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Global Status of Wind Power Generation: Theory, Practice, and Challenges International Journal of Green Energy ISSN: 1543-5075 (Print) 1543-5083 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ljge20 Global status of wind power generation: theory, practice, and challenges Muhammad Arshad To cite this article: Muhammad Arshad (2019): Global status of wind power generation: theory, practice, and challenges, International Journal of Green Energy, DOI: 10.1080/15435075.2019.1597369 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2019.1597369 Published online: 12 Apr 2019. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 53 View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ljge20 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2019.1597369 Global status of wind power generation: theory, practice, and challenges Muhammad Arshada,b aDepartment of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering, University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; bDepartment of Geological Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, Pakistan ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY The existence of environmental concerns and constraints has led to a much greater necessity for the Received 19 June 2018 development of renewable energy resources. Wind energy resources are one of the most promising avenues Accepted 17 March 2019 for renewable energy generation, and the field has experienced significant technological innovation and KEYWORDS growth over the past few years. This paper reviews various issues related to wind-power generation Renewable energy; wind resources. Current trends, over the last two decades, of increasing wind turbine sizes, rated power- velocity; cost of energy; generation capacity, efficiencies, and the actual size of wind farm facilities are projected to continue. It is offshore engineering theorized that the current global installed capacity of wind power generation may increase from the current generation of 540 (2017) to 5800 GW by 2050. Wind energy potential, in terms of vertical wind speed profile, mean wind-speed distribution, turbulence effects and gust, are discussed in detail in this paper. A decreasing trend in the cost of initial capital investment and the levelized cost of energy (LCOE), for both onshore and offshore wind-power generation developments, are projected to continue, although this is regionally and economy-size dependent. Key challenges have been identified for the development of wind power genera- tion in developed and under-developed countries going forward. New approaches/developments in the field and avenues for further research or actions that can be undertaken are also outlined in this paper. Materialization of such lines of actionsmay lead to an increase in global wind energy from its current level of around 4% of the electricity generation mix to roughly 40%. 1. Introduction The economic feasibility of wind power generation is the pri- mary driver for site selection for developing wind energy parks. The increase in global energy demands, escalating energy prices, Apart from the level of wind at the site, other factors include: and growing environmental concerns with regard to conventional accessibility of transmission lines; the expected value of energy sources of energy based on fossil fuels has emphasized the need to production; the cost of acquiring the land, and; environmental move energy production to renewable sources. Wind flow, at impact during operations (Sheikh 2010). Between 2000 and 2017, certain velocities, is a plentiful resource for the generation of the approximate global wind-power capacity doubled every three pollution-free electricity. Electricity from wind energy is generated years, reaching a total power generation level of 540 GW by the by wind turbines which harness the kinetic energy of the wind, end of 2017(GWEC 2017;WWEA,2016). During 2017, China, the providing the motive force to turn turbine blades via a rotor drive USAandGermanyweretheindustries’ top players in terms of shaft (Farooq and Kumar 2013). The shaft connects the blades to capacity installations and enhancements (GWEC 2017). One of gears in a generator inside the turbine, which turn with the the more optimistic scenarios foresees wind energy resources movement of the blades (Maczulak 2009). The rotor diameter contributing almost 41% to global installed electricity generation and size of the blades are crucial factors. Blades with larger sizes capacity by 2050 (GWEC 2017). The market is still dominated by can cover a greater area, and therefore convert more electrical onshore wind farms, while significant wind resources are yet to be energy from the kinetic movement of the wind (Şahin 2004). explored in developing countries in Asia and Africa (WWEA Wind turbines are broadly categorized by the directional (World Wind Energy Association) 2016; REN21, 2017). rotation of the main rotor shaft, which can be either horizon- The offshore wind market is growing rapidly, especially in tal or vertical. This depends upon the direction of wind flow; Europe. 18.81 GW of installed capacity was generated by the i.e. upwind or downwind, and the actual location of the end of 2017 from global offshore wind resources. 4.93 GW was turbine, i.e. onshore or offshore (Arshad and O’Kelly 2013). added to the total installed wind generation capacity in 2017 Modern commercial wind turbines have horizontally aligned alone. Most of this occurred in Europe: offshore wind-power rotor shafts; the rotor blades rotate in a vertical plane. The capacity reached 15.816 GW by the end of 2017 with 3.15 GW rotor diameter and wind speed are the main input parameters being added throughout the year (GWEC 2017). Energy produc- for the rated power-generation capacity of a wind turbine tion from wind is the fastest growing global source of renewable (IRENA, 2012). Theoretically, if the wind speed doubles its energy; however, there are still many hurdles to be overcome. energy yield increases eightfold. Legislative barriers, poor policy frameworks, and insufficient Muhammad Arshad [email protected] Department of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering, Museum Building, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/ljge. © 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 2 M. ARSHAD logistical and infrastructural support are all major issues in both ● Challenges and hurdles for the penetration of wind developed and developing countries. energy into energy markets; This review paper outlines the following aspects in relation ● Some suggestions and recommendation for the rapid to the wind energy production industry: development of wind energy parks have been outlined, also. ● Trends in geometric size and rated power-generation capacity of wind turbines; 2. Trends in geometric size and rated power capacity ● Characterization of wind velocity for the assessment of of wind turbines wind energy potential; ● Global trends of wind energy, including cost analysis; Figure 1(a) shows the main components of an onshore wind- ● Jobs and investment trends in wind-power generation turbine system, including a tubular tower installed on a pad/raft industry; foundation, rotor blades, and nacelle (hub). Modern wind Blade Nacelle Hub Rotor diameter Tubular tower Work platform Ground surface level Raft foundation (a) 16 1. Blade 11. Hydraulic cooling devices 2. Blade support 12. Generator 3. Pitch angle actuator 13. Power converter and electrical control, 4. Hub protection and disconnection devices 5. Spinner 14. Transformer 6. Main support 15.Anemometers 7. Main shaft 16. Frame of the nacelle 8. Aircraft warning lights 17. Yaw driving device 9. Gearbox 18. Supporting tower 10. Mechanical brakes (b) Figure 1(a). Major parts of the wind turbine system. (b) Electromechanical parts contained in nacelle (Arshad and O'Kelly, 2013). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY 3 turbines are installed with either pitch-regulated blades or vari- Concrete raft/pad is a typical gravity based foundation (GBF) able rotational speed systems to allow optimization of power system used to support the tubular towers and which is the production over a wide range of prevailing wind speeds. The most popular arrangement for onshore installations of the rotational speed of the main rotor shaft is typically in the range modern wind turbines. GBFs are invariably cast-in-situ rein- of 10 to 20 rev/min (Malhotra 2011). The nacelle (Figure 1(b)) forced-concrete structures employed to resist the critical com- contains key electro-mechanical components of the wind tur- bination of vertical, horizontal, moment and torsional loading bine, including the gearbox and generator. Further operational arising from the self-weight and wind loading acting on the details of these components have been reported by Blanco (2009) wind–turbine structure. The GBFs are geometrically octagonal and Tong (2010). In onshore plants, the nacelle is usually at in plan, or may be square or circular, with a typical width of a height equal to 1 or 1.2 times the rotor diameter, whereas in typically 15–20 m, and are commonly founded at 2–3 m depth offshore plants the height is equal to 0.8 times the rotor diameter. below ground level (Arshad and O’Kelly 2018). Depending on The rated output, rotor diameter and average height of wind the rated power-generating capacity of the wind turbine, the turbines have progressively increased over the years, although the concrete volume required for one GBF may be up to 500 m3. average size of turbines varies largely by country and region. Where the near-surface soil strata have inadequate allowable Figure 2 shows the steady increase in rotor diameter and rated bearing pressure, a hybrid system consisting of piled-raft power capacity (RPC) of wind turbines installed over the last foundation is usually used. The major design considerations three decades. In particular, between 1990 and 2015, RPC for the GDFs include safety against uplift, overturning, sliding increased from typically 0.5 to 7.5 MW and rotor diameter and bearing-capacity failure modes in addition to limit (dif- from ~40 to 150 m (EWEA, 2011) ferential) settlement (i.e.
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