This transaction is important to note that the resources – personal, characterised by reciprocity: the individual’s social, economic - available to the player in the participation within their social system affects video game may far outnumber those available the system at large, and the various in the real world. In this way, the model characteristics of the system also affect the predicts that a large divide between a player’s individual. This interplay between person and video game status and real life social class, in context, it is argued, cannot be broken down conjunction with stressful life events, will into smaller units of analysis, but must be increase vulnerability to playing video games to considered as a ‘gestalt’ entity. Video games excess. are often considered as complex social Research into excessive video game contexts or social spaces (Fisher, 1995; Jansz playing is limited in the Australian context. & Martens, 2005; Valentine & Holloway, However, there have been a number of studies 2002), therefore a community psychology overseas which have examined the importance approach may offer a new perspective on why of structural characteristics in video games in some individuals become excessive players, explaining the appeal of video games and may offer some practical solutions for (Chumbley & Griffiths, 2006; Johansson & helping these individuals. Gotestam, 2004; Wood, Griffiths, Chappell, & A reanalysis of Allen and Britt’s (1983) Davies, 2004). Other studies have emphasised feedback model of social class and the importance of the social nature of video psychological disorders may be useful in games in explaining why some individuals understanding excessive video game playing. become highly involved (Griffiths, Davies, & In their model, there is a relationship between Chappell, 2004; Ng & Wiemer-Hastings, 2005). stressful life events and psychological Charlton and Danforth (2007) stated that many problems which is mediated by social class. video games may be attractive because Social class acts in two main ways: it affects players take-on the role of a the likelihood of stress, and the speed with character in a virtual environment which the feedback between the psychological in which a story line evolves over problem and stressful life events occurs. For time and the time frame in which an excessive video game players, it may be useful event will occur is unpredictable... to consider the role of social class in this [and] they are particularly good at model in an additional way. There is a great inducing operant conditioning via deal of literature that shows how a player can variable-ratio reinforcement take on a ‘new’ social class (i.e., status as schedules (p. 1534).

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Despite this literature that highlights the designed to enquire about players’ motivations importance of the social and structural features for playing video games, including what in video game playing, there have been few features of games were attractive or rewarding, published studies which examine the role of and what characteristics of video games would these factors in excessive video game playing. keep them playing in a typical playing session. This qualitative study set out to examine These general questions led into a discussion of in greater detail how individuals become excessive video game playing behaviour. Given excessively involved in video games, by the participants’ broad range of experiences exploring the relationship between player, with video games, participants were encouraged video game machine and the social context of to discuss related areas that they considered to player-machine interaction. It was hoped that be of relevance to the question. The interview this approach would enable a broad and protocol was flexible enough to accommodate coherent explanation for the phenomena of responses that deviated from interview excessive video game playing, particularly in questions. Prior to taking part in the study, all relation to the structural characteristics of participants were asked to fill out a short video games, the video game player and the questionnaire concerning the frequency of their wider social network of players. video game playing. The audio of all group Method interviews was recorded. Participants Procedure Seven semi-structured group interviews Adolescent participants were obtained by were conducted (three groups of four contacting the principal and secondary participants and four groups ranging from three psychology teacher of a high school in a to eight participants in size). The total sample regional city. Three classes of students were was 38 participants, including 23 adolescents selected for participation in the study. An adult (15 males, 8 females) and 15 adults (11 males, sample was obtained by word of mouth requests 4 females). The mean age of the adolescent at a local non-business internet gaming group. group was 16.2 years (SD=0.7) and the mean Interviews were conducted in a separate room at age of the adult group was 30.4 years the gaming venue. Given that this study was (SD=6.7). In terms of video game play, the concerned with video game-related experiences, adolescent group reported playing between 3 potential participants were checked for and 40 hours per week (M=14.5, SD=12.3) eligibility to participate by employing the and the adult group reported playing between 2 screening question: “Do you consider yourself a to 35 hours per week (M=18.1, SD=11.2). By gamer?”. A ‘gamer’ is a commonly used term conducting the interviews in small groups, for a person who plays video games. The mean participants felt comfortable discussing their reported amount of experience playing video experiences playing video games. Previous games was 11.7 years (SD=7.7), so this work has noted that group interviews may screening method appeared to be successful. minimise any perceived power imbalance Food and drink refreshments were provided for between researcher and participants (Wood & all participants following the interview. Griffiths, 2002). Establishing rapport was a critical part of Materials the data collection process, especially when A pilot interview study was carried out interviewing the adolescent participants. To using four adult video game players. These ensure that all participants felt comfortable, players’ input assisted in the construction of a there was a brief period of friendly conversation group interview protocol, including the (approximately five minutes) prior to the development of a set of interview questions interviews. The first researcher being a ‘gamer’ (see Appendix). These questions were helped to make participants feel more

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comfortable referring to specific video games of the participant. Therefore, a coding of ‘G1, when discussing their playing experiences. F, 32’ indicates a 32-year-old female participant Participants consented to having their who participated in the first group interview. responses recorded and were informed that Player empowerment in relation to player these responses would be kept anonymous. recognition and control Data analysis This section explores two main ways in Interview data were analysed using which video games can be argued to empower thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). the player. Empowerment refers to a heightened This process involved three steps. First, the sense of power or authority (Rappaport, 1987). recordings were transcribed and then the This notion will be explored in relation to transcripts were checked against the tapes for participants’ experience of feeling a sense of accuracy. Second, the most salient themes mastery over the virtual properties of the video were identified. Each data item was given game environment as well as a sense of equal attention in the coding process to contextual status or rank, either from feedback ensure an inclusive and comprehensive within the video game or in relation to other process. A separate document was created to video game users. These two ideas are store a list of all identified themes, as well as represented by the themes of ‘control’ and record a series of relevant extracts which ‘recognition’. illustrated each theme. The third step ‘Control’ was a dominant theme involved using this initial set of themes as a throughout the interviews. This theme refers to framework to reanalyse the transcripts. All the notion that video games grant a player a transcripts were reread multiple times to strong sense of personal agency within the ensure a good fit of the data, as well as to game context. The majority of participants ensure that themes were internally coherent, expressed enjoyment at being able to consistent, and distinctive. manipulate and interact with features of the Results video game environment, or exert some The results are presented in five influence over the outcome of in-game events. sections. The first section discusses the As one participant stated, notion of ‘empowerment’ in relation to the You can test what these things do video game playing experience; the second when you input them. You’d hit a section discusses the role of social networks combination of keys and activate a and social responsibility in video games; the booster for health or speed or all third section examines video game rewards these tools that would come in and reward delivery in relation to player really handy” [G4, M, 21]. motivation; the fourth section discusses the Participants also reported a sense of player’s belief that no amount of time spent personal freedom in being able to choose how a playing is ‘long enough’; and the final section video game’s story would be resolved or explores the adverse consequences of controlling the outcome of in-game events excessive play. Direct quotes from the using personal strategy (“In the game you can participants are used to highlight the various follow whatever path you want to, and you themes that arose during the group control it” [G3, F, 18]). interviews, but these quotes do not represent Some participants felt that video games all of the quotes related to that theme. To were more immersive than film or literature ensure participant confidentiality, each because they were able to participate actively, quotation has been assigned a coding rather than be only passively involved. One reference relating to (a) which group the structural feature of video games related to participant was in, and (b) the age and gender player control was the ability to ‘save’ one’s

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progress in the game. This feature enables the utility functions, which coalesce to connect the player to ‘reload’ an earlier part of the game if individual to many others within a large social they wish to correct an error or otherwise network. In this study, all participants reported repeat a previous game section (“I like being to enjoy playing video games with ‘multiplayer’ able to replay it over and over, getting a part support. The social nature of video game done just right” [G2, M, 22]). playing was the primary appeal of the activity ‘Recognition’ was another important for some players. Common experiences theme related to empowerment. Many included helping friends to earn in-game participants reported a sense of fulfilment rewards or other achievements, cooperating associated with being rewarded or ‘recognised’ together to finish a video game, or competing in for having invested tens to hundreds of hours a team against other players. These experiences playing some video games. Examples included were sometimes framed as a type of ‘social being given a special title or rank within the responsibility’ within the network (one game, earning unique items for in-game participant even referred to the video game as characters, like weapons or armour, or even an his “second job”). Some participants reported in-game timer that recorded time spent playing that video games enabled a type of online the game. Part of the value of these items community which shares a common space for related to the difficulty in acquiring them, the anonymous exchange of personal The best sword in the game is hard information as well as information about the to come by. But that’s good and video game. bad, bad because I don’t get a Players reported to adopt an identity sword really quickly but that’s within this online ‘space’ that is associated with good because everyone else the names, titles, language and/or motifs within doesn’t [G2, M, 17]. the video game (“I have this friend who’ll ask ‘Meta-game’ features also recognised me what I’m doing and I’ll say “I’m the Hero of players’ effort and time commitment. A Cyrodiil”. He’s a super, fantastical hero” [G6, common example was online player ‘leader M, 17]), which reinforces a sense of boards’, where players could compare their ‘togetherness’ when working together to progress in a video game with their friends or achieve various goals within the game. A video other players. The ‘achievement point’ system game community is composed of a number of for a popular video game console system social institutions and groupings which exist in (Xbox360) was also mentioned. Achievement the online world, which have the functional points are similar to loyalty rewards programs; purpose of linking certain kinds of players they reward players for not only completing together. Often these social groups hold the game but also for performing rather organised events in the video game that can run esoteric or unusual actions, such as playing a for unpredictable periods of time. These events game non-stop for eight hours, or playing a require the participation of a network of players game with 16 other players at once. Another and thus create a ‘social responsibility’ for each example was “playing 1000 games so you can player within that network (“You are part of the get the Elite achievement points” [G2, M, 23]. playing group and they rely on you” [G6, F, Recognition features were very appealing to 27]). male participants, but were less interesting for This responsibility makes it very difficult female participants. for participants to stop playing a video game Social networks have associated social prematurely (i.e., before other players have responsibilities ‘finished’) and also encourages the player not to It is undeniable that modern video spend too long away from a video game. As one games feature numerous advanced social participant stated, “We’re in a team of eight,

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and you can’t really stop if only one person I always want to get to the next wants to stop so you’re locked in” [G4, M, 16]. level, or you want to just finish Players also noted the reciprocal nature of that bit off. But you find that social responsibility in the video game world you’ve got five other bars that are (“If they’ve helped you out before, then you really close to the next just have to keep playing” [G2, M, 15]). level” [G4, M, 15]. Rewards and reward delivery in relation to Participants also discussed video games player motivation with variable ratio reinforcement schedules, Video games may be conceptualised as a wherein players are rewarded frequently in system that delivers many different rewards the early stages of the game, and then less based on players’ actions. For participants, it often in later stages. Participants reported was important how a video game presented a spending long periods of time in the later reward to the player in response to ‘correct’ or stages of these reward schedules (i.e., when skilful behaviour. Some common notions of rewards were delivered highly infrequently), what constituted a ‘good’ reward were evident not wanting to leave the video game until a through analysis. ‘Good’ rewards tended to major reward was obtained. If a playing challenge the player’s skill level i.e., not too session were interrupted before a major easy or hard to obtain, were novel in nature reward was obtained or human error caused a and commensurate to a player’s effort (“If you game to end prematurely, then participants can beat it without any challenge, then that’s reported feeling anxious to return quickly to no fun” [G2, M, 16]; “It’s great so long as it’s the video game to obtain the associated not always the same reward over and reward over” [G2, M, 16]). Sometimes when I have to exit the Rewards in video games were game to go to work, I keep particularly salient to the male participants thinking about how I haven’t aged between 16 and 25 years, and were finished the bit of the game I was reported to motivate repeated plays of the working on. It can make you feel video game (“I think your achievements or impatient for work to finish so rewards are what keep you coming back to you get back on it [G1, M, 23]. games” [G1, M, 24]). The rewards in video This experience of needing to return to game games were often reported to be the primary quickly was referred to by a number of motivation for playing (“I think more about players as satisfying the ‘need for the achievements and rewards over anything completion’. else” [G1, M, 23]). The variable-ratio reinforcement Participants stated that many video schedules in video games and participants’ games have complex reward structures that need to complete goals often produced what demand multi-tasking management skills and a was termed ‘grinding’ behaviour. Grinding great deal of player concentration. Many refers to the repetition of an action or series participants felt that concurrent in-game goals of actions in a video game in order to obtain a (i.e., playing to earn more than one reward at a reward. In this way, grinding is a time) constantly renewed their motivation to mathematically optimal method of acquiring play the video game. This was described as a in-game rewards, but the player is sacrificing kind of ‘reward cycle’, in which one goal variety of game play (“Building up skills would be close to completion just as another means doing the same stuff over and over, was completed, so the player would be like working a really repetitive second motivated to obtain or finish off the partially job” [G5, M, 33]). Grinding may involve completed goal, hours of playing, sometimes uninterrupted, in

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order to yield the desired rewards (“Like you Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft, get 10 points and you need 3000 so you’ve just are known for their lack of a conclusion and got to keep farming them for a long, long time can be played indefinitely. The virtually before you can get what you’re after” [G4, M, unlimited quantity of rewards in some video 16]). games can lead some players on an None of the male participants reported interminable effort to obtain as many rewards enjoying the process of grinding, but many felt as they can. Concurrent reward structures like that there was no other way to satisfy their two in-game tasks running simultaneously, personal sense of completion concerning a multiple ‘experience bars’ or other onscreen video game (“Trying to finish something or meters of player progress, and completing one unlock something and not necessarily enjoying goal and being close to the next kept many the game, but just wanting to get it done. participants from taking breaks. For this Satisfying the need for completion” [G1, M, reason, some participants reported that they 24]; “I played the same level 10 times to get only stopped playing a video game when they the full set of armour. So that gets frustrating felt too physically sore or fatigued to continue but you have to do it if you want the (“When my arms and hands are getting items” [G6, M, 27]). There were no data in the sore” [G6, M, 32]; “When my fingers aren’t study to suggest that female participants had moving fast enough or my hand is experience or interest in using grinding asleep” [G4, M, 16]), or when an external strategies. event like meal times or a partner’s request to Belief that no amount of time spent playing is stop forced them to exit the game (“Some ‘long enough’ other external factor, like tea time, that drives Many participants reported to continue you away” [G7, M, 30]). The key point is that, playing a video game even when the for some players, the video game playing experience ceased to be fun or pleasurable. session does not terminate itself naturally This led to a discussion of when players felt through play. they had played for ‘long enough’ and whether Excessive playing has negative psychosocial any features of video games prompted the consequences player to end a playing session. The majority It is clear that video games can offer a of female participants indicated that they distinct and rewarding experience to the end usually quit a video game when they had user. Therefore, it is not surprising that many finished a level in the game, or felt bored by of the respondents reported that it was difficult the game. In contrast, many of the male to regulate video game playing and sometimes participants reported that they never felt they played video games for excessive periods. The had played ‘long enough’ in a typical playing fact that the video game machine is located in session. The desire to continue playing when the home environment appears to make it the game was no longer fun was attributed to difficult for players to take time away from the the variable reward structure of the game (i.e., game, the notion that the next reward might be ‘right The only thing I don’t like is that around the next corner’), and also to the fact you can get so involved that you that many of the games they played had no just want to keep going and you definitive ‘end point’. As one participant can’t get away from it because it’s stated, “I never really feel like I’ve played a always there [G2, M, 16]. game for long enough. There’s always Some participants referred to some video something more because I don’t really get games as being “addictive”, but this term was games that have an end” [G3, M, 16]). employed to emphasise both the positive and Online role-playing games, such as negative aspects of the game. A common

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consequence of long playing sessions was be discussed. conflict with important life responsibilities. This study suggests that people play video Participants identified a range of life games excessively because of the strong commitments which had been sacrificed or feelings of empowerment associated with video compromised in some way in order to games. It is possible that one reason why people prioritise a video game playing experience, play video games to excess may be the lack of Another aspect that I don’t like empowerment that they have in the real world. about video games is that it can Durkin (1995) has stated that video games are impact on your family life if you’re designed to facilitate and reward player control not careful. It starts to conflict with and eventual mastery over the video game other important things, like money, environment. By comparison, the real world can jobs, and normal relationships be an uncertain place that may not treat the [G5, M, 49]. individual fairly. For some players, the ‘real’ These experiences included neglecting real life world may in fact be the video game’s setting, social relationships, diminished school and as it is within this interactive space that the work productivity (“I have played all night, player has developed a sense of mastery and had a shower and then went to work” [G5, M, feels recognised by others. Castronova (2005) 49]), ignoring household duties and irregular has stated that some people view video game sleep patterns, worlds as the best place available to them. In None of us had slept for about 24 this sense, there may appear to be little hours. I don’t think anyone of us incentive for some players to leave the world of wanted to stop but certainly the the video game. For community psychologists, game kept us engaged and playing addressing this notion of empowerment is for longer than any of us bloody crucial for helping an excessive player bring well wanted to” [G7, M, 30]. their video game playing habits into balance Discussion with other life responsibilities. One approach is The present study employed qualitative to help the player to develop strategies and/or interviews to explore the psychosocial context life skills to regain control and feel socially of excessive video game play. The results rewarded in other areas of their life, such as showed that a video game can be an school, work and relationships. This approach empowering agent that gives a player a sense may be complimented by rallying social support of mastery as well as a sense of status within for the player as he or she spends more time in the context of the game. Video games are also non-video game activities. highly rewarding because of the social McMillan and Chavis (1986) have stated networks that the player can connect to, that membership to a group is defined by enabling them to take on various social boundaries, emotional safety, a sense of responsibilities which provide a sense of belonging, personal investment and a common identity and belonging within a large language. This study has explored some of the community of other players. There are also ways in which group membership operates in reward systems within video games which play the social context of video game play. The an important role in sustaining player interview data suggested that: (a) there are motivation. The nature of these systems is boundaries in games indicated by the status of similar in many ways to gambling machines the player’s in-game character, among many insofar as delivering rewards on variable-ratio other factors, (b) there is a sense of emotional and fixed-interval schedules. The relevance of safety in terms of the video game world these factors for community psychologists who offering an anonymous space for the exchange seek to help excessive video game players will of personal information, (c) there is a sense of

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belonging through teamwork and competitive places no expectations on the player as a friend, pursuits, (d) there is personal investment in and offers no social rewards. The implication is terms of players spending long periods of time that community psychologists may need to to acquire in-game rewards, and (e) there is a assist the excessive player in understanding the rich language and symbol system within video quality of the attachment that has been formed games that players develop and use (this paper with his or her video game machine. A possible could not formally address these in detail but strategy to reduce the player’s dependence on there were many examples of video game- the machine is to integrate the person into new related ‘jargon’ in the transcripts). These are social networks that can gratify needs for social normal and healthy features of group belonging. membership; however, these characteristics Player motivation appears to be heavily also provide useful units of analysis for influenced by the variable-ratio or fixed-interval community psychologists in dealing with reward delivery systems in video games. In excessive players of video games. For terms of the nature of rewards, participants example, excessive video game play may be reported to prefer video game goals that are not characterised by an intense personal too easy or difficult to obtain. investment in the video game. The difficulty Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) theory of optimal for the player in reducing time spent playing is experience, termed ‘flow’, states that people reconciling the personal dilemma that spending reach a motivational peak when engaged in a less time in the game enables more free time in challenging task that is optimally difficult. This the real world, but time spent away from the study identified male players who do not seek game means fewer video game-related rewards out optimally challenging video game (i.e., abandoning a large personal investment). situations, and instead use ‘grinding’ tactics, Some players appear to form a strong which involves performing an easy and relationship or bond with the video game repetitive series of actions in a game in order to machine. Selnow (1984) referred to this maximise reward payout. These participants did attachment as “electronic friendship” (p. 155). not always enjoy the process of grinding but felt At its extreme, excessive players may prefer to it was necessary to satisfy a personal sense of play the game over spending time with real life achievement or completion. Video games with friends because it is easier than managing concurrent reward schedules that do not have interpersonal relationships and helps to forget definitive endpoints may also condition the feelings of social loneliness. The implication player to think that no amount of time spent of ‘electronic friendship’ is players who reduce playing is ‘long enough’. These findings are in time spent playing video games are, for all line with research that has shown that gamblers intents and purposes, reducing time spent with will continue to gamble even when they are a ‘friend’. This perspective offers a sensitive bored by or no longer enjoy the activity, and insight into the player’s negative mood state report irritation on winning because it sustains a (that may be termed ‘withdrawal’ in clinical session of play (Blaszczynski, McConaghy, & psychology) that may accompany a decrease or Frankova, 1990). Helping an excessive player cessation of time spent playing a video game. may involve education about the never-ending Sarason (1974) conceptualised social nature of some video games and how this can belonging as an acknowledged influence motivation to play for periods longer interdependence with others, and a willingness than intended. to maintain this interdependence by giving or Rather than adopting a traditional, person- doing to others what one expects from them. focussed therapeutic approach aimed at The problem of electronic friendship is that a addressing various intra-psychic deficits of the machine has no shared values, no emotions, individual, such as depression or anxiety, it may

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be worthwhile to attend to the environment game takes to complete, and other features which maintains a problem video game playing which may influence the ‘addictiveness’ of the habit. In community psychology, this video game. Parents should take an active role intervention is called ‘second-order change’ in their children’s media choices and playing and involves addressing aspects of the patterns, and open a dialogue to discuss what environment which support problem behaviour gratification needs the video game fulfils in (Rappaport, 1977). A community psychologist their life. For adult players, friends and may work together with the player to identify partners who suspect that a person is playing specific environmental factors which promote, video games excessively should also follow develop and maintain unhealthy playing this strategy. Given that some adults play patterns. For example, a community video games to escape or dissociate from the psychologist may recommend that: (a) the real world, it is possible that these players may player does not have a video game machine in not be aware of the extent of their playing the same room as the person sleeps, to avoid habit. It may be beneficial for the player’s real poor sleep hygiene practices, (b) the player has life social support network to point out to the a clock in the same room as the video game player (in a non-threatening and non- machine to monitor playing times (and the judgemental manner) his or her high level of player could also set an alarm when playing involvement and how it negatively affects video games to prompt the end of a playing their psychosocial wellbeing. Making the session), (c) the player plays in a well-lit room consequences of excessive playing more to minimise the subjective experience of time salient may serve to initiate that player’s loss, (d) the player eats meals in a different desire for positive self-change. room of the house as the playing machine, and Players may benefit from discussing (e) the player unplugs and stores away the their experiences on online message boards video game machine when it is not in use, and/ related to excessive video game play. They or arranges furniture so that it is not facing the can receive factual information, including video game machine. guides to healthy playing styles and ways of The interview data suggested that some managing stressors that trigger the desire to video games may be more ‘addictive’ than play video games. In addition, players can others due to the structural features of the provide and receive support and feedback game. For example, a person is less likely to from others, including those individuals who spend as long playing a ‘casual’ puzzle game formerly played excessively. Support services than an online role-playing game. The latter can also help people who are close to an game type contains potentially ‘risky’ excessive player, such as a parent or spouse, structural characteristics which make playing because they can provide support and practical more difficult to self-regulate. Broadly, risky advice, such as suggesting alternative features include the requirement of the player activities during times when the player would to spend increasingly longer amounts of time usually play video games. In tandem with in order to make progress, and the lack of a these support services, community definitive endpoint to the game. It is important psychologists should consider the role of that parents of younger players are introducing excessive players of all ages to knowledgeable about the kinds of video games other social, non-sedentary (and, importantly, which are often associated with excessive time-limited) activities, such as sport and playing. The classification labels on video recreation groups, which can offer a sense of games refer only to explicit content, like achievement and belongingness within a team- violence and language, but they do not contain based environment. information on elements like how long the This research offers additional support

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for the notion that excessive video game Charlton, J. P., & Danforth, I. D. W. (2007). playing is largely influenced by the ways in Distinguishing addiction and high which video games deliver rewards to players engagement in the context of online game for skilful behaviour, and the nature of social playing. Computers in Human Behaviour, networking within video game environments. 23, 1531-1548. This paper was intended to provide specialist Chumbley, J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2006). Affect information about the general appeal of video and computer game player: The effect of games to mental health professionals who may gender, personality, and game be unfamiliar with video game technologies reinforcement structure on affective and, more importantly, explain how these responses to computer game play. technologies relate the phenomenon of CyberPsychology & Behaviour, 3, 308-316. excessive video game play. Community Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology can assist excessive video game psychology of optimal experience. New players by helping them to develop a sense of York: Harper Perrenial. belonging outside of the world of video games, Douse, N. A., & McManus, I. C. (1993). The and educating them about the features of video personality of fantasy game players. British games which keep them playing excessively. Journal of Psychology, 84, 505-509. As video games become increasingly complex Durkin, K. (1995). Computer games. Their and appealing, it is also important that players effects on young people: A review. Sydney, are aware of the psychosocial context of video NSW: Office of Film and Literature game play and how it can affect their video Classification. game playing motivations, for better or worse. Engelberg, E., & Sjoberg, L. (2004). Internet References use, social skills, and adjustment. Allen, L., & Britt, D. (1983). Social class, CyberPsychology & Behaviour, 7, 41-47. mental health, and mental illness: The Fisher, S. (1994). Identifying video game impact of resources and feedback. In R. addiction in children and adolescents. Felner, L. Jason, J. Moritsugu & S. Farber Addictive Behaviours, 19, 545-553. (Eds.), Preventative psychology: Theory, Fisher, S. (1995). The amusement arcade as a research and practice (pp. 149-161). New social space for adolescents: An empirical York: Pergamon. study. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 71-86. Black, D. W., Belsare, G., & Schlosser, S. Griffiths, M. D. (2008). Diagnosis and (1999). Clinical features, psychiatric co management of video game addiction. morbidity, and health-related quality of Addiction Treatment and Prevention, 12, life in persons reporting compulsive 27-41. computer use behaviour. Journal of Griffiths, M. D., & Dancaster, I. (1995). The Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 839-845. effect of type A personality on Blaszczynski, A., McConaghy, N., & physiological arousal while playing Frankova, A. (1990). Boredom proneness computer games. Addictive Behaviours, 20, in pathological gambling. Psychological 543-548. Reports, 67, 35-42. Griffiths, M. D., & Davies, M. N. O. (2005). Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using Video-game addiction: Does it exist? In J. thematic analysis in psychology. Goldstein & J. Raessens (Eds.), Handbook Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77- of computer game studies (pp. 359-368). 101. Boston: MIT Press. Castronova, E. (2005). Synthetic worlds: The Griffiths, M. D., Davies, M. N. O., & Chappell, business and culture of online games. D. (2004). Demographic factors and Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. playing variables in online computer

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gaming. CyberPsychology & Behaviour, Wood, R. T. A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2002). 7, 479-487. Adolescent perceptions of the National Jaffe, J. H. (1990). Trivialising dependence Lottery and scratch cards: A qualitative [Commentary]. British Journal of study using group interviews. Journal of Addiction, 85, 1425-1427. Adolescence, 25, 655-668. Jansz, J., & Martens, L. (2005). Gaming at a Wood, R. T. A., Griffiths, M. D., Chappell, D., LAN event: The social context of playing & Davies, M. N. O. (2004). The structural video games. New Media & Society, 7, characteristics of video games: A psycho- 333-355. structural analysis. CyberPsychology & Jansz, J., & Tanis, M. (2007). Appeal of Behaviour, 7, 1-10. playing online first person shooter games. Yang, C. K. (2001). Socio-psychiatric CyberPsychology & Behaviour, 10, 133- characteristics of adolescents who use 136. computers to excess. Acta Psychiatrica Johansson, A., & Gotestam, K. G. (2004). Scandivica, 104, 217-222. Problems with computer games without Appendix monetary reward: Similarity to Interview questions pathological gambling. Psychological 1. What are your favourite aspects of video Reports, 95, 641-650. games? McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. (1986). 2. What are your least favourite aspects of Sense of community: A definition and video games? theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 3. When not playing video games, what 14(1), 6-23. thoughts about video games most often enter Ng, B. D., & Wiemer-Hastings, P. (2005). your mind? What do you daydream about Addiction to the Internet and Online specifically? Gaming. CyberPsychology & Behaviour, 4. When playing a video game, what features 8, 110-113. of the game keep you playing longer than you Orford, J. (1992). Community psychology: expected? What makes it hard to get off the Theory and practice. New York: John game? Wiley & Sons. 5. What features of games make you turn them Rappaport, J. (1977). Community psychology: off or no longer want to continue playing? Values, research and action. New York: 6. Do you ever find it hard to stop playing a Holt, Rinehart and Winston. video game once you’ve started? Sarason, S.B. (1974). The psychological sense 7. Have you ever had the experience of of community: Prospects for a community playing a video game and not really enjoyed psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass playing, but continued playing anyway? What Selnow, G. W. (1984). Playing videogames: made you keep playing? The electronic friend. Journal of 8. When do you feel like you have played a Communication, 34, 148-156. video game for “long enough”? Shaffer, H. J., Hall, M. N., & Vander Bilt, J. 9. When does a video game make you feel (2000). "Computer Addiction": A critical content that you’ve played for “long enough”? consideration. American Journal of 10. Have you ever wanted to stop playing a Orthopsychiatry, 70, 162-168. video game, but couldn’t because you were Valentine, G., & Holloway, S. L. (2002). playing with friends, either with online friends Cyber kids? Exploring children's identities or with friends in the same room? and social networks in on-line and off-line 11. Do you ever think about specific video worlds. Annals of the Association of game characters when not playing? What do American Geographers, 92, 302-319. you like or dislike about them?

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12. Do you ever think about the storylines in video games? What do you like or dislike about them? 13. Do you ever think about specific items, achievements or rewards in games? What do you like or dislike about them?

Address correspondence to Daniel King School of Psychology Hughes Building The University of Adelaide Adelaide SA 5005 Phone (08) 8303 3399 email [email protected].

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 75 Giving Psychology Away for the Common Good:

Reflections of a Novice Community Psychologist

Chris Michael Kirk Wichita State University

This article presents a brief history and description of community psychology through the eyes of a novice community psychologist. From this fresh perspective, four foundational thoughts of the field are explored, drawing on an overview of the literature and personal reflection. The author suggests that community psychology encourages psychologists to Think Upside-Down, Think Long-Term, Think Plural, and Think Eco. In conclusion, two predictions for the future of community psychology are offered. The aim of this article is to provide a humble, hopeful perspective on the field of community psychology and challenge community psychologists, veteran and novice alike, to move towards a more sustainable, globally interconnected future. . I’m rather embarrassed to admit that the the field as it presently stands and point phrase “Community Psychology” did not exist towards a bright future. in my vocabulary a mere 12 months ago. My A Brief History training and practice in the helping professions A curious search on Google Earth had had been almost exclusively focused on the me staring down at Swampscott, understanding and treating of individuals. Massachusetts (Google, 2008). I must admit While I found my work fulfilling, I often that there was nothing particularly mythical wondered about the larger picture of social or attractive about this place from above. Yet justice and the impact of the broader social it was here, in the fertile ground of 1965, that context. All of that changed one cold, winter a most amazing event took place. The evening as I happened across a website Conference for the Education of describing the field which would change my Psychologists for Community Mental Health life. I soon fell in love, became the newest was a seemingly innocuous gathering of convert, and began pursuing a career as a inconspicuous psychologists seeking to community psychologist. establish the role of psychology in the One of the first articles I encountered expanding United States Community Mental from the early days of community psychology Health System. Instead, these visionary was by George Miller (1969). Forty years ago, participants experienced a “deep stirring and he eloquently exhorted his peers to “give metamorphosis,” (p. 4) and emerged with a psychology away,” (p. 1071) opening a new new expression for the profession of way for the helping professions. It is Miller’s psychology (Bennett, Cooper, Hassol, Klein, vision that I build on here, casting a glance & Rosenblum, 1966). backwards and a glimpse forward. With However, the birth of community humility, I approach the subject of defining psychology cannot be narrowed down to a community psychology from my perspective singular time and place, but evolved globally and posing a prediction or two about the future in a plurality of forms. Fryer (2008a) has direction of my newly beloved field. This proposed a European origin for community perspective is admittedly novice and certainly psychology, dating back to the work of Marie incomplete compared to the vast works of the Jahoda in the early 1930s. As early as the giants of the field, those who have walked this 1950s, Brazilian community psychology had journey for decades. Yet, perhaps a set of emerged with the involvement of novice eyes can provide a fresh perspective on psychologists in social action and poverty

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alleviation in the midst of often oppressive understanding human behavior. An emphasis on governments (Freitas, 2000). The practice of individual explanations limits the ability to Latin American community psychology create social change (Maton, Perkins, & continued to grow in many countries (Mexico, Saegert, 2006). These revolutionary ideas Columbia, El Salvador, Peru, etc.) largely require more than an academic independent of foreign influence (Montero, acknowledgement, but rather a seismic shift in 2008). On the other side of the globe, the foundation of our thinking. It is to four of community psychology developed in Australia these foundational thoughts that we shall now and New Zealand (Aotearoa) as early as the turn. I propose that community psychology 1970s and now has a more widespread requires us to: Think Upside Down, Think application than in the United States with a Long-term, Think Plural, and Think Eco. major focus on the social issues surrounding Think Upside Down Indigenous peoples (Fisher, Gridley, Thomas, Community psychologists speak a & Bishop, 2008). Community psychology language different from most of the mainstream continues to emerge and thrive in places from power brokers and the familiar top-down South Africa to Italy (Orford, 2008), and this approach. This approach has its roots in the trend promises to continue as we move further Enlightenment and assumes an expertise on the into the 21st century. part of trained professionals to the exclusion of A Definition citizen involvement (Smith, 2008). For Despite the global presence and example, authority and power are assigned to widespread impact of community psychology, the few who make decisions which then are it is still a relatively young field, and thus implemented down the food chain. Consider the continues to work through growing pains as it hierarchical flow charts of Fortune 500 comes into its own. Many have proposed solid companies or the neo-liberal agenda of definitions of community psychology (Dalton, Washington D.C.. These approaches have Elias & Wandersman, 2007; Golann, 1975; unintended consequences and fail to effectively Orford, 2008), Drawing from these, I would address the breadth of social needs. One define the field as the following: example of this comes from government aid Community psychology is the programs in rural Botswana. Lekoko and Van collaboration of professionals and citizens in Der Merwe (2006) found that the top-down, the practice of rigorous research and intensive hand-out approach fails to adequately address action focused on helping individuals and community needs and has byproducts of communities flourish in the perpetuation of the dependency and a lack of ownership in the common good. process. In essence, community psychology Community psychology presents a vision requires a shift in thinking from the in which power is exposed and turned on its individualism espoused by Western culture head. Rappaport (1981) has long argued for an and the traditional practice of psychology to approach which embraces all people as human the embrace of a multifaceted, complex beings and considers ordinary citizens to be the understanding of individuals within contexts. best experts on life in their context. This idea Shinn and Toohey (2003) described a “context has most often been characterised as minimalization error” (p. 428) which empowerment, a concept which refers to the overlooks the affects of environment and leads process by which people achieve increased to bankrupt theories and interventions. Kelly access to, and control of, needed resources (2006) challenged us to avoid psychological (Wiley & Rappaport, 2000). Unfortunately, reductionism which seeks simple solutions, but many efforts of psychologists have modeled rather to embrace a degree of complexity in top-down approaches in which the professional

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experts use their power to bring change to less- the liberation model to their work in both the powerful and supposedly less-knowledgeable United States and Nigeria, discovering the clientele, often with catastrophic results positive change that can rise from small (Prilleltensky, 2008). Further, the Western empowering communities (Trout, Dokecki, conception of empowerment tends to be Newbrough, & O’Gorman, 2003). individualistic and has different implications in The “upside-down” approach has worked collectivist societies (Jewell, 2007). Maton its way into the applied practice of community (2008) has explored the role that community psychology. Many applied community psychologists can play in helping to create psychologists work with communities and empowering settings, which in turn increase organisations around the world to produce empowerment in individual members of the grassroots, bottom-up change. Social action is community and bring about lasting social one tool used to challenge powerful interests by change. the involvement of citizens. Further, this While empowerment has been discussed emphasis on participatory efforts has opened up extensively, community psychology is still whole new arenas for the work of psychologists search for better definitions of power itself and for help-seeking individuals. Nowhere is (Fisher & Sonn, 2007). Prilleltensky (2008) this more clearly seen than in the proliferation defined power as the ability and opportunity of mutual help groups. Based on Frank one has to influence their life, including the Riessman’s (1990) helper therapy principle, power to pursue a good life, the power to these groups are places where people who need oppress others, and the power to resist help “function as producers of help” (p. 221). oppression. Yet some have criticised this view Community psychologists have been intimately as too focused on the needs and abilities of the involved in the research and implementation of individual, preferring to describe power as a these groups, a trend which may continue to function of large social systems within which increase (Brown, Shepherd, Wituk, & Meissen, individuals reside (Fryer, 2008b; Smail, 2001). 2008). Despite its definition, community Think Long-Term psychologists are innately interested in The requirement to Think Upside Down exposing the complex nature of power and the turns power on its head through several means effects that inequitable power distributions including empowerment and social action. This have on communities and individuals (Fisher, emphasis requires a second shift in thinking that Sonn, & Evans, 2007). is prominent in community psychology: Think Another way of conceptualising the Long-Term. While we often face urgent imperative to “Think Upside Down” is the challenges, community psychology holds a dichotomy of oppression and liberation. strong value in the way these problems are Oppression concerns an asymmetric power resolved. The “upside down” approach requires relationship between dominant and subordinate the involvement of more people and inevitably groups. Liberation psychology is a concept takes more time (Putnam, Feldstein & Cohen, most developed in Latin America which seeks 2003). Yet, for sustainable change to occur one social change for marginalised groups, must think about how the community will fare challenging the political system in the process. long after the project at hand has come to an Watkins and Schulman (2008) write of end. Thinking long-term humbly acknowledges liberation psychology as a shift in thinking that what seems like the right solution today from the individual to the community. They may very well be responsible for future suggest that the work of liberation is a problems (Levine & Perkins, 1997). mending of the “torn fabric of Collaboration and citizen participation are interdependence” (p. 77). One group applied two often used practices. Collaborative

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coalitions are especially powerful because they discovering a unified theory and applying it bring all the stakeholders to the table to create to all individuals everywhere regardless of a localised direction for the future. For their culture, neighbourhood, or family professionals, it is often easy to forget how structure. Psychology as a whole has begun difficult change can be for communities and to emphasise cultural competence and the organisations. To truly achieve second-order appreciation of diversity (American change in a setting requires a complete Psychological Association, 2003). reevaluation of the relationships, rules, and Community psychologists have been structures which comprise those systems important leaders in acknowledging this (Linney, 1990). Resistance to change can be need. high, and long-standing patterns of behavior “Cultural competence” is a buzz word are difficult to reverse (Levine & Perkins, which refers to the ability to work with 1997). This requires time, patience, and people from various cultures in providing consensus-seeking on the part of all the effective services (Diller, 2004). Harrell and members. Bond (2006) have discussed the importance With this in mind, it is sometimes of considering all cultures as multilayered difficult to employ the long-term view when entities, which function according to different seeking community change, especially when values and are affected by different forces. program funding and personal prestige are on The embrace of diversity is always more the line. For change to endure, we must think complex than an either-or proposition, and about how the community will be affected 5, the bridging of different cultures is often a 10, or 20 years down the road. No writing is trying process (Brodsky & Faryal, 2006). For more influential or encouraging in thinking community psychologists, the pursuit of about this process of change than Karl Weick’s cultural competence is a journey which (1984) “Small Wins.” Weick describes small requires humility, patience, and commitment. wins as limited approaches to problems which Kim, Kim, and Kelly (2006) described this reduce arousal and make progress possible. process from their work with Korean These minute steps often create momentum immigrants. They remind us of the which opens the door for more comprehensive importance of long-term thinking, giving changes (Weick, 1984). In Better Together, attention to the sometimes subtle Putnam et al. (2003) elaborate on this concept, contextualities of a particular culture or emphasising how important it is to set subculture. This commitment requires the reasonable goals and take small steps in order ability to think upside down, think long-term, to turn these “bite-sized” changes into lasting and turning to our final foundational thought, change over the long term. As we sit at the to think eco. table with all the stakeholders, we are often Think Eco reminded that there is no singular solution Nearly 40 years ago, James Kelly wrote (Rappaport, 1981), which brings us to our next beautifully about the foundational shift of foundational shift in thinking: Think Plural. ecological thinking which would define Think Plural community psychology: Life is colourful and diverse. Thus, The spirit of the community community psychology must practice plural psychologist is the spirit of a naturalist, who thinking to be effective. The top-down, short- dotes on his environment, of the journalist term approach discussed above leaves no room who bird-dogs his story, of the for multiplicity of thought. Too often, conservationalist, who glows when he finds a psychological practice and efforts for new way to describe man’s interdependence community betterment have been about with his environment. (Kelly, 1970)

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Ecological thought amends the person- world with mixed reviews. Recent work has centered approach to psychology, and begun a discussion on a new model which acknowledges that individuals exist within a reflects a multidimensional expression of sense variety of powerful systems which have of community (Tartaglia, 2006). Whatever dramatic effects on individual wellness. construct is chosen, community psychology has Several theories have been explored from a mission to pursue greater understanding of Barker’s (1968) explanation of behavior as a ecological contexts and to help communities function of powerful settings to give voice to their ideas and shape to a Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) conceptualisation of communal identity that promotes well-being persons as nested within a collection of (Montero, 2009). ecological systems. Each of these metaphors Predictions for the Future provides a helpful explanation of the With such a storied past and a thriving foundational understanding of present, community psychology’s future is interdependence, which forms the basis for all bright. But which direction will this field travel ecological thought (Kelly, 2006). in the future and which emerging concepts will Unfortunately, ecological thinking has be discussed in papers such as these 25 years not been embraced widely throughout from now? Certainly, it is humbling as a novice psychology, leading to an incomplete in the field to garner predictions of future understanding of individuals extricated from events. Yet, one could argue that it is on the their contexts (Kelly, 2006). Espino and backs of emerging community psychologists Trickett (2008) have recently provided an like me that this future will be brought into updated framework for applying ecological existence. With this responsible humility in principles to interventions. However, in their mind, I offer two predictions about the future review of the American Journal of Community direction of community psychology. Psychology, they found that most intervention The Sustainability Revolution articles focused on the individual level of In the next 25 years, our global analysis, rather than attending to larger community will face some of the greatest ecological levels. Despite a long history of challenges in the history of our planet: the ecological theory, it appears that, within the threat of global terrorism and overzealous Western world, ecological thinking is responses by nation-states, the escalation of the something that merits further research and threat of nuclear proliferation, the impending implementation into psychological consequences of climate change, and the intervention. pressures of a planet that is growing One related area which may require increasingly overcrowded. Each of these further research is the concept of sense of challenges provide opportunities for a new way community. Sarason (1974) initially defined of thinking, the way that community sense of community as “the perception of psychologists have been thinking for quite some similarity to others, an acknowledged time. I choose to call this “The Sustainability interdependence with others, a willingness to Revolution.” maintain this interdependence by giving to or Sustainability is the natural evolution of doing for others what one expects from them, the ecological metaphor described above as a the feeling that one is part of a larger key foundation for community psychology dependable and stable structure” (p. 157). (Kelly, 1970). According to the United States McMillan and Chavis (1986; McMillan, 1996) Environmental Protection Agency (2008), later developed a theoretical framework for the sustainability refers to the provision of construct. Since then, sense of community has resources in the present without “compromising been studied in a variety of cultures around the the ability of future generations to meet their

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own needs” (p. 2). I would expand this resources (p. 209) of relationships are assigned definition to consider how the needs for higher value. dominant groups, cultures, or nations can be Naturally, community psychologists met without compromising the needs of should be the ideal leaders for this evolution. subordinated, minority, marginalised, or This will require rigorous research using new developing groups in the present day. methods to generate theories of sustainability in Sustainability is an environmental term, but in community settings, building on the current the future this term should embrace a more theories of sense of community and holistic understanding of our world, empowerment. Community psychologists will considering both biological and interpersonal find themselves even more engaged at the relationships. However, in order to move into grassroots level, working with communities to an era of sustainability, we must realise the create lasting social change, and in the arenas of tremendous struggle that lies ahead. public policy to shape more responsible The doctrines of neo-liberalism and free- governments. market capitalism have spread around the Get Bilingual world with an emphasis on unrestrained As the sustainability revolution sweeps individualism at the expense of ecological and through the Western world, it will create new human capital. This spread has even had an links between cultures, and opportunities for impact in places like Norway with a long learning and conflict. With consistent history of focus on social concerns. A recently acceleration in the means of transportation and completed discursive analysis of a Norwegian communication, the world will continue to get newspaper found that talk of material smaller, increasing everyday interaction consumption rose dramatically through the between members of diverse cultures. With a past 20 years in that country, suggesting the respect for human diversity and plural thinking, widespread impact of the consumerist ideology community psychology will find itself thriving (Nafstad, Blakar, Carlquist, Phelps, & Rand- at these intersections of culture. Hendriksen, 2009). Despite this, the tide of Many of the key challenges we face can sustainability may be rising in the form of be explained in terms of a clash of cultures. Triple Bottom Line (TBL) decision making Global terrorism can be seen as a clash between which is being considered by several world Muslim-Christian, Arab and non-Arab, or the governments. TBL considers not only the colonised and the colonisers. In the United economics of any situation, but also the States, the continuing discussion and pressure environmental and social side effects involved of immigration reform presses into the public in any decision (Bishop, Vicary, Browne, & consciousness an awareness of diversity and the Guard, 2009). This type of thinking is crucial challenge to respond humanely. From history, for any revolution of sustainability to occur we can assume that these clashes of culture and against the massive onslaught of neo-liberal ideology will continue to arise. However, for us capitalism. Myers (2003) suggested that to evolve beyond the status quo to a more psychologists can play a key role in sustainable way of inhabiting the planet, we introducing sustainability into our global must discover ways to navigate these conflicts culture. He suggested that we can enter into a effectively. This acceleration opens up a wealth “post-materialist” age by helping our of opportunities for community psychologists. communities recognise the consequences of New theories and methods will need to be over-consumption and the lack of created in order to facilitate improved inter- psychological benefit from hyper-materialism. cultural interaction as an expansion of domestic Rather, Myers promoted the creation of a cultural competence. Community psychologists culture where the “enduringly sustainable” can play a key role in helping meet these needs

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creating broad coalitions that are vital in the Barker, R. (1968). Ecological psychology. new world order. In considering the conflicts Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. between Israelis and Palestinians, the colonised Bennett, C. C., Cooper, S., Hassol, L., Klein, D. and the colonisers, Chief Executive Officers C., & Rosenblum, G. (1966). Community and minimum wage employees, could psychology: A report of the Boston community psychologists play an increased Conference on the Education of role in facilitating interaction for resolution of Psychologists for Community Mental these conflicts? I would suggest that we Health. Boston: Boston University. maintain our optimism and apply the principles Bishop, B. J., Vicary, D. A., Browne, A. I., & of community psychology to our biggest, most Guard, N. (2009). Public policy, intractable problems. Wandersman (2009) has participation and the third position: The suggested that we develop a realistic ambition implication of engaging communities on for tackling social issues. He explored several their own terms. American Journal of projects which began with great optimism and Community Psychology. DOI 10.1007/ failed to meet expectations, discovering four s10464-008-9214-8 keys to successful participatory enterprises. Brodsky, A. E., & Faryal, T. (2006). No matter This framework is helpful as we confront the how hard you try, your feet still get wet: systems of oppression, inequity, and Insder and outsider perspectives on intolerance which threaten us. No doubt these bridging diversity. American Journal of challenges will require a long series of small Community Psychology , 37, 311-320. steps, but perhaps we could work towards an Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of environment where our problems are not human development: Experiments by solved by the diplomacy of powerful world nature and design. Cambridge, MA: leaders, but rather by the gathering every day, Harvard University Press. ordinary citizens. Brown, L. D., Shepherd, M. D., Wituk, S. A., & Conclusion Meissen, G. (2008). Introduction to the Writing these words fills me with hope, special issue on mental health self-help. excitement, and a sense of responsibility. The American Journal of Community hard, ground-breaking work of our Psychology, 42, 105-109. predecessors has presented us with a field Dalton, J. H., Elias, M. J., & Wandersman, A. brimming with possibilities and ready to help (2007). Community psychology: Linking shape the world of the future. This period, like individuals and communities. Belmont, the one before it, will be an opportunity for CA: Thomson Wadsworth. community psychologists to play an increased Diller, J. (2004). Cultural diversity: A primer role in shaping sustainable policies, increasing for the human services (2nd ed). Pacific civic involvement, and fighting alongside the Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. marginalised. A great opportunity lies before Espino, S. L. R., & Trickett, E. J. (2008). The us. I would suggest that it is time to follow the spirit of ecological inquiry and sage advice of Miller (1969) and “give intervention research reports: A heurstic psychology away” for the common good. I elaboration. American Journal of look forward to the opportunity to do so. Community Psychology, 42, 60-78. References Fisher, A. T., & Sonn, C. C. (2007). Power in American Psychological Association. (2003). community psychology research and Guidelines on multi-cultural education, practice. Journal of Communty and training, research, practice, and Applied Social Psychology , 17, 255-257. organizatonal change for psychologists. Fisher, A. T., Gridley, H., Thomas, D. R., & American Psychologist, 58, 357-402. Bishop, B. (2008). Community

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psychology in Australia and Aotearoa/ Psychology, 34, 149-165. New Zealand. Journal of Community Lekoko, R.N., Van Der Merwe, M. (2006). Psychology, 36, 649-660. Beyond the rhetoric of empowerment: Fisher, A. T., Sonn, C. C., & Evans, S. D. Speak the language, live the experiences (2007). The place and function of power of the rural poor. Review of Education, in community psychology: 52, 323-332. Philosophical and practical issues. Levine, M., & Perkins, D. V. (1997). Principles Journal of Community and Applied of community psychology (2nd ed.). New Social Psychology, 17, 258-267. York: Oxford University Press. Freitas, M. F. Q. (2000). Voices from the Linney, J. (1990). Community psychology into south: The construction of Brazilian the 1990's: Capitalizing opportunity and community social psychology. Journal promoting innovation. American Journal of Community and Applied Social of Community Psychology, 18, 1-17. Psychology, 10, 315-326. Maton, K. I. (2008). Empowering community Fryer, D. (2008a). Some questions about "the settings: Agents of individual history of community psychology". development, community betterment, and Journal of Community Psychology, 36, postive social change. American Journal 572-586. of Community Psychology, 41, 4-21. Fryer, D. (2008b). Power from the people? Maton, K. I., Perkins, D. D., & Saegert, S. Critical reflection on a conceptualization (2006). Community psychology at the of power. Journal of Community crossroads: Prospects for Psychology, 36, 238-245. interdisciplinary research. American Golann, S. E. (1975). Current and future Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 9- trends in community psychology. New 21. York: Human Sciences Press. McMillan, D. W. (1996). Sense of community. Google. (2008). Google Earth. Retrieved Journal of Community Psychology, 24, December 10, 2008, from Google Earth: 315-326. http://earth.google.com/ McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Harrell, S. P., & Bond, M. A. (2006). Listening Sense of community: A definition and to diversity dtories: Principles for theory. Journal of Community practice in community research and Psychology, 14, 6-23. action. American Journal of Community Miller, G. A. (1969). Psychology as a means of Psychology, 37, 365-376. promoting human welfare. American Jewell, G. (2007). Contextual empowerment: Psychologist, 1063-1075. The Impact of health brigade Montero, M. (2008). An insider's at the involvement on the women of Miraflor, development and current state of Nicaragua. Journal of Transcultural community psychology in Latin Nursing, 18, 49-56. America. Journal of Community Kelly, J. G. (1970). Antidotes for arrogance: Psychology, 36, 661-674. Training for community psychology. Montero, M. (2009). Community action and American Psychologist, 25, 524-531. research as citizenship construction. Kelly, J. G. (2006). Becoming ecological. New American Journal of Community York: Oxford University Press. Psychology. DOI 10.1007/s10464-008- Kim, I. J., Kim, L. I., & Kelly, J. G. (2006). 9224-6 Developing cultural competence in Myers, D. G. (2003). The social psychology of working with Korean immigrant sustainability. World Futures, 59, 201- families. Journal of Community 211.

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Nafstad, H. E., Blakar, R. M., Carlquist, E., 25-36. Phelps, J. M., & Rand-Hendriksen, K. Trout, J., Dokecki, P. R., Newbrough, J., & (2009). Globalization, neo-liberalism, O'Gorman, R. T. (2003). Action research and community psychology. American on leadershp for community development Journal of Community Psychology. DOI in West Africa and North America: A 10.1007/s10464-008-9216-6 joining of liberation theology and Orford, J. (2008). Community psychology: community psychology. Journal of Challenges, controversies, and Community Psychology, 31, 129-148. emerging consensus. San Francisco: United States Environmental Protection John Wiley & Sons. Agency. (2008). Sustainability. Retrieved Prilleltensky, I. (2008). The roles of power in December 11, 2008, from Environmental wellness, oppression, and liberation: Protection Agency: http://www.epa.gov/ The promise of psychopolitical validity. Sustainability/ Journal of Community Psychology, 36, basicinfo.htm#sustainability 116-136. Wandersman, A. (2009). Four keys to success Putnam, R. D., Feldstein, L., & Cohen, D. J. (theory, implementaton, evaluation, (2003). Better together: Restoring the resource/system support): High hopes American community. New York: Simon and challenges in participation. American and Schuster. Journal of Community Psychology. DOI Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A 10.1007/s10464-008-9212-x social policy of empowerment over Watkins, M., & Shulman, H. (2008). Toward prevention. American Journal of psychologies of liberation. New York: Community Psychology, 9, 1-23. Palgrave MacMillan. Riessman, F. (1990). Restructuring help: A Weick, K. E. (1984). Small wins: Redefining human services paradigm for the 1990s. the scale of social problems. American American Journal of Community Psychologist, 39, 40-49. Psychology, 18, 221-230. Wiley, A., & Rappaport, J. (2000). Sarason, S. B. (1974). The psychological sense Empowerment, wellness, and the politics of community: Prospects for a of development. In D. Chicchetti, J. community pscyhology. San Francisco: Rapparport, I. Sandler, & R. Weissberg Jossey-Bass. (Eds.), The promotion of wellness in Shinn, M., & Toohey, S. M. (2003). children and adolescents (pp. 59-99). Community contexts of human welfare. Washington, DC: CWLA Press. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 427- 459. Address correspondence to Smail, D. (2001). De-psychologizing email [email protected] community psychology. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 11, 159-165. Smith, J. L. (2008). A critical appreciation of the "bottom-up" approach to sustainable water management: embracing complextity rather than desirability. Local Environment, 13, 353-366. Tartaglia, S. (2006). A preliminary study for a new model of sense of community. Journal of Community Psychology, 34,

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 84 Reflections on Implementing an Education Support Programme for Aboriginal

and Torres Strait Islander Secondary School Students in a Non-government Education Sector: What did we Learn and What do we Know?

David Mander Edith Cowan University Lisa Fieldhouse St Brigid’s College

This is a reflective paper grounded in the domain of practice. It presents some of the strategies used to design, implement and establish an education support programme across sixteen (16) non-government residential (or boarding) schools. The aim of the programme was to support Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander secondary school boarding students from rural, regional and remote areas of Western Australia (WA) with the experience of studying away from home and family. This paper is divided into three main sections: 1. A brief background of education policy and surrounding context. 2. Approaches and strategies undertaken to establish the programme. 3. Reflections on the lessons learned during this process. We identified that no single strategy could avert students from disengaging with education at residential schools. Instead we contend the provision of effective support requires the implementation of multiple strategies targeting the multiple social systems or levels which contribute to a student’s overall experience at a residential school (e.g., the student, peer, parent, school, and community levels). We emphasise that it is vital to involve students in the implementation and development of programmes so as to make support relevant to their needs.

Acknowledgement of Country We wish to acknowledge the ‘Wadjuk People’ who are the traditional custodians of this land that we write these words on. The Wadjuk people are one of fourteen clan groups that make up the collective Nyungar nation of the South West of WA. We also thank and pay our respect to the many families, parents and students from the numerous lands and language groups across WA that we have worked with.

Education and the surrounding (Commonwealth of Australia) and is also the context in Australia foundation upon which the body responsible for In Australia, the National Aboriginal and coordinating strategic educational policy at a Torres Strait Islander Education Policy (AEP) national level, the Ministerial Council on was launched in 1989 (Commonwealth of Education, Employment, Training and Youth Australia) and provides the original framework Affairs (MCEETYA), developed the Australian around which all government funded education Directions in Indigenous Education (ADIE) support programmes specifically targeting 2005-2008 policy (MCEETYA) initiated in July Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 2006. are structured. The overarching emphasis of Unfortunately for many Aboriginal and the AEP is to bring about equity in education Torres Strait Islander students, particularly and training outcomes for Aboriginal and students located outside of city or regional Torres Strait Islander students through the centres, education in WA is further situated articulation of 21 national goals endorsed by within a broader social context of ‘overall-life- all state and territory governments. The AEP is disadvantage’. This disadvantage embodies legislated in the Indigenous Education social issues such as poverty, unemployment (Targeted Assistance) Act 2000 and welfare dependency, poor health and

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housing conditions, a situation which has been intended to offer additional assistance to perpetuated by many decades of inconsistent students (and parents) have been launched over public policy by all political persuasions at recent decades specifically to assists Aboriginal local, state and federal levels (Beresford & and Torres Strait Islander children to engage Grey, 2006; Nakata, 2002). Worryingly, effectively with education (Appleyard, 2002; reliable information regarding these Beresford, 2001; Beresford & Gray, 2006; circumstances has been available for some Doyle & Hill, 2008; Storry, 2007). However, time. For example, the Gordon Inquiry (GI) and for all sincere efforts, many key decisions published in 2002 indicated that issues of about the specific intervention or prevention family violence and child abuse in its various strategies to be used have been made in a ‘top- forms was prevalent and in some instances down’ direction, rather than in a ‘bottom-up’ reached the proportion of being an epidemic in consultative approach involving people at a some Aboriginal communities (Gordon, local level. Historically, and still today, this Hallahan & Henry, 2002). The inquiry linked decision making process has severely the endemic nature of these issues to disenfranchised many Aboriginal and Torres marginalisation, dispossession, loss of land and Strait Islander People, as numerous traditional culture and a history of forced interventions have been endorsed with limited removal of children that has left ongoing and dialogue, consultation and permission sort from generational trauma within a number of representatives of local Aboriginal and Torres Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Strait Islander communities. In addition, communities. Similarly, the Western persistence with this model of decision making Australian Child Health Survey (WACHS) inadvertently increases the risk of a support identifies the current lack of equitable access programme being endorsed that misses the to educational opportunities available to many mark or is seen as another government directed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children, (enforced) intervention, rather than being seen as a foremost factor that preserves the as a support programme that shares the same continuation of a disturbing cycle of intra- aspirations and goals of parents, families and generational disadvantage that embodies communities (Beresford, 2001; Reynolds, 2005, negative social issues such as alcoholism, Vicary & Bishop, 2005). domestic violence, gambling, substance use Similarly, a number of education support and abuse (Zubrick et al., 2005). programmes have tended to be based upon the Despite the clear outcomes of the GI assumption that one size fits all, rather than (2002) and WACHS (2005), a cycle of acknowledging that localised and contextually disadvantage is still experienced by many relevant support programmes tend to better fit Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and be embraced more quickly (Chaney, 2008). and is acknowledged to have manifested into a It has been noted that many support life expectancy difference of 17 years between programmes have also tended to be controlled Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People from capital cities or regional centres, with key and the rest of the Australian population governance decisions being made by an (Rudd, 2008). Education is just one factor in a appointed expert or group of experts rather than group of many (e.g., health, housing and being locally developed and coordinated employment) that is deeply unsatisfactory in (Appleyard, 2002; Beresford & Gray, 2006; terms of overall national outcomes for Collins, 1999; Sarra, 2007). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples When consultation has taken place, both (De Bortoli & Cresswell, 2004; Thomson, federal and state governments and their McKelvie, & Murnane, 2006). respective departments, have tended to do so Many education support programmes with a small, highly selective group of

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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patrons ceremony, rites of passage and lore (Mellor, who are assumed to be familiar with, fluent in 1998). It is crucial that both educators and and fully comprehensive of the context, needs designers of education support programmes are and perspectives, and are expected to speak on conscious of the significant difference between behalf of all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Islander Peoples and their respective clan knowledge exchange practices and Western groups. There are an estimated 500 clan groups based perspectives of education. and 250 languages across Australia, with For decades many Aboriginal and Torres approximately 35 clans in the Pilbara region of Strait Islander parents, leaders, academics and WA alone. In taking this role these patrons educational practitioners have repeatedly voiced have to contend with the significant pressure of the challenges created for Aboriginal and trying to guide policymakers and programme Torres Strait Islander students when education designers so that they are inclusive of frameworks are heavily based upon Western diversity, while contending with the taken-for-granted ideals that are considered as knowledge that both government and absolutes in service delivery methods (Bin- education frameworks still tend to categorise Sallick, 2003; Nakata, 1997a & 1997b; Pearson, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples 2004; Sarra, 2005 & 2007; Valadian, 1980). To as one homogenous group presume the superiority of Western concepts of ‘Indigenous’ (Beresford & Grey, 2006; education when working within an Aboriginal Merlan, 2007). and Torres Strait Islander context, lends itself to It is well documented that both the provision of an education support government and education frameworks in programme that is of little relevance to many Australia and WA remain largely modelled on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students knowledge constructs and institutional (Nakata, 2002). structures imported from European and North Some positive progress has been made as American tradition (Bourke & Bourke, 2002; in 2008 there were 151, 669 school students Groome, 1998; Johns, 2006; Nakata, 2002; across Australia that identified as of Aboriginal Trudgen, 2000). For example, the educational or Torres Strait Islander decent, representing a experience in WA still remains largely founded 42% increase from the 1999 total of 106, 628 around a text based knowledge exchange (ABS, 2008). A national 117% increase in Year process, which is primarily based upon the 12 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander student learning of a symbol system, in this case a set enrolments also occurred between 1999 and of 26 letters. Assessment of learning is then 2008 from 2,206 to 4779 students. However, largely centred on the reproduction of although retention rates for both male and knowledge using this symbol system via paper female Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and pencil techniques, delivered in a classroom students from Years 7/8 to Year 12 increased setting by a person (e.g., teacher) who is between the 1999 to 2008 period, frustratingly a external to the learner’s family unit. significant difference in retention rate figures History clearly shows us that past WA persisted when contrasted with their non- education frameworks have purposefully Aboriginal and Torres Strait peers. For male ignored, devalued and excluded traditional and female students of non-Aboriginal and knowledge exchange practices such as Torres Strait Islander descent the retention rate customary language, dance, painting (Broome, between 1999 and 2008 was 67% and 82% 1994; Collard, 1999), relationship with country respectively, whereas for male and female (Vicary & Westerman, 2004) song, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, storytelling, totemic ancestors (Bourke & retention rates during the same time period were Bourke, 2002) and cultural protocols such as 43% and 50% respectively.

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With a deeply unsatisfactory and persist funding distributed to non-government gap remaining in retention rates between education sectors is the domain of the federal Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students government. 2. Government education sectors and their peers, it is not the time for education are systems, which rely on system policy during sectors and governments to start patting the implementation of new support programmes themselves on the back for a job well done. in schools, whereas in the non-government Instead what is clear is that the task at hand has education sector participation with new just began and the challenge for the future is to programmes by schools, students and parents is find ways of creating both a more relevant and voluntary. positive experience for Aboriginal and Torres In other words, education support Strait Islander students so as to better support programmes provided in the government more young people to remain at and be education sector are implemented under successful at school for longer. departmental policy or regulation and schools From the above brief overview, it is clear are required to comply with this. In the non- the subject of how best to support Aboriginal government education sector, education support and Torres Strait Islander students from rural, programmes tend to be provided and regulated regional and remote regions while at school by the individual schools and their own remains firmly located within a social, governance boards. In some instances, multiple economic and political context that is fraught non-government schools will jointly identify a with many competing antecedents (Beresford common gap in an education support services & Grey, 2006; Dockett et al., 2007; Johns, they are offering and will collaborate to address 2006; Reynolds, 2005). In the following this issue. Nonetheless, although a school may section our personal reflections on some of the advocate for, support and jointly contribute to salient processes we undertook during the the establishment of a certain education support establishment of an education support programme in collaboration with other schools, programme in a non-government education the decision to engage and the level of sector are shared and how we attempted to engagement with a programme remains at the build inclusive practices into an already discretion of each individual school. predetermined and rigid programme funding The programme being discussed here structure. These reflections are our own as the originated from the latter pathway and was a two principle people who were employed to collaborative effort involving 16 residential deliver this programme daily and should not be schools. The concept of the programme derived taken to represent other stakeholder views. from one residential school wanting to Contextualising the education support minimise the dissonance that Aboriginal and programme: Background Torres Strait Islander students experienced with The aim of the programme was to offer the transition from rural, regional and remote additional support to Aboriginal and Torres remotes areas of WA into the residential (or Strait Islander students from rural, regional and boarding) school lifestyle. The prevalence of remote regions of WA who were studying this issue was assessed across other similar away from home at sixteen (16) non- residential schools and the non-government government residential schools across the education sector identified that 16 schools Perth metropolitan area. At this point it is equally expressed a similar desire to offer better important to note two significant differences support. Subsequently, an application was between government and non-government submitted on their behalf as a group to the education sectors. 1. Constitutionally relevant federal government department to government schools remain the responsibility establish a shared programme to help assist with of state and territory governments, while this issue. The submission was successful in

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acquiring funding to initially pilot the programme in 2004 and was refunded from When funding was reapproved after the 2005 to 2008. initial piloting period in 2004, only a The programme involved two fulltime rudimentary programme framework and support positions being funding, one male and one service was in place and being offered to female employee, who were responsible for students, parents, and schools. It is from this every aspect of day to day operations. Each point from which we return to and begin our of the 16 schools where allocated and reflections. matched according to the gender of the two Mapping the landscape: Implementing a employees and schools. Hence, the male support programme across multiple residential employee was responsible for providing schools support to the seven participating male At the beginning we conducted a basic residential schools and the female employee scoping and profiling exercise to gain a better was responsible for supporting the nine understanding of student numbers, participating female residential schools. It demographics and geographic location from was a contractual agreement imposed by the which students were drawn across the 16 federal department funding the programme schools. This involved creating a database that that an advisory committee was established to identified each student’s status as a residential monitor the programme’s progress. or day student and collating information such as Committee members constituted gender, year group, scholarship/bursary or fee representatives from participating schools, paying status, starting year and graduation year, two parent representatives who had a child as well as parent/guardian names, siblings in currently enrolled at any of the 16 residential other residential schools, home address details schools, the federal department funding the and email accounts. programme, representatives from tertiary and This process significantly assisted us to industry sectors, and a representative of the become more familiar with the diversity of non-government education sector. A senior students and of contexts from which students education consultant was allocated as a originated (e.g., location, family, clan and nominal, part-time line manager for the two country). This amalgamated information was fulltime employees however, the also useful in other ways as previously unseen development of key initiatives was left to be trends across the 16 schools became visible. For generated and implemented by the two example, the database anecdotally suggested fulltime employees. that those students who started in Year 8 at At the beginning of 2008 over 120 residential schools had a greater tendency to students across the 16 schools were accessing graduate in Year 12, in comparison to students some aspect of the support offered by this that entered into the residential school programme. An important adjunct to note at experience in later years (e.g., Years 10 & 11). this point is that we also provided support to An important discovery from this process Year 12 students that had graduated with the was we found that a significant number of day transition into post-school destinations. For students were actually from rural, regional and instance, we would help former students with remote regions of WA but had relocated to stay the preparation and collation of applications with relatives, friends or in hostel for tertiary institutions, as well as with accommodation in Perth during the academic gaining employment (e.g., resume and year. In a number of instances the whole family interview preparation) and also with locating had relocated and moved to Perth to support suitable accommodation (e.g., understanding their child’s educational needs. The decision lease agreements). making process of whether to relocate children during the academic year represented a

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significant challenge being confronted by email and other means rather than through face- many parents residing in rural, regional and to-face interactions. remotes areas of WA and involved Although previous research has shown considerable disruption to the family unit. It that some students adjust quickly and gain a equally illustrated to us the strong greater appreciation for routine and discipline commitment and lengths that many parents while living away from home, for other students went to, to exercise their right to be able to the residential setting with reduced freedom, choose the educational pathway they wanted specific rules, including new and different value for their child. systems, is a difficult adjustment to make It was quickly realised the services (Downs, 2003). To address this issue, we offered by the programme needed to be established and undertook regular one-on-one inclusive of all students (e.g., both day and or small-group, face-to-face meetings at each residential students) across the 16 residential school with students. This involved developing schools rather than only focusing on a roster of school visits where regular weekly supporting the residential students from rural, group meetings across the 16 residential schools regional and remote regions. This was a were held to listen, to talk and to discuss issues challenge as the programme was initially students were contending with while studying funded only to support residential students, away from home. For example, meetings would not day students. To address this we involve talking about day-to-day factors successfully highlighted with the federal including completing homework and department funding the programme that like developing study skills (e.g., goal setting, residential students, many of the day students prioritising tasks and time management) and although not in enrolled as boarding students school activities, while also providing support were also adjusting to a new environment and with living and family issues, peer relationships experience where a temporary new home, and during times of homesickness, loneliness city and school are merged together during a and longing for country. During these meetings school term and they were similarly spending we positioned ourselves with students as more an extended period of time away from their of an educational mentor looking holistically at original home, traditional country and family the overall educational experience for each (i.e., both immediate and extended family). student rather than just focusing on sequential Supporting individual students across educational milestones. multiple residential schools As colleagues we shared a common Previous research has highlighted that philosophy towards working with young people new residential students face a number of which was to first and foremost (before ‘all’ significant challenges while studying and else) invest time and establish a trusting living away from home (Fisher, 1990; relationship with students. How the relationship Morgan, 1993). Adjustments for many of the with each student evolved was different residential students included moving away depending on individual needs, wants, interests from a context where Aboriginal and Torres and expectations. To achieve the best Strait Islander children compose the majority relationship possible with each student we of students at a school, into a situation where worked hard at steadily fostering a positive they were now the minority. There was also a micro-environment around our meetings by significant reduction of physical contact with being genuine, non-threatening and non- family members from daily contact, to a judgmental. It was essential from our situation where for extended periods of time perspective to ensure that each student was physical contact was not possible and recognised and felt valued as an individual. communication was limited to telephone, Importantly, we encouraged students to take an

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active role in their own education (e.g., long-term. particularly in decision making processes) and As the programme and its staff were not to identify and develop their own solutions to attached to one specific school but rather both perceived and real issues. operated across 16 schools with many students, Making a positive first connection with it was particularly critical to establish limits and students was imperative. On too many boundaries early in the relationship building occasions we had observed staff members at process and to explain clearly the type of schools asking students what was wrong with support that could be offered. Previous research them when they were feeling down but before has illustrated that adults who provide, as a part the student had the opportunity to talk, the of constructing relationships with children, teacher would answer the question for them or clear standards, guidelines, encouragement, would quickly lose attention during the nurturing and high expectations, are better able response and minimise the significance of the to support young people to develop optimally response with a dismissive statement such as (Catalano et al., 2002; McNeeley, Nonnemaker ‘don’t worry mate it will be alright by & Blum, 2002; Resnick et al., 1997). In tomorrow’. So our approach regularly involved conjunction with these strategies and to further reversing roles and encouraging students to be facilitate this process, we also found it was the teacher and ourselves the learner. This essential to be consistent, reliable and to have meant positioning ourselves at the student level the ability to effectively communicate. By and learning about the deeper meanings taking these steps it minimised the potentiality attached to situations, feelings, thoughts and of putting our relationship with students at risk issues shared with us by students when they ourselves by not following up on information occurred. Good listening skills were imperative shared and decisions made by a student, due to to achieve this. Anecdotally we noted this over-stretching our own individual capacity. strategy served as a powerful nexus through As relationships were established with which to connect with students, as they knew students, pressure was occasionally applied on that while away from home there was someone us to act in a disciplinarian role when schools they could share their experiences with on their experienced a difficult issue (e.g., a weekend own terms. curfew was broken by a residential student). This strategy also facilitated for students However, we did not see our role to include the to build a feeling of ownership and control duplication of pre-existing systems but rather over problem solving, decision making process directed towards the enhancement of and their own educational pathway. Prior understanding. Hence, being a disciplinarian research has demonstrated that collaborative was a particular role that we would not practices encourage a greater connectedness undertake as schools already had existing with pro-social activities such as engaging with pastoral care structures in place. Instead we school and have been found to act as a supported students to develop solutions for protective-factor against the development of themselves and also supported schools to risk taking behaviour in young people such as enhance existing pastoral care structures. For substance abuse and drug use (Benson et al., example, on many occasions school staff 1999; Jessor, 1993; Pittman et al., 2001; reported instances where students where Resnick et al., 1997). By establishing a strong apparently ‘not following instructions and were relationship based approach at the onset of not doing what they should be doing’. In a supporting students, we found it much easier to number of these cases students had actually maintain students’ connectedness with constructed different interpretations of the education and to more effectively target and instructions given to them or did not know tailor support for individual students over the when and where the application of these

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instructions started or stopped while at school. valued support option by students. Importantly, We found that miscommunication was created it provided a safe and supportive environment by multiple factors such as the type of that allowed students to talk about, identify and language used or the speed and tone used practice coping skills that suited them, which during the delivery of the instruction or the assisted with adjusting to a residential lifestyle body language of the person delivering the and living away from home and family. instruction just to name a few. To check that Supporting peers across multiple residential both student and school staff understandings schools were congruent, we would work slowly and From a psychological and developmental explicitly through each step that gave rise to perspective, research has demonstrated that the circumstance. The reason and meaning children’s participation in decision-making behind a particular instruction would be processes can also act as a protective factor discussed and both the student(s) and staff against participation in risk taking behaviour by members perspective would be shared, such as young people (De Winter, Baerveldt, & why an instruction might be considered very Kooistra, 1999). Unfortunately it is the norm in embarrassing or ‘shame’ for a student. This many education support programmes for the assisted both students and school staff to voices of children and adolescents to be absent identify points of communication that from the initial design and development generated misunderstandings in pastoral care process. Ben-Arieh (2005, p.575) explains that structures. Importantly for staff members it if society accepts children as equal also helped to highlight how and why certain human beings, then the study of previously invisible meanings and their quality of life should accept understandings were constructed by students that other human beings cannot and how staff could use this deeper insight into simply by virtue of their age decide understanding certain types of behaviour or the what children’s well-being consists style of support students preferred. of… Both role modelling and two-way To ensure support programs are relevant sharing were essential strategies we used as they must be based on children and adolescent’s they demonstrated in action to students that we experiences (Ben-Arieh, 2005; Stumpers, were reliable and could be trusted as we put Breen, Pooley, Cohen & Pike, 2005) and not into practice with ourselves what we asked solely on what adults perceive as risks for them students to do. Where appropriate, we (Boyden & Mann, 2005; Ungar, 2005). Ben- regularly shared, discussed and role modelled Arieh (2005) maintains that it should be of great how we solved everyday problems both at concern that policy makers and program work, in our own everyday lives and within developers ask one group (adults) to report on our own family structure. To achieve this we the behaviour of another group (children) and often involved our own families in weekend assume it will be more valid than speaking to events such as barbeques, excursions and the second group directly. sporting carnivals. Research has established We noted from the scoping and profiling that role modelling helps a developing child to exercise that it was common for brothers and learn new skills by watching others perform sisters, as well as cousins and relatives, to be them (Ben-Arieh, 2005; De Winter, Baerveldt, concurrently enrolled at different residential & Kooistra, 1999; Doyle & Hill, 2008; Ungar, schools across metropolitan Perth. By 2005). It became apparent early on that facilitating opportunities for siblings to catch up engaging in two-way sharing in both actions as and support each other (e.g., barbeques during well as in words across all areas of life, helped weekends) this significantly helped to address to consolidate ourselves as a dependable and difficult feelings such as homesickness and

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cultural isolation experienced by some students Islander role models. Accordingly, each council while studying away from home. This strategy meeting involved a role model being organised was initially instigated in response to students and integrated into the council’s agenda as a wanting to spend some down time during guest speaker. Guest speakers were selected weekends away from the boarding house from a diversity of backgrounds, such as environment and in a more relaxed family or university, private business, sporting icons, home orientated context away from some of industry and government. Interestingly, during a the daily peer social pressures of living in a survey on the topic of role models the student boarding house. (e.g., such as feeling like they council made it very clear that they also viewed had to act or behave in a certain manner). each other as role models, as they were sharing An initiative that became a core aspect of the same experience of living away from home the programme’s overall structure was the and family while completing their secondary establishment of an Indigenous Boarding education. Student Council across the 16 residential As a representative body the council schools. The student council involved the naturally became the initial consultation point Indigenous students at each school nominating on all aspects of the programme including a representative to attend four council meetings overall direction as well as annual activities and each year (e.g., one meeting per term) and events. The nominated council members always required students to attend meetings in their took ideas from the other students at their own time, during an evening after school. To school to each meeting and on their return encourage as many students as possible to would share back with their peers what participate and contribute to the council happened at each meeting. The council’s process, the representative role was rotated participation in decision making processes and between students within each individual its contribution to the overall programme school. If a nominated representative initially direction was an important step towards felt intimidated, self-conscious or shame about students developing a sense of identity and participating in the student council on their connection with the programme. Equally, the own, they were encouraged to bring a peer council’s establishment validated the from their school to share this experience with. programme with new students and also helped The council meetings were hosted on a us to swiftly identify issues or areas that rotational basis between the residential schools required better targeted support. As the council and also alternated between male and female members rapidly grew in confidence, students schools, with all students at the host school would urge their council representative to invited to the meeting. organise for their school to host the next The council encouraged students from meeting as students were proud of their schools across the 16 residential schools to meet, and wanted to share this experience with their network and share experiences with other peers. students at other schools undertaking the same To date, council has developed ideas for experience of studying away from home. regular social, cultural, educational and sporting Importantly, the council was charged with the activities, promoted reconciliation events, and responsibility of raising awareness and assisted in the hosting of planned programme developing ideas to address issues such as events. It has also acted in a consultancy homesickness and cultural isolation capacity within the programme’s own steering experienced by their peers. From our committee on topics such as role models and perspective, the council was also an also with external programmes at a national opportunity for students to have contact with a level. It is worth restating here, that student diverse range of Aboriginal and Torres Strait participation in the council was voluntary.

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Supporting parents, family or guardians of safety, as well as receiving telephone calls students across multiple residential schools updating them on their child’s progress. To best Previous literature has clearly facilitate this we needed to be available both highlighted that a lack of familiarity with the during and outside of normal school hours, as it expectations of both government programmes gave parents a more flexible time period to and education systems among a large phone and talk (e.g., ask questions and address proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait issues). An outcome of this strategy was that it Islander families continues to shape the contributed to breaking down the traditional educational futures of many Aboriginal and stereotype that a school or education body only Torres Strait Islander children today contacts parents when a problem or something (Beresford, 2001; Zubrick et al., 2005). In this bad had occurred. Importantly, it helped in instance, we offered to parents an independent, building a rapport with parents and also gave us supportive and alternative link between school the opportunity to talk with them about how and family, to discuss aspects such as subject they were coping with having their child selection, post-school destinations and pastoral studying away from home. Many parents care issues. The main challenge confronting us communicated to us they found it very in effectively supporting parents was comforting to receive a phone call from another geography. The ability to commute to parents person who had seen and valued their child do residing in rural, regional and remote regions well at something (e.g., in a sports carnival) at of WA for regular face-to-face contact was times when they were unable to attend. heavily influenced by traveling costs, distance, All these strategies contributed to increase diversity of locations and time. awareness with parents of children engaged in To address this, multiple home visits the programme and notably these strategies also were planned each year usually during the last encouraged two-way communication between weeks of school holidays or in the school parents and the programme staff to increase. holidays. Visits were organised in consultation For example, an issue of great concern with families and/or community identified by a number of parents was the need representatives to build relationships and to to organise alternative accommodation promote the type of support the programme arrangements during mid-term breaks in which offered to parents (e.g., trips to the East and the accommodation facilities at each residential West Kimberley, Pilbara and Southwest school closed for a long weekend break during regions of WA). In addition, newsletters, CDs the middle of each term. Some parents with photos of recent events and activities, explained that it was not always feasible (e.g., posters and mass-mail-outs via both email and money, time, work commitments) particularly the post were undertaken. For example, when living in regional and remote parts of WA information about tertiary institutions, for their child to travel home during this short scholarships, apprenticeships and traineeships four day break (e.g., for some students it took options were regularly disseminated to over 12 hours and three plane flights to travel continually expose parents to the diversity of home). However, it was also equally difficult post-school opportunities available for their for some of these parents to locate suitable children. alternative metropolitan accommodation as they One of the most important strategies was had no extended family or friend networks to make telephone calls home to parents and to based in Perth. also make ourselves available via the telephone In close consultation with the student to parents. Many parents have explained to us council, this issue was addressed by developing how reassuring it was to be able to contact camps which ran during these mid-term breaks someone regarding their child’s wellbeing and to offer a safe and supervised alternative. The

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overall aim was for the camps to be relaxing best practice) and encouraged skill and fun with activities that encouraged positive development. To compliment this, access to interpersonal development such as building relevant professional development and training confidence and self-esteem. In addition, an opportunities in the areas of cultural awareness, itinerary of structured activities that literacy, numeracy, and vocational education encouraged the development of other skills were also facilitated, as well as a quarterly such as teamwork, communication (both newsletter, health folder outlining alternative talking and listening skills), leadership and and in some instances more culturally problem solving, were built into the camps. appropriate health services, as well as the The camps were voluntary and open to development of a specific webpage were all students in the programme, however Year 8 supplied. and new students to Perth were especially An email-network was also formalised encouraged to participate in the first camp of that encouraged multiple links to be forged each year. This created the opportunity for new between staff at participating schools, to students to become more familiar with network and communicate with colleagues in programme staff and to meet other residential similar roles about various aspects of students making the same transition. Older or supporting students. This assisted with issues returning students participating in the camps from sharing transportation so that students were expected to help with encouraging could attend organised events (e.g., university younger students and by taking on role open days), to schools exchanging information modelling opportunities such as leadership about more complicated matters such as student roles in teamwork activities and positively selection procedures, policies, scholarships and support younger students, this expectation pastoral care structures. An important step was allowed older students to practice and master the facilitation of bi-annual networking sessions leadership and role modelling skills in a safe for staff across the schools, which allowed them but applied context. to come together and share, network and Supporting staff across multiple residential discuss the challenges and success they have schools experienced in supporting students with the Working collaboratively with key staff transition into residential schools. members within residential schools was vital Successful intervention programmes and a number of strategies were initiated to which produce optimal outcomes for young allow and encourage staff from across the 16 people are those which prior to commencement residential schools to effectively network with identify context appropriate strategies for use each other. during the initial implementation phase (Hall & As with students and parents, we Hord, 2001; Weissberg, Kumpfer, & Seligman, positioned itself as an alternative link for 2003). The development of an annual calendar school staff to utilise if assistance was of planned events and scheduled activities required. One-on-one support was provided to developed with the support of participating teaching, residential, administration and schools was a significant strategy that helped us medical staff. A majority of staff greatly to implement this programme. The calendar valued using us as sounding boards so that they created a positive synergy between planned could explain and talk about issues with programme activities and important school students and parents that arose. Our position in based activities each year, with important this instance slightly changed into more of a academic dates such as examination weeks or mentoring role through which we provided school carnivals being avoided. constructive feedback (e.g., information about The calendar also allowed the programme cultural awareness and protocols, models of to implement essential transitional activities

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such as having all students from across the consultation with the student council, as well as schools attend a traditional ‘Welcome to from feedback received from parents and school Nyungar Country’ delivered by a local staff. The consensus was for the careers evening community representative and/or Elder at the to be a dynamic and high impact evening that beginning of each year. The majority of reinforced the benefits of education and residential students in the programme were encouraged students to actively engage and take conscious that they were traditionally responsibility for exploring potential career considered as visitors to Nyungar Country in pathways they were interested in pursuing. the Southwest. By following and respecting The careers evening consisted of two correct cultural protocol early in the first term separate parts. The first part was a sharing of each year, students could acknowledge the format that was initiated by a warm ‘Welcome heritage of the Country in which they studied to Nyungar Country’ delivered in both language on and also learn about the relationship, and song. This was followed by a well-known connection and cultural practices that the Aboriginal comic performer from the traditional owners have with the region. The Kimberley region of WA who discussed on calendar similarly facilitated the planning of stage with young Aboriginal and Torres Strait activities for other significant dates each year Islander role models, their secondary education such as Sorry Day and NAIDOC Week. story as well as inviting them to share their By collaboratively planning the experiences of taking the next step into post- programme’s annual calendar with schools this school destinations. This sharing process strategy served the dual role of providing a involved much humour however, during each direct avenue through which schools could discussion the ability of each young role model voice what they considered as successful over to successfully overcome the various challenges the previous year and in turn helped guide us they confronted in their lives was reinforced to better target areas where more support was and celebrated. This process created an required. It allowed for excursions to post- atmosphere of positive affirmation around the school career forums, as well as to university benefits of completing secondary education. To and TAFE open days to be effectively planned extrapolate this positive atmosphere to its across the schools. Notably, the annual fullest potential, the programme involved young calendar allowed organised events to be well role models from a diverse range of attended by students, as schools had plenty of backgrounds, with a wide range of interest areas time to prepare and plan for them (e.g., to and who took different pathways to reach their arrange supervising staff and make goals. We found this strategy increased the transportation arrangements). careers evening appeal to students and An important issue identified by school significantly contributed to breaking down staff was the establishment of an annual perceived stereotypes and barriers to potential careers evening specifically for the Aboriginal post-school destinations. and Torres Strait Islander students enrolled The second part of the careers evening across the sixteen schools. A firm ambition of involved information stalls manned with the programme and all the schools was the personnel from a range of government deconstruction of prevalent stereotypes about departments, non-government agencies, tertiary post-school destinations for Aboriginal and institutions and industry sectors displaying Torres Strait Islander students through specific information about how to access exposing students to diverse career pathways existing transition pathways into post-school and promoting the message that anything was destinations. Anecdotally, we noted the positive possible. The career evening format and momentum created during the first part of the content was developed through close careers evening created an uplifting atmosphere

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that flowed into the second part, which as it equally provided a voice and representation contributed to students feeling more motivated for the students, families and schools, while and comfortable to explore, listen and talk with also allowing the wider community to identify a prospective organisations about the various point to initiate contact and consult with. career options they offered. Final reflections Developing supportive links with the wider From our experience, no single community component of an educational support We activity initiated and developed programme can avert students from disengaging networks with the wider community such as with education at residential schools. Instead, tertiary institutions, as well as with relevant multiple strategies operating in a coordinated government, non-government and industry and collaborative manner but which are also organisations in WA. Relationships were tailored to meet individual needs rather than just established with national initiatives such as the using a blanket approach is required. It was Indigenous Youth Mobility Programme clear to us that residential students benefited (IYMP), Indigenous Youth Leadership most from when families, schools, peers and Programme (IYLP) and the National programme staff work together to strengthen Indigenous Cadetship Project (NICP). These each other’s efforts rather than working programmes were particularly targeted because independently to address perceived needs, they offered direct support to students with the expectations and deficits. To achieve this goal, transition from completing secondary the non-government education sector, schooling into entering post-school policymakers (e.g., government) and the actual destinations. Similarly, networks were also staff of education support programmes are established with key people responsible for required to have a strong commitment to delivering other vital educational support ensuring that all stakeholders, particularly the programmes such as the Remote Indigenous residential students undertaking the lived Students Tuition (RIS), Indigenous Tutorial experience, feel that they are able to contribute Assistance Scheme (ITAS) and Abstudy to and share in the direction and decisions that through Centrelink, as well as with local health guides education support programmes. professionals. It is vital for education systems in the To assist with the promotion of the future to be better at being inclusive of student programme and to make information available perspectives (voices) during the initial more broadly, a webpage providing relevant consultation process of education support information and links for all stakeholders about programmes. The current approach of including the programme was developed. It listed minimal student perspectives in programme upcoming events and activities, career design and development was initially the development opportunities, as well as provided circumstance in our experience. The instigation additional information on culturally sensitive of an Indigenous Boarding Student Council, community based support services in areas conducting weekly student meetings at each such as health, accommodation, other youth participating school and facilitating regular support services and legal advice. We also opportunities for students to network and published an information brochure for support each other, provided a valid and valued students, parents, school staff and community avenue for students to contribute through. members explaining areas were support was From our experience, an effective support offered, and most importantly how to contact programme should actively encourage and us. celebrate the student role (participation) in Connecting with the wider community identifying and implementing solutions to was central for the success of the programme deliver better targeted support to their fellow

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peers. We found that students represent a As qualified professionals from highly valuable and accurate source of disciplines other than teaching (e.g., youth work information and knowledge that can be utilised and psychology) at times we found some to develop innovative and effective solutions aspects of working within education for difficult issues (e.g., homesickness, disempowering. On a number of occasions we loneliness and peer conflict). Moreover, found that issues and models of practice that we students have a strong sense of what is likely identified as important, were at times minimised to work or fail in practice, subsequently and overlooked (e.g., sexual health, mental effective education support programmes are health, risk taking behaviour and identity). those that have the flexibility to incorporate Similarly, at times we have been taken aback by these ideas into their overall operations. staff members undertaking roles they are not By firmly establishing from the onset a qualified to dispense. For example, a four year student focussed and relationship-first trained school psychologist trying to counsel a environment around the programme, we were student with serious mental health issues rather more effectively able to target support and than referring on to a more appropriately trained support student’s adjustment into residential mental health practitioner (e.g., clinical life while they lived and studied away from psychologist). We feel, similar to the steady home. We found that students greatly valued shift being made in the health sector to help and appreciated this relationship as it presented manage the mounting pressure placed on as an independent alternative which students primary healthcare infrastructure in hospitals, could access on their own terms and in a education sectors will also need to better manner that they were comfortable with. Over develop the ability to be inclusive of and value the long-term, we found this relationship the skills that allied professionals bring to fostered the development of responsible and education support programmes. respectful attitudes, as well as creating the Effectively supporting the development of opportunity to encourage students to explore young people is a dynamic and continuous and appreciate the perspectives of others. process with education support programmes Previous research has identified that being most beneficial when they are customised effective programme implementation is through the inclusive practice of involving all significantly mediated by factors such as a stakeholders in programme operations. By programme provider’s personal efficacy, taking this step we found it allowed us to better ability to communicate programme content, identify and prioritise student support needs, as warmth, empathy, humour, relationship skills well as allowing us to more cohesively support and decision making processes (Kumpfer & the key elements contributing to creating a Alvarado, 2003; Weissberg, Kumpfer & positive educational experience which are the Seligman, 2003). We strongly concur with this student, peers, parents (or family), the school and feel that senior education administrators and the wider community. need to recognise the recruitment of highly References trained, qualified and committed staff is Appleyard, S. (2002). Educational issues facing essential to the overall success of any Aboriginal families in rural Australia: A education support programme. A distinction case study. Australian Journal of that we would like to add is that working in an Indigenous Education, 30(1), 25-42. education support programme such as this Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Schools, required a strong proficiency in specific Australia, 2008. Retrieved March 18, interpersonal skills such as attending skills, 2009 http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ reflective listening skills, assertion skills, body ausstats/ language and conflict management skills. subscriber.nsf/0/89FDF875BAAD7A43C

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future: Achieving improved primary and community. South Australia: Flinders Art secondary education outcomes for Museum. Indigenous students. The AMP Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Foundation, Effective Philanthropy & Training and Youth Affairs. (2006). Social Ventures Australia. Australian Directions in Indigenous Fisher, S. (1990). The psychological effects of Education 2005–2008. Retrieved October leaving home: Homesickness, health and 21, 2006, http://www.mceetya.edu.au/ obsessional thoughts. In S. Fisher & C. verve/_resources/ L. Cooper (Eds.), On the move: The Australian_Directions_in_Indigeno psychology of change and transition (pp. us_Education_2005-2008.pdf 153-170). New York: Wiley. Merlan, F. (2007). Indigeneity as relational Gordon, S., Hallahan, K., & Henry, D (2002). identity: The construction of Australian Putting the picture together: Inquiry into land rights. In M. de la Cadena & O. Response by Government Agencies to Starn (Eds.), Indigenous experience today Complaints of Family Violence and Child (pp. 125-151). Oxford International. Abuse in Aboriginal Communities. Morgan, R. (1993). School life: Pupil’s views Department of Premier and Cabinet, on boarding. London: HMSO. Western Australia. Nakata, M. (1997a). History, cultural diversity Groome, H. (1998). Education: The search for and English language teaching: The talk. relevance. In C. Bourke, E. Bourke & B. Ngoonjook, 12, 54-75. Edwards (Eds.), Aboriginal Australia: An Nakata, M. (1997b). Who's reading misplaced introductory reader in Aboriginal studies hopes? International Journal of (p. 168-188). University of Queensland Qualitative Studies in Education. 10(4), Press. 425-431. Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2001). Nakata, M. (2002). Some thoughts on the Implementing change: Patterns, literacy issues in Indigenous contexts. principles, and potholes. Boston: Allyn Some thoughts on the literacy issues in & Bacon. Indigenous contexts. The Australian Jessor, R. (1993). Successful adolescent Journal of Indigenous Education, 31, 7- development among youth in high-risk 15. settings. American Psychologist, 48, Pearson, N. (2004). We need real reform for 117–126. Indigenous public schooling. The Johns, G. (2006). Aboriginal Education: Australian, 25th August. Remote schools and the real economy. Pittman, K. J., Irby, M., Tolman, J., Yohalem, Barton, New South Wales: Menzies N., & Ferber, T. (2001). Preventing Research Centre. problems, promoting development, Kumpfer, K. L., & Alvarado, R. (2003). encouraging engagement: Competing Family-strengthening approaches for the priorities or inseparable goals? Retrieved prevention of youth problem behaviours. June 12, 2007, http:// American Psychologist, 58, 457-465. www.forumforyouthinvestment.org/ McNeeley, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Blum, preventproblems.pdf R. W. (2002). Promoting school Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., connectedness: Evidence from the Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., et National Longitudinal Study of al. (1997). Protecting adolescents from Adolescent Health. Journal of School harm: Findings from the national Health, 72(4), 138–146. longitudinal study on adolescent health, Mellor, D. (1998). Ceremony, identity and Journal of the American Medical

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Association, 278, 823-832. Valadian, M. (1980). Aboriginal education: For Reynolds, R. J. (2005). The education of Aborigines by Aborigines? Presentation Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait paper at the Wentworth Lecture Series, Islander students: Repair or racial Australian Institute of Aboriginal and change. Childhood Education, 82(1), 31- Torres Strait Islander Studies. 36. Vicary, D. A., & Bishop, B. J. (2005). Western Rudd, K. (2008). Apology to Australia’s psychotherapeutic practice: Engaging Indigenous Peoples, House of Aboriginal people in culturally Representatives, Parliament of appropriate and respectful ways. Australia. Retrieved March 13, 2008, Australian Psychologist, 40(1), 8-19. http://www.aph.gov.au/Hansard/reps/ Vicary, D., & Westerman, T. (2004). That’s just dailys/dr130208.pdf . the way he is: Some implications of Sarra, C. (2005). What to pack. Every Child, Aboriginal mental health beliefs. 11(1), 8-9. Australian e-Journal for the Advancement Sarra, C. (2007). Engaging with Aboriginal of Mental Health 3(3). Retrieved August communities to address social 12, 2006, http://www.auseinet.com/ disadvantage. Developing Practice,19, 9- journal/vol3iss3/vicarywesterman.pdf 11. Weissberg, R.P., Kumpfer, K.L., & Seligman, Storry, K. (2007). What is working in good M.E. P. (2003). Prevention that works for schools in remote Indigenous children and youth. American communities. The Centre of Independent Psychologist, 58, 425-432. Studies, 86, 1-20. Zubrick, S., Silburn, S., Lawerance, D., et al. Stumpers, S., Breen, L., Pooley, J. A., Cohen, (2005). The Western Australian L., & Pike, L. T. (2005). A critical Aboriginal Child Health Survey: exploration of the school context for Improving the educational experiences of young adolescents completing primary Aboriginal children and young people. education. Community, Work and Perth: Curtin University of Technology Family, 8 (3), 251-270. and telethon Institute for Child Health Thomson, S., McKelvie, P., & Murnane, H. Research. Retrieved January 12, 2008, (2006). Achievement of Australia's early http://www.ichr.uwa.edu.au/waachs/ secondary Indigenous students: Findings publications/volume_three from TIMSS 2003. TIMSS Australia Monograph Series. Retrieved March 22, Acknowledgements 2008, http://research.acer.edu.au/ Corresponding with the protocol outlines by the timss_monographs/1 National Health and Medical Research Council Trudgen, R. (2000). Why warriors lie down (NHMRC, 2003) the present article where and die: towards an understanding of possible will not use the term Indigenous. As a why the Aboriginal people of Arnhem peak body on research protocols NHMRC Land face the greatest crisis in health emphasises that for the most part people prefer and education since European contact. being referred to by names such as Bardi or Djambatj Mala, Aboriginal Resource and Yindjibarndi as it more closely reflects the Development Services Inc., Darwin. diversity of identity, as well as respecting the Ungar, M. (2005). Resilience among children distinct cultural differences between clans and in child welfare, corrections, mental language groups. The use of the term health and educational settings: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in this Recommendations for service. Child and article is proposed (and hoped) to be inclusive Youth Care Forum, 34(6), 445-464. of this diversity.

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School of Psychology and Social Science Short Biography of Authors Edith Cowan University Lisa Fieldhouse: Lisa is a Koori woman from 270 Joondalup Drive New South Wales and has a Bachelor of Social Joondalup Western Australia 6027 Science in Youth Work from Edith Cowan Phone (08) 6304 3840 University (ECU). Lisa has worked in email [email protected] education since 2002 across all three education sectors in WA (Government, Independent and Catholic sectors) and is currently employed as an Aboriginal Liaison Officer at St Brigid’s College, Lesmurdie, Perth, WA. Prior to this Lisa has worked in a number of government and non-government health agencies and community youth services. Lisa is interested in all issues related to the development and wellbeing of young people, particularly the sexualisation of females, self-esteem, identity and social justice. Lisa has recently started to study Law part-time at the University of Western Australia and is also a junior Tee-ball coach and a loving mother.

David Mander: David is currently completing his PhD at ECU investigating the experience of boarding school on male Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students from rural, regional and remote locations across WA. David has worked in both the Government and Independent education sectors in WA and prior to this he worked as a community mental health worker with young men. Some of David’s interests include issues related the development and wellbeing of young people, cross cultural awareness, building sustainable relationships in community practice, equity and social justice issues, resilience, self-esteem, and identity. David has a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and a Bachelor of Psychology from ECU and his fourth year manuscript (unpublished) investigated the relationship between anxiety, gender and chronological age and the development of depressive symptomatology in children.

Address correspondence to David Mander

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 21 No 1 June 2009 102 Using the SPECS Model to Explore New Paradigms in Health Psychology

Tim MacKellar University of Notre Dame, Australia

The SPECS framework recognises that psychological and political influences interact to promote health and wellbeing, perpetuate oppression or generate resistance and liberation. This interpretation of health and power dynamics has corrected much of psychology’s irrelevant scholasticism, facilitating the development of a new critical praxis that has the capacity to transform people and society. The comprehensive and reflexive nature of the SPECS model offers a solid foundation to which new health theories may be incorporated, maintaining a high standard of professional dexterity

Disenchantment with biomedical health coherent accounts of how it is exactly that perspectives and the medical model has led to psychosocial processes influence health. The a search for alternative orientations that superior construction of the SPECS model attempt to improve services in light of an addresses the collective, relational and understanding of the psychosocial aspects of individual processes that impact upon health, health care. Many consider that health and also offers significant solutions that can psychology to the present day should more be implemented. Prilleltensky and Nelson aptly be termed ‘illness psychology’ as its (2002) place parochial conceptions of health central focus is illness behavior and illness and illness under the broader concept of management. The growing awareness of the wellbeing; a positive state of affairs in which importance of psychological and social the personal, relational, and collective needs influences on health and illness has forced and aspirations of individuals and health professionals to propose new ways of communities are fulfilled. conceptualising health (Marks, Murray, Evans, So far most health programs have Willig, Woodall & Sykes, 2005). Engel’s focussed on improving the wellbeing of the (1997) biopsychosocial model challenged the individual but have overlooked the medical model with the idea that health and community conditions that lead to suffering illness are contingent upon physical, in the first place. By always directing psychological and social variables. However attention towards the individual level of there are significant problems with this model analysis in explaining health related as it remains essentially biomedical and its behaviours, Murray and Campbell (2003) theoretical basis has yet to be properly figured believe health psychology has contributed to out. Thus despite the fast growth of health concealing the tremendous influence of psychology and its various interdisciplinary economic, political and symbolic social influences, there has been no significant inequalities in patterns of ill health both paradigm shift in clinical medicine and due to globally and within specific nations. its shortcomings, the biopsychosocial model Intrapsychic strategies that focus exclusively has not replaced the medical model in hospitals on personal wellbeing undermine wellbeing and clinics (Marks et al., 2005). because they do not support the wider Engel’s model has never been adequately structure that enhances wellbeing as a whole. defined and therefore it cannot be practically It is very difficult for individuals to alter their operationalised. Prilleltensky’s (2005) SPECS state of wellbeing in the absence of (strengths, prevention, empowerment, and concordant environmental changes community conditions) model completes (Prilleltensky & Nelson, 2002). Reactive, Engel’s (1997) in many ways, offering a alienating and deficit based approaches that definitive conception of health that provides engender patienthood instead of health,

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citizenship and democracy have been the personal appraisal processes of triggers that dominant paradigm in health and human create stress and anxiety (Prilleltensky, services for decades. The SPECS framework 2005). provides strength based, preventative, Communities as sites of wellbeing empowering and community orientated display features including a fair and approaches a chance to promote personal, equitable allocation of bargaining powers, relational and collective wellbeing. It strives to resources and obligations in society, as well alter disadvantageous social conditions through as gender and race equality, universal access community based participatory strategies and to high quality healthcare and education action research projects that foster leadership facilities, affordable housing, clean air, and and individual skills (Prilleltensky, 2005). accessible transportation and employment According to the SPECS model, at the opportunities. Wellbeing at this level individual level persons are considered sites strongly parallels with Baro’s Liberation where cognitions, feelings and tangible Psychology (cited in Burton & Kagan, experiences of wellbeing occur. Wellbeing 2004) and essentially derives from policies here is reflected in personal control, which is of social justice, advocated by social contingent upon opportunities to exercise voice movements that endeavour to create and and choice, which in turn are promoted by improve institutions that deliver services to empowerment. Signs of personal wellbeing all citizens (Prilleltensky, 2005). include self-determination, optimism, sense of In order to advance wellbeing at the control, self-efficacy, physical and mental three levels, the SPECS model has a number health, meaning and spirituality and degrees of of strategies that cover the range of domains self-actualisation. Major causes of of wellbeing and attend to the various signs psychological distress and oppression include and sources of the three sites. neurosis, anxiety and personal inadequacy, so Comprehensive promotion of wellbeing one’s ability to cope effectively is paramount must address four corresponding domains; to attaining or maintaining wellbeing. the temporal, ecological, participation and Wellbeing on the individual level is thus about capabilities. Only a small amount of self-empowerment, personal insight and resources are allocated to prevention in changing one’s own behaviour, knowledge, many health systems and this corresponds to attitudes and beliefs. It is about avoiding the temporal and ecological domains. The victim blaming, and the internalisation of vast majority of resources are assigned to disempowering ideologies (Prilleltensky, rehabilitative costs such as therapeutic 2005). interventions, and hospital maintenance. Relationships are sites where material This is the reactive approach, a remnant of and psychological resources are negotiated the still dominant medical model. Instead of between individuals or groups. On the waiting for citizens to develop illness that relational level, signs of wellbeing include medicine and psychology can only treat at democratic participation in decision-making very high financial and human costs, SPECS processes, respect for diversity, nurturance and recognises that the best way to lessen the affection, support and cooperation. Relational incidence and prevalence of suffering is wellbeing encompasses lifestyle environmental through prevention. This model proposes factors such as occupational health, and the cost effective high quality preventative avoidance of stressors in family, educational interventions (Prilleltensky, 2005). and social settings. Maintaining wellbeing on In order to experience wellbeing this level is about creating awareness of social human beings have to experience power dynamics, and re-examining the affirmation first and this corresponds to the

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participation and capabilities domains. levels, the vehicles of which include learned Affirmation comes from among other things, helplessness, internalisation of hegemonic an acknowledgement of a person’s strengths, self-rejecting views and obedience to voice and choice. The fields of health and authority (Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1996). human services continue to be renowned for The critical consciousness of a person, concentrating on deficits, for fostering group or nation may be at varying stages in clienthood and patienthood instead of regard to different oppressing agents as an citizenship. When empowerment and strengths individual may be aware of oppressive are promoted the experience of affirmation forces at the interpersonal level, but may be grows (Prilleltensky, 2005). The SPECS unaware of subjugating influences framework can thus be considered the most controlling at the class or state level effective new paradigm for health psychology (Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1996). Cultivating as it adopts a broad definition of health and a strong sense of self-awareness creates takes Engel’s model much further by actually resistance to both internal psychological and identifying the diverse domains and processes external political structures, beginning the that impact on healthcare and wellbeing, and process of liberation that is fundamental to offers detailed solutions on how to combat attaining wellbeing (Prilleltensky & Nelson, healthcare structural problems. 2002). However, proper appreciation of the The SPECS model offers practical SPECS framework requires an understanding transformative interventions that utilise of how notions of oppression and power these insights about the relationship between dynamics relate to wellbeing. This permeates power and oppression and wellbeing. It is the whole framework. According to the conditioning processes that occur in the Prilleltensky and Gonick (1996) the major educative institutions that dictate the ontological nature of oppression may be values and norms that create the fabric of understood from various levels of analysis, society. Prilleltensky and Gonick (1996) from the micro personal to the macro have proposed the formation of critical international level, from both psychological consciousness programs at all levels of and political orientations. Political factors refer education that empower individuals and to the collective experience of individuals and give them greater insight into themselves, groups, informed by power relations and their environment and their capacity to conflicts of interest at the interpersonal, family, create change and transformation. Statistics group, community and societal levels have consistently demonstrated the high (Prilleltensky, 2003). One of the political correlation between education, as impacting mechanisms accounting for oppression in upon socio-economic standing, and socio- emerging countries is the oppressive structure economic standing impacting upon health of international financial systems that lock (Watts & Abdul-Adil, 1994). Thus the task emerging societies in a state of increased of overcoming oppression and bettering economic dependency (Prilleltensky & individual and collective wellbeing starts Gonick, 1996). Such forms of oppression with the process of psychopolitical usually devolve from the largest units, such as education and ends in a greater personal international governing bodies to the smallest awareness and action (Prilleltensky & unit, the individual. Nelson, 2002). Furthermore, to move from Psychological factors refer to the values to action in critical health subjective experience of the individual, psychology, Prilleltensky (2003) proposes informed by power dynamics operating at the we assess all our activities against epistemic personal, interpersonal, family, group and state and transformational psycho political

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validity. This type of transformation is based complementary healing modalities influence on a consideration of power dynamics in health. psychological and political domains of health, Among the energy forces that control and refers to system change whereas biology are the electromagnetic fields that amelioration refers to individual or reformist are generated by the mind. In conventional change that leaves the sources of the problem biology, the action of the mind is not really unaffected. incorporated into the understanding of life, With an understanding of psychological despite medicine acknowledging that the and politically oppressive processes and their placebo effect is responsible for at least one relationship to wellbeing in mind, the SPECS third of all medical healing, including model can be used as a foundation for the surgery (Lipton, 2005). The placebo effect incorporation of new health concepts and occurs when someone is healed due to alternative health modalities. The late personal belief that a drug or medical twentieth century has witnessed increasing procedure is going to be effective. This criticism of medicine and it has been argued incredible healing ability is usually that a process of de-medicalisation is taking disregarded by conventional allopathic place (Marks et al., 2005). The apparent failure medicine and drug companies that sanction of biomedicine to solve the big medical only limited remedies for disease and problems such as cancer and AIDS has led to a illness. Based on the tenets of epigenetics, heightened cynicism and a turn to alternative ‘new biology’ emphasises the role of the health systems. Not surprisingly established mind as the primary factor influencing health professions are very concerned with the health (Lipton, 2005). This perspective of growth of complementary medicine and are health undermines the idea of biological attempting to undermine it by insisting it meets determinism, regarding interaction between positivist scientific standards of safety and environmental stimuli and the mind as practice. responsible for health. Traditional Medicine sees the body as strictly a Indigenous belief systems the world over mechanical apparatus composed of physical resonate strongly with this concept of bio-chemicals and genes. If the functioning of human health (Maher, 2002), and it seems the body is diseased, medicine uses physical unavoidable that as we look outside the drugs and chemistry to restore the body. In the confined space of empirical science we will quantum universe, it is recognised that come to embrace more alternative causal invisible energy fields and physical molecules ontologies and methods of healing. collaborate in creating life. Quantum The concepts of new biology mechanics recognises that the invisible moving complement the SPECS model in a number forces of the field are the primary factors that of ways as overcoming oppression and shape matter (Woese, 2004). At the very ensuring wellbeing is not just a matter of leading edge of contemporary biophysics, persons acting on the environment, but of scientists are recognising that the body’s individuals coming into contact with molecules are actually controlled by external forces they have already mentally vibrational energy frequencies, so that light, internalised. By placing emphasis on sound and other electromagnetic energies environmental factors in determining health, profoundly influence all the functions of life such as socio-economic standing and (Lipton, 2005). This fascinating insight about educational opportunities, interpersonal and the power of energy forces provides an inter-group power dynamics and understanding of how Asian energy medicine, discriminatory practices, new biology homeopathy, chiropractic and other inadvertently acknowledges the way

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political and psychological factors interact to praxis, alterative health modalities and even impact upon health. Once aware of inhibiting broader conceptions of health and environmental influences, new biology posits wellbeing, such as those implicit in new that the human mind has the capacity to biology may come to be accepted and renegotiate and overcome these by changing eventually wield some positive influence in the way it perceives, constructs and interacts the agenda for social justice. with the environment. Thus these scientific A great example of the potential of insights could be incorporated into critical such reflexive and synergistic practice is the consciousness programs or at the very least idea of establishing in mainstream add a new dimension to health comprehension institutions, community wellness groups in community wellness programs where citizens afflicted by similar medical (Prilleltensky, 2003). If incorporated into the ailments can discuss the social origins of SPECS model, the empowering nature of these their problems and have an opportunity to discoveries has serious ramifications for the instigate meaningful social change. The temporal and ecological domains by furthering focus of these groups is on how to empower the likelihood of illness prevention. The community members to combat oppressive participation and capabilities domains would societal conditions, so citizens experience also be significantly affected by the idea that not only traditional ameliorative treatment, through educated cognitive mediation of but also the positive effects of being part of environmental influences, the individual can a transformational process (Prilleltensky, become the ultimate constructor of their health 2003). There is a gradual decoding of the and their reality, dramatically increasing levels individual’s world as the mechanisms of of personal affirmation, strengths and voice. oppression and dehumanisation are grasped. While it may seem new biology and other Such programs, corresponding to the SPECS consciousness raising information is of little participation and capabilities domains, practical value to third world countries and would institutionalise critical consciousness offers no visible betterment to concrete programs, undermining the dominance of situations, the access to the empowering the medical model and thus helping to de knowledge itself is actually an extremely professionalise health and wellness. The important change in the environment, creating socially critical nature of such questioning positive repercussions of its own. would also contribute to the accountability However it is important to keep in mind of mainstream institutions towards that the path towards liberation is far from oppressed and marginalised groups. linear, it is a process and not a state. As Ultimately this type of Prilleltensky (2003) observes, the professional transformational approach requires an effort helper is geared toward amelioration, and the to understand local struggle and self- smooth running of institutions, while the liberation within a wider societal and global critical change agent is focused on perspective. Murray and Campbell (2003) transformation, liberation and the believe all health professionals need to confrontation of unjust practices. If wellbeing consider themselves as participants in a and liberation are to emerge these roles need to broader movement for social change and the be collaborative, and this requires people eradication of poverty, to move from the working inside the system as much as position of the detached observer to that of questioning it, specialised knowledge as much the socially committed. Human rights and as political knowledge and ameliorative an active participatory citizenship are therapies as much as social change. Perhaps foundational to community development under this definition of professional critical and wellbeing, and in order to combat war,

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violence, poverty, crime and ignorance on a Aboriginal health beliefs. The global scale, drastic measures such as the Australian Journal of Rural Health, 7, elimination of third world debt, the 229-236. undermining of numerous corporate interests Marks, D., Murray, M., Evans, B., Willig, and increased government accountability need C., Woodall, C., Sykes, C. (2005). to be implemented (Prilleltensky, 2005). The Health psychology: Theory, research problem, according to Murray and Campbell and practice (2nd ed). London: Sage. (2003) is figuring out how to connect local and Murray, M., & Campbell, C. (2003). community efforts to mobilise resistance to Beyond the sidelines: Towards a more social oppression to broader national and politically engaged health psychology. international movements. Health Psychology Update, 12(3), 1- It is only when we achieve an integrated 11. political and psychological understanding of Prilleltensky, I. (2003). Critical health power, wellness and oppression that we can psychology needs psycho-political effectively change the world around us validity. Health Psychology Update, (Prilleltensky, 2003). To promote liberation, 12(3), 1-11. critical psychology needs to engage with the Prilleltensky, I. (2005). Promoting well- political and the psychological concurrently, it being: Time for a paradigm shift in needs to operate at the level of the individual health and human services. and political. This means identifying processes Scandinavian Journal of Public and practices which can transform the Health, 33, 53-60. psychological processes associated with Prilleltensky, I., & Gonick, L. (1996). oppression and facilitate taking action to bring Polities change, oppression remains: about change in social conditions at the level On the psychology and politics of of widespread discursive practices and the oppression. Political Psychology, 17, subjugating forces on the individual. The 127-147. SPECS framework recognises that these Prilleltensky, I., & Nelson, G. (2002). Doing dynamic terrains need to be negotiated in order psychology critically: Making a to promote wellbeing at the individual, difference in diverse settings. New relational and collective levels. The broad York: Palgrave Macmillan. reflexive nature of the SPECS model not only Watts, R., & Abdul-Adil, J. (1994). takes these psychological and political forces Psychological aspects of oppression into account but also provides a solid base to and socio-political development: which new theories of health and wellbeing Building young warriors. In R. Newby can be incorporated. & T. Manly (Eds.), The poverty of References inclusion, innovation and Burton, M., & Kagan, C. (2004). Liberation interventions: The dilemma of the social psychology: learning from Latin African-American underclass. America. Journal of Community and Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Applied Social Psychology, 15, 63-78. Woese, C. (2004). A new biology for a new Engel, G. (1997). From biomedical to century. Microbiology and Molecular biopsychosocial. Being scientific in the Biology Reviews, 68(2), 123-186 human domain. Psychosomatics, 38, 521-528. Address correspondence to Lipton, B. (2005). The biology of belief. Santa email [email protected] Rose, CA: Elite Books. . Maher, P. (2002). A review of traditional

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A Case for More Culture in Community Psychology: The Federated States of Micronesia

David S. Jackson1,2 Richard J. Kim1 1The Catalyst Group, LLC 2University of Hawai‛i at Mānoa

Despite the notable achievements of community psychology in promoting the wellness of diverse populations and recent “calls to action” to incorporate more culture in the discipline, there has still been insufficient integration of cultural theories and the valuable contributions of cultural psychology. This paper presents issues of substance abuse and mental health in the Federated States of Micronesia and demonstrates why cultural understanding is necessary for improving the lives of Micronesians and pre- venting further problems. A more culturally-informed community psychology could contribute to the enhancement of this population and others through advancing cul- tural theory and research, developing more culturally-appropriate interventions, and preventing problems caused by inattention to culture. Community psychology has undoubtedly in Global Perspective” also reflects this trend. enriched our understanding of diversity and the In addition, the population of members in corollaries that emerge at the junctions of community psychology organizations outside different cultures and social systems. of the U.S. is growing and constitutes more Contemporary advances that have shaped our than half of the total membership (Toro, field include the illumination of the limits of 2005). Clearly, community psychology is Western psychological knowledge (Gergen, establishing a much needed place among the Gulerce, Lock, & Misra, 1996) and the diverse peoples of the world. importance of assuming a global perspective However, much less prevalent are (Marsella, 1998) while valuing local and efforts in the discipline to incorporate cultural indigenous practices (Kim & Berry, 1993). theories and research in community work. In Such contributions make our discipline well- light of the numerous cultures that situated for tackling issues in the international community psychologists are engaged with, it realm, and recent developments at this level is surprising that the abundance of cultural are encouraging. literature available (for e.g., Cooper & Several special journal editions have Denner, 1998; Herskovits, 1955; Hofstede, revealed community psychology’s 1980; Kagitcibasi, 1996; Kluckhohn, 1954; international diversity (Journal of Community Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Shweder, 1990; Psychology, 1998, 3; 2002, 6; The Community Triandis & Bhawuk, 1997) has not been more Psychologist, 1990, 1; 1995, 3). These and integrated. Bhawuk and Mrazek (2005) also other works have greatly expanded our raised an important question of whether the conceptualization of our discipline, and include field is sufficiently considering culture. perspectives from areas such as Australia Fortunately, the last few years have seen (Bishop & D’Rosario, 2002), New Zealand more recognition of this need, as O’Donnell’s (Gregory, 2001), Cuba (Calvino, 1998), and (2006) presidential address proclaimed the South Africa (Ngonyama ka Sigogo, et al., significance of culture for our discipline, 2004), to name a few. The title of the 2005 stressing the need to go beyond diversity as a Society for Community Research and Action fundamental aspect of our work. The Biennial Conference “Community Psychology significance of the connection between

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community psychology and culture was also substance abuse and mental illness. reflected in the theme of the recent 2007 References to the cultural factors and social SCRA Biennial Conference, “Community and conditions that may underlie these problems Culture: Implications for Policy, Social Justice, are infused throughout most of the paper. and Practice.” While minimal, the current efforts to address Although cultural psychology and related these issues in FSM are also reviewed, which fields have made vast contributions, it is an underscores the critical need for an expansion enormous task to develop an understanding of of community psychology. the numerous evolving cultures that exist along FSM and its culture with all of the problems, solutions, and The Federated States of Micronesia opportunities related to culture. Community (FSM) provides a compelling case of a region psychology, which often tackles social issues at the threshold of cultural changes where our at the most local level, must fill this need when existing frameworks may be relevant and working with communities in which little where our knowledge and skills can be research or theoretical knowledge exists. For usefully developed and applied. However, example, Pacific Island cultures have not been little attention has been paid to this incorporated in major theoretical perspectives population among community psychologists. such as those from Hall (Hall & Hall, 1990), No articles were found in community Hofstede (1980), Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck psychology journals that mention Micronesia (1961), and Schwartz (1992), although many or its people. community psychologists are involved with The Federated States of Micronesia are Pacific Island people and their related issues. a group of islands in the West Pacific Ocean Cultural knowledge is necessary for us to divided into the four states of Chuuk (Truk), engage in our work, and thus it becomes our Kosrae (Kosaie), Pohnpei (Ponape), and Yap. responsibility to build and share cultural Its land area totals approximately 700 square understanding to effectively assist those kilometres; about four times the size of communities. Washington D.C. Its estimated population in Reinforcing the case for a greater 2008 was 107,665 (U.S. Census Bureau, incorporation of cultural theories and research 2008). in community psychology, this paper reviews Although limited, some population substance abuse and mental health in the characteristics are available from the U.S. Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). The Census Bureau and occasional census studies case of FSM, with its increasing social within FSM. In 2008, the population was problems, reveals that our contributions to estimated to be 50.0% male and extremely global issues are valuable, but they are still youthful, with 56.6% of the total population insufficient. With greater attention to culture, being between the ages of 0 and 24 years old community psychology’s impact can be more (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). The 2000 FSM fully realized. Census of Population and Housing has The first section of this paper provides an estimated that 48.8% identify their ethnic overview of FSM as many readers may not be origin and race to be Chuukese (or its outer familiar with the region or its people. Of islands), 25.5% identify as Pohnpeian (or its course, many differences exist within the FSM outer islands), 9.3% identify as Yapese (or its population, but they also share many outer islands), 6.7% identify as Kosraean, characteristics that are useful for examining 0.6% identify as Filipino, and less than 0.5% their situation as a whole (Saleh, 1996). These each identify as other Asian, other Pacific socio-cultural elements provide a context for Islander, U.S. American, or other. Likewise, better understanding the subsequent topics of FSM includes a diverse array of languages,

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with 57.6% speaking Chuukese, 47.4% culture, 4) ambiguous identification, 5) a lack speaking English, 34.3% speaking Pohnpeian/ of educational attainment, and 6) a culture at Mwoakilloan/Pingelapese, 7.7% speaking risk (Saleh, 1996). It can be argued that the Kosraean, 6.0% speaking Yapese, 5.3% increasing problems, such as substance abuse speaking other island Yapese, and less than 5% and mental health reviewed in this paper, each speaking Asian or other languages. may only be a couple of telling symptoms of Among the population age 25 years and over, a larger trend jeopardizing Micronesian 49.2% have less than a 9th grade education, society. 19.1% have an education between 9th and 12th Untalan and Camacho (1997) also grades, but no diploma, and 31.7% are a high discussed the effect of rapid social changes in school graduate or higher (FSM National Micronesia. They reiterated the importance of Government, Department of Economic Affairs, the extended family and how typically Division of Statistics, 2002). matrilineal lines determine patterns of land Saleh (1996) provided a useful ownership, residence, social position, description of Micronesian culture. One of the kinship, and inheritance. However, central features of the Micronesian identity is modernization and changing family structures the extended family, from which, traditionally, toward independent nuclear families with all behaviour stems. This characteristic is fewer support systems, along with similar to many Pacific Island nations individualistic practices, have undermined the (O’Donnell, 1995). Helping one’s family power of the extended family to ensure the members is a fundamental value and one welfare of each other. These authors also occupies a clearly defined role within the discuss the corresponding increases in family unit. Self-esteem and security are problems such as alcohol and drug use, teen anchored in identifying oneself within the pregnancy, suicide, and child maltreatment family. Traditionally, land was also part of the which have emerged. family and was not divided and bartered Major social issues in FSM among individuals. Harmony with nature was, Although the hundreds of volcanic and remains, an important value as well (Saleh, islands and coral atolls which make up FSM 1996). exemplify tropical paradise, the region is far Saleh (1996) also illustrated the from being trouble-free. There has been relational styles among Micronesians. They are growing concern about substance abuse and friendly people and do not like to offend mental health issues in the region (Gonzaga- others; interpersonal harmony is fundamental. Optaia, 2006; Hezel, 1987a, 1987b, 1989, Thus, they may take some time getting to 1993; Marshall, 1990, 1993, 1997). know others to ensure that they do not upset Historically, problems of mental illness were them. Micronesians dislike conflict, and the minimal and alcohol and drug use (besides traditional social organization was constructed native plants such as kava) may have been to circumvent contention. Micronesians value non-existent. For example, cases of mental sharing and assisting those in need rather than illness even in the 1960s were perceived as material wealth. “relatively few” (Hezel, 1993). Also, The changes that have occurred and are researchers have found that intoxicating still occurring in Micronesia are leading to a drugs, including alcohol, did not exist on social system almost directly opposed to the islands such as in Chuuk until foreign contact traditional one. The effect of repeated (Larson, 1987; Marshall, 1990), and Saleh colonization has led to 1) displacement from (1994) stated that “alcohol is not indigenous land through appropriation, 2) family to any of the islands of Micronesia” (p. 268). dissolution, 3) a breakdown of traditional Recently however, these problems have

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intensified, with the foremost mental health Likewise, alcohol was unknown until foreign issues being schizophrenia (Hezel, 1993) and contact (Marshall, 1993), although Nason suicide (Rubenstein, 2002). In addition, (1975) argued that sakau (general term for excessive alcohol and growing drug use, drinks containing alcohol) and achi especially marijuana and ‘ice’, are being (fermented coconut toddy) were present documented in the region (Saleh, 1994; Storr, before Western contact. Marshall and Arria, Workman, & Anthony, 2004). Marshall (1975) discovered that some islands Much of the research presented in this of Micronesia learned about the coconut paper is based on the limited studies available, variety from Filipinos. Estimates of when some of which are becoming dated. However, whisky, wine, and beer made their more recent presentations (e.g., Gonzaga- appearance range from the early to late Optaia, 2006) and the authors’ 1800’s (Marshall & Marshall, 1975; Nason, communications with local authorities suggest 1975). It is argued that marijuana was that these issues continue to worsen. It is also introduced in the late 1960s by Peace Corps noteworthy that almost all of the studies volunteers (Marshall, 1990), although locals reviewed here discuss cultural change to some did not begin using until the mid 1970s extent and relate it to the problems experienced (Larson, 1987). Today, all of these substances in Micronesia. This presents a much needed are used frequently in FSM. Although direction for research on mitigating these tobacco use is undoubtedly a concern negative effects. (Marshall, 1997), more research is available In addition, there is still a need for on the use of alcohol and other drugs. research to confirm the prevalence of Therefore it is the latter two that will be substance abuse and mental illnesses on a more focused on. comprehensive scale. The knowledge base Marshall conducted an ethnographic regarding the correlates of substance abuse and study of alcohol and drunken behaviour in mental health among Micronesians is also still Moen in 1976 and followed up this research in its infancy. While many argue that on the same island in 1985 with a more Westernization is contributing substantially to comprehensive study of alcohol, tobacco and these problems, almost no theoretical models marijuana using multiple methods (Marshall, or studies were found examining the 1990). Marshall’s study found that a majority relationships among substance use, mental of men drink (85% were current or former illness, and their precursors within drinkers), especially those between their mid- Micronesian society. Research on culturally teens and mid-30s, while a majority of compatible treatment and prevention programs women did not drink (2.3% were current or is also lacking for this population, and previous former drinkers). Gender was the greatest efforts to adequately assess and address these predictor of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana problems have been minimal and ineffective use. Of current drinkers, consumption was (Robillard, 1987). found to be heavy, with 77.6% having more Substance abuse than four drinks per session and 50.6% Besides kava, a root-based drink often having more than 10 drinks per session. No consumed together with the community during association was found between alcohol use significant events, alcohol, tobacco, and other and the biographical characteristics of drugs have been unknown in much of the religious affiliation, marital status, region until foreign contact. Tobacco may have educational level, employment status, or been one of the first to be introduced to the community of origin. Also, alcohol use was islands through Spanish trading networks significantly correlated with tobacco and around the mid-19th century (Marshall, 1990). marijuana use. Despite the high use of

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alcohol, Marshall found that few Moen smoking is a means of developing friendships. islanders reported drinking for “pathological” However, these bonds develop in the context of reasons, and most drank for social reasons. disapproval by authority figures and marijuana Later, Saleh (1994) examined patterns of use is believed by many to cause problems in alcohol use and related factors among the youths’ behaviour (such as disobedience) Micronesian college students at a Guam and discord within the family. Larson illustrates university. The author found that Micronesian how marijuana smoking may fit in with the students, compared with non-Micronesians, Chuukese cultural values of sharing and were significantly more likely to have parents peacefulness, but also risk-taking at the same who were alcoholic and friends who drink, and time. However, at a societal level, in addition to to consume more alcohol in one sitting. Further it being illegal, it is not an accepted behaviour analyses showed that, in comparison to Palau and is still perceived as a foreign custom. and Guam (outside of FSM), a greater Little data on frequency of marijuana or percentage of students from Chuuk reported other drug use in FSM is available. FSM’s being heavy drinkers, getting drunk more Department of Health, Education, and Social frequently, and drinking every day. Chuuk Affairs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health students also reported a higher frequency of Program has reported a perceived increase in arguing after drinking and experiencing work the introduction of drugs (Gonzaga-Optaia, or academic interference from drinking. 2006). However, almost no information Nason (1975) found that drinking parties comprehensively details the extent of current on Etal Island have come to serve an important substance abuse within FSM. social function, preserving traditional values Mental health and easing the strain from socio-political While the connection between substance changes. Drinking parties often coincide with abuse and mental health is well-documented public occasions, or the arrival of visitors or with Western samples, the association is less fieldtrip ships. They are male dominated and clear for Micronesians. Some literature provide a context for young men to display reviewed earlier suggests strong social reasons masculinity through risky activities such as for using alcohol and drugs rather than gambling with blackjack, “chugging” liquor, pathological reasons, although Hezel’s (1993) and singing love songs (because of their research suggests the possibility that substance adulterous connotations). As traditional male abuse may act more as a precursor to mental roles have faded, drinking parties allow men to illness. With such limited data, more research demonstrate their masculinity and at the same must be conducted on the possible correlation time provided an outlet for their frustrations between drug use and mental health in light of regarding interpersonal problems. cultural changes in FSM. Marijuana use appears to be serving Only relatively recently has psychological similar social functions, as discovered by deviance in Micronesia been examined, Larson (1987) in his study of Chuukese users. although primarily under the Western Occasionally, young women smoke marijuana, conceptualization of mental health. Beginning although typical smokers are young men in 1974 from a psychiatrist and a psychologist between the ages of 15 to 20. Usually on the Trust Territory Headquarters staff, a consumed among a group of close relatives or Division of Mental Health was established to friends, it is understood by group members that assess mental health in the region (Hezel, they are allowed to share their personal 1987a). Despite the lack of evidence for the thoughts and that it will be kept secret by other need for or suitability of Western services, the members. There is a high degree of trust American model of health care was among those smoking together and often, institutionalized and practiced among the

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people of Micronesia. By the early 1980’s, to suicide and psychosis, especially about one dozen programs were initiated with schizophrenia. the purpose of training mental health service Hezel (1987a) may have been one of the providers (Robillard, 1987). Also, a handful of first to suggest that the increase in the rate of reports detailing the incidence of mental illness was linked to social changes in schizophrenia, as well as the status of other Micronesia. More specifically, Hezel (1987a, mental health issues and the health care system 1987b, 1989) provided insightful explanations were developed during this early period of the relationship of changes in social and (Hezel, 1987a). family dynamics and suicide in Truk. However, early attempts at establishing Examining the types of suicide committed, it mental health services were largely was found that most related to family problems. unsuccessful (Robillard, 1987). Services were It is the changes in values and relationships not only incompatible with cultural norms; among parents and children that lead to there was a lack of fit between services and conflicts. For example, youth may increasingly community needs. For example, standard demand acknowledgement of their ‘rights’, Western methods of diagnosing and treating which was never an issue in traditional society; patients were implemented based on an on the other hand, parents may be pressured to individual-centred framework, with little demand that children prove themselves with knowledge of the importance of the substantial cash incomes rather than traditional Micronesian’s interrelations with family and food production and tending to the home. community. In addition, although suicide and Changes in the distribution of wealth and drug abuse were the most salient issues, mental authority, as fathers are encouraged to earn health programs paid little attention to them. more money and become independent from Robillard’s (1987) evaluation of mental health their wives’ lineages, subsequently impact the services in Micronesia was quite incisive: interdependence and security within the “The history of U.S. ‘development’ extended family. of Micronesia, of which mental These changes often clash with pre- health services is but a phase, existing ways. Under stress, historical cultural wears a very thick pair of norms such as bravado (in males), enduring institutional blinders, a mask so suffering as proof of love, and need for totally composed of the structural recognition, also influence one’s decision to dynamics of the centre that there is commit suicide (Hezel, 1987b). The cultural virtually no space and time to norm of avoiding conflict may also be a factor conceive of or implement anything in suicide, as it provides a means of removing but the most conventional American oneself from the situation (Saleh, 1996). In mental health service addition, the suicides appear to be highly systems.” (p.235) culturally patterned and influenced by previous It was evident that for interventions to acts, appearing to be to some extent succeed, knowledge of the causes and romanticized (Rubenstein, 1987). treatment of mental illness among Lowe’s (2003) more recent analysis of Micronesians had to be broadened. Several adolescent and youth well-being in Chuuk authors have embarked on this undertaking and provides a complementary and expanded their analyses have generally pointed to the account of precursors to psychosocial stress. He effect of increasing Western influence (Dale, discussed the importance of identity formation 1981; Hezel 1987a, 1987b, 1989, 1993; Lowe, for young people and their challenges in 2003; Rubenstein, 1983, 1987, 1995, 2002). negotiating their identities across multiple These authors have linked such social changes settings. When constructing an identity in one

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activity setting is opposed to the identity in the period 1978-1980, Hezel (1993) found encouraged in another setting, elevated that the rate was 54 per 10,000 in 1990. Most of psychosocial stress is likely. In the context of Micronesia at the time had a rate lower than Micronesia, social change that creates new other industrialized nations, although the nearby settings which reward the construction of a state of Palau’s rate was considerably higher at particular identity and are incongruent with the 167. Seventy-three percent of treated cases were reward system of other ‘traditional’ settings is diagnosed as schizophrenia. Over three quarters a significant cause of problems. For example, (77%) of these severe cases were male. the demands to support and be supported by Dale’s (1981) analysis revealed the family may conflict with the demands to substantial differences in the prevalence of engage in wage jobs or deviant behaviour with schizophrenia among the populations of peers. In support of this idea is the finding that Micronesia between the years 1978 and 1979. peri-urban areas, with a higher proportion of While Yap had a rate of 9.7 cases per thousand conflicting settings, had higher suicide rates (over the age of 15), the Kapingamarangi and than urban or rural areas, which are more Nukuoro people of similar Polynesian descent likely to have consistency between settings. have yet to identify a single case of Studies have also suggested that schizophrenia. Dale noted that the psychosis is not a likely factor in suicide Kapingamarangi mostly keep to themselves and (Rubenstein, 1995). Of the total number of preserve their traditional ways, while the suicide victims, only 5 to 10% had psychotic Nukuoro have been more likely to mix with histories. However, evidence shows that other populations. Also, the rates of psychotics are much more likely to commit schizophrenia show a general increase from suicide than the general Micronesian more eastern islands (near Kapingamarangi and population (Hezel, 1993). Nukuoro) to western islands – a noteworthy Rubenstein’s (1983, 1987) analysis of phenomenon worth exploring further. suicides in Truk also complements these Examining 2004 rates of various explanations and reviews the findings that in diagnosed cases of mental illness and substance the period from the mid 1960’s to the early abuse, Gonzaga-Optaia (2006) reported that 1980’s suicides have reached epidemic schizophrenia (297 cases) and depressive proportions. Although initially appearing to be episodes (100 cases) were the most frequent. a cohort effect, as post World War II children The most recent data in 2005 found a similar experienced substantial societal changes, pattern, but with continued increases, with 325 Rubenstein had to reject this hypothesis. Even cases of schizophrenia and 114 cases of in the early 1990’s, he reported that suicides depressive episodes. Because of the geographic had become the primary cause of death among challenges inherent in a diffuse island nation young Micronesian men, and their rates had and lack of resources for identifying all cases of been among the highest in the world mental illness, investigators have cautioned that (Rubenstein, 1995) with rates in some areas, findings are not conclusive. However, because such as Truk, exceeding 200 per 100,000 all psychotic cases that were included in their annually during the period 1978 to 1987 prevalence rates were highly indisputable, any (Rubenstein, 2002). In his most recent article, errors would most likely be underestimates. he stated that the youth suicide epidemic is Upon inquiries with villagers, many currently in its third decade with no signs of perceived increases in mental illness and diminishing (Rubenstein, 2002). attributed it to travelling abroad, higher Another area of concern is the possible education, and drug use (Hezel, 1993). Hezel’s increasing rate of psychosis. Compared to a study found that 47% of the psychotic rate of 34 per 10,000 for the entire Micronesia population had lived more than 6 months

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abroad and had more years of education on public defender, police, schools, hospitals, and average than the general adult population. courts. Psychosis was also found to be largely linked Programs and services primarily include to gender, with a disproportionate amount of outreach, education and counselling, day males being affected. He also found a possible programs, and outpatient services, although relationship between drug use and psychosis, there is only a relatively small group of staff in although the data was limited. Possible each state. In Pohnpei, there is an active explanations of these findings include being community mental health centre, which exposed to greater stress, common to provides education, a day program, weekly industrialized nations, and which may be clinic services, phone counselling and crisis experienced more by men who are more often intervention, and outreach. In Chuuk, there is a in public roles, are experiencing greater role hospital on the main island, which has an changes, and are more often socially dislocated outpatient clinic and conducts outreach. They than women. The cultural customs of dealing had 20 mental health workers as of the report. with stress by drinking alcohol may also be Yap conducts outpatient services island-wide, becoming more hazardous as stronger drugs and a substance abuse and mental health unit are introduced. made up of four staff offers patient care and Limited recent efforts family counselling. In Kosrae, a team of In 1989, FSM established the National counsellors, nurses, and police are involved in Office of Substance Abuse and Mental Health locating and screening individuals, and making as well as offices in the four states for the referrals to the hospital. Throughout the prevention and treatment of substance abuse country, non-governmental organizations are and mental illness. Almost all (98%) of their also involved with advocacy, promotion, funding consists of U.S. Federal grants prevention, and rehabilitation. However, it is (Gonzaga-Optaia, 2006). Based on a 2005 yet to be determined whether such services are report of the World Health Organization, there adequately addressing the increasing substance are few laws addressing mental health, except abuse and mental health issues in the region. for a 1970 legislation for treating involuntary Need for culturally-informed efforts patients. However, there is a mental health We have many reminders of the policy formulated in 1986 that guides unfortunate consequences that can result from advocacy, promotion, prevention, and neglecting culture and context (Gergen, et al., treatment; in addition, there exists a national 1996; O’Donnell, 1995; Sinha & Holtzman, mental health program and a substance abuse 1984). Real-world examples of atrocities that policy, which were both established in 1989 have followed from cultural dominance abound. (WHO, 2005). For instance, numerous authors have contended The WHO report, developed in that U.S. cultural dominance and annexation of conjunction with the University of Auckland, Hawaii have led to Native Hawaiians ranking involved a situational analysis of mental health among the highest in rates in the U.S. of needs and resources in Pacific Island countries, numerous physical, psychological, and social which outlined mental health efforts in 2005 pathologies (Hishinuma, et al., 2005; Makini, et (WHO, 2005). At that time, they reported that al., 2001; Marsella, Oliveira, Plummer, & there are no in-patient or long-term care Crabbe, 1995; Nishimura, Hishinuma, Else, facilities in FSM; a jail is used for safe care. Goebert & Andrade, 2005; Stannard, 1992; Doctors and staff in the state hospital have Wong, Klingle, and Price, 2004). little experience in mental health, and Our field has the advantage of being programs and services are community based, action-oriented and having an abundant involving a community action agency, the literature on the crucial factors for building

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healthy communities such as cultural healthy functioning because many cultural sensitivity (Dumas, Rollock, Prinz, Hops, & differences exist. Overall, any research Blechman, 1999; Guarnaccia & Rodriguez, examining Pacific Island populations must be 1996; Kagitcibasi, 1996), an ecological grounded in the meanings used by that perspective (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), a focus on particular culture. prevention (Felner, Felner, Silverman, 2000), If culturally-grounded instruments are not participation (Wandersman & Florin, 2000), possible, any instruments currently being used and empowerment (Zimmerman, 2000), along must be thoroughly examined with regard to with the use of qualitative (Banyard & Miller, their reliability and validity for these Pacific 1998; Stewart, 2000) and multi-method populations. For example Kim and Jackson (in research (Janesick, 2003; Weisner, 1996), as press) reported on an evaluation of a Hawaiian well as other important considerations for culture-based substance abuse treatment community research (Glenwick, Heller, program which required (by the funding Linney, Pargament, 1990; Shadish, 1990). One agency) the use of standardized instruments. As disadvantage, however, is in the lack of part of the larger study, these authors included a theories to help us understand the critical preliminary assessment of the reliability and components of culture that operate when validity of the instrument for their sample of different cultures converge. predominantly Asian and Pacific Islanders. Thus, we can utilize our advantages and Accordingly, Banyard and Miller (1998) respond to situations such as that within FSM make a strong case for greater use of qualitative in a number of ways. Particularly appropriate methods. They first argue that valuing diversity would be research and intervention based on a requires understanding different ways of ‘ground up’ approach. To illustrate, attributing meaning to the world, not just the instruments often required to measure meanings of Western scientific cultures. This substance abuse outcomes at the state level are also entails being immersed in local, historical standardized for the U.S. population. One contexts, rather than being a detached observer; question required of service providers, as part in other words, incorporating a different of government funding requirements, asks philosophy of science. Second, in order to about whether a client has been homeless in understand the complex relationships the past 30 days. The definition of surrounding the individual, qualitative methods homelessness provided by government must be employed. Third, empowerment agencies is not having a “fixed address” (for involves giving voice to marginalized e.g., see Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, communities, and the most appropriate methods 2008, p. B-50). However, the meaning of for accomplishing this are qualitative. homelessness is different in many Pacific Qualitative methods are also Island cultures. Pacific people may be more indispensable because they provide the transient and live with various extended family groundwork for research on populations that members, while not considering themselves have not yet been studied quantitatively. homeless. Some populations do not even have Moreover, qualitative research can enhance street addresses. Obviously, the interpretation more traditional research and can reveal of results based on such data would provide a inconsistencies in or make sense of findings very different picture than what would be from quantitative methods. Thus, use of multi- perceived by native people. method approaches are particularly effective, The same definitional issues will also especially when examining complex ecological apply to concepts of drugs and mental health. systems (Banyard and Miller, 1998; Riger, Dumas and colleagues (1999) discuss the need 1990; Weisner, 1996). to use culturally-acceptable definitions of Along with multi-method and qualitative

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strategies, local participation (Wandersman & cultures. Florin, 2000) must be an integral aspect of 6. Acculturation: considering the extent research for developing successful that individuals have adapted to their interventions for non-Western populations. new cultural environment. Often, program funding requires use of 7. Social factors: considering the effects evidence-based programs, although no of the many other groups that evidence-based programs exist specifically individuals, including service targeted to Pacific Islanders. Such research providers, are a part of. should also be used to guide more broad-based, Along with those within Micronesia, long-term and multidimensional (having better support may also be offered to multiple components and addressing multiple disadvantaged Micronesians within the U.S. levels) strategies such as policy-making Although the population of Micronesians in the (Knitzer, 2000) and other population-based U.S. is relatively small, many are emigrating interventions, especially those focused on from their lands in search of greater prevention (Felner, et al., 2000; Levine, 1998). opportunities (Untalan & Camacho, 1997). It is Evidence also confirms the effectiveness of likely that some of them will require services, programs that consist of various intervention for which an understanding of their unique levels targeted at critical periods of backgrounds and current issues among their development in various key settings and their people is necessary. Literature on culturally linkages (for e.g., Reid, Eddy, Fetrow, & appropriate services for immigrant Stoolmiller, 1999). Micronesians is virtually nonexistent (Saleh, Some guidelines for incorporating 1996) and is another area needing development. culture into mental health program practices Also, while Saleh’s article is a useful resource are offered by Guarnaccia and Rodriguez for non-Micronesian practitioners, employing (1996). They explain that programs with indigenous practitioners who can more fully minimal cultural sensitivity only incorporate relate to their clients is one strategy of ensuring one or a few of the following aspects, while cultural sensitivity that should be used (Tharp, highly culturally sensitive programs 1994). incorporate all: Thus, within FSM, community 1. Assessing cultural identities: psychology has much to offer. Research should determining cultures that program be an initial priority, for obtaining incidence participants identify with, with more and prevalence rates for substance abuse and specific cultural identities being more mental illness, for discovering culturally useful. sensitive approaches for intervention, and for 2. Using the language: requiring staff to further examining the correlates of cultural speak the same language, with change for this population. Especially relevant specific dialects being more helpful. could be the utilization of a transactional- 3. Physical symbols: incorporating ecological model (Felner, et al., 2000), as Lowe physical cultural symbols into the (2003) underscored the particular relevance of programs environment. the differences between settings that 4. Events and celebrations: holding Micronesian youth encounter. significant cultural events, which On the other hand, part of our provide opportunities for sharing disadvantage is that we have not yet developed cultural values. an adequate understanding of exactly what 5. Views of mental illness: processes are involved when cultures collide. understanding the different views of We can ask questions such as: What specific mental illness held by different cultural attributes are more at risk of

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succumbing to a dominant culture? Can a conditions in communities like FSM, it is culture be strengthened to avoid the influence necessary to apply them forthwith. However, it of a dominant culture? Is cultural is argued that cultural-theory based efforts in disintegration inevitable? A greater knowledge community psychology can be critical in of how cultural imposition (even unintended) addressing needs not only in FSM, but in other can lead to breakdown can be extremely nations experiencing similar challenges. Far too valuable and necessary to prevent future many societies have experienced cultural occurrences. disintegration and the disturbing consequences An abundance of literature exists on that accompany it. The people of FSM and culture theory (for e.g., Cooper & Denner, other parts of the world have been likewise 1998; Kagitcibasi, 1996; Markus & Kitayama, sending a message of the distress occurring in 1991; Shweder, 1990; Triandis & Bhawuk, their region. It is one that community 1997), and perspectives can be drawn from a psychology is uniquely qualified to respond to number of disciplines including cross-cultural and, as Toro (2005) urged, “we could ‘reach psychology (e.g., Segall, Lonner, & Berry, out’ much more.” 1998), cultural psychology (e.g., Shweder, References 1995), social psychology (e.g., Kluckhohn, Banyard, V., & Miller, K. (1998). The 1954), cultural anthropology (e.g., Herskovits, powerful potential of qualitative research 1955), organizational studies (e.g., Hofstede, for community psychology. American 1980), and many others. Various models taken Journal of Community Psychology, 26, from this literature could be used as a 485-505. foundation for the development of research and Bhawuk, D.P.S., & Mrazek, S. (2005, June). intervention. For example, Micronesian culture Where is culture in community appears to be highly collectivist, and a more psychology? A review, synthesis, and detailed understanding of its contact with an future directions. Symposium conducted at individualistic Western culture can be further the Society for Community Research and pursued. Models including those from Action 10th Biennial Conference, Urbana- Schwartz (1992), who explicated the Champaign, IL. opposition between various cultural values Bishop, B.J., & D’Rosario, P. (2002). such as conservatism and autonomy, may Reflections on community psychology in contribute to a better understanding of the Australia: An introduction. Journal of particular conflicts occurring within settings Community Psychology, 30, 591-596. such as in FSM. Another relevant theory that Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of might apply to FSM is Fiske’s (1990, 1992) human development: Experiments by forms of social behaviour that includes nature and design. Cambridge: Harvard communal sharing and market pricing. With a University Press. common framework for understanding cultural Calvino, M. (1998). Reflections on community issues, intervention efforts may be greatly studies. Journal of Community enhanced. Findings may also be extended to Psychology, 26, 253-259. other Pacific Island or other societies Cooper, C. R., & Denner, J. (1998). Theories experiencing difficulties as a result of cultural linking culture and psychology: Universal change. and community-specific processes. Annual The events unfolding in FSM appear to Review of Psychology, 49, 559-584. bear out what community psychology would Dale, P.W. (1981). Prevalence of schizophrenia predict from a clash of divergent cultures. in the Pacific Island populations of Likewise, if our frameworks offer an equally Micronesia. Journal of Psychiatric effective understanding of how to improve Research, 16(2), 103-111.

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Preparation, Submission and Publication of 1,000 words. Books reviewed relate directly to Manuscripts the major areas of practice in community psychology. The Australian Community Psychologist Review and Publication of Manuscripts publishes work that is of relevance to The acceptable word processing programme community psychologists and others interested format is Microsoft Word. All manuscripts are in the field. Research reports should be to be submitted electronically to the: methodologically sound. Theoretical or area Editor review papers are welcomed, as are letters, Lauren Breen brief reports and papers by newer contributors email: [email protected] to the discipline. Contributions towards the If authors experience any difficulty with four sections of the journal are sought. electronic submission, hard copy materials together with a disc copy should be sent to: The Australian Community Psychologist is Dr Lauren Breen published twice per year and online and is Centre for Social Research available via the website of the Australian School of Psychology and Social Science Psychological Society’s College of Edith Cowan University Community Psychologists’ page (http:// 270 Joondalup Drive www.groups.psychology.org.au/ JOONDALUP WA 6027 GroupContext.aspx?ID=883). Australia

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