Arthropods Associated with Turf and Ornamentals

The Diagnostic Process

Carol Sutherland, Extension Entomologist

The relationships among plants, Basic Features of An Adult Insect insects and their relatives are extraordinarily complex, even in garden and Let’s begin by reviewing basic features of a common landscape situations. Some gardeners adult insect and introducing the subjects of molting fear insects, consider nearly all of them and metamorphosis. A brief study of five different as “pests,” and overreact to their pres- kinds of mouthparts on insects will show different ence. Others are not aware of the stressful conditions ways that insects get their food, and, for pests, cause that may make plants more susceptible to serious specific kinds of damage to plants that you’re certain pests for which we have few or no controls. There is a to see. Finally, we’ll consider how insects are named happy medium. and categorized as a background for the general field guides that follow. In this section, you will learn enough about the development and classification of arthropods (that is, in- An adult insect, such as a grasshopper, has these com- sects and their jointed-leg relatives) that you’ll be able mon features: to identify many common species, as well as appreci- ate their roles in your yard and garden. This knowl- • three body regions (head, thorax, abdomen) edge should dispel fears, while bolstering confidence • three pairs of legs (one pair per segment on thorax; about your plant and pest management decisions. no walking legs on abdomen) While many species are described in the insect field • two pairs of wings (on 2nd and 3rd segments of tho- guides below, many more are not listed in the inter- rax) ests of space. As always, if you encounter unfamiliar • one pair antennae insects or their relatives, collect a sample and bring it • mouthparts chewing (or modified) to your county agent; then share what you learn. • an external skeleton fortified with chitin, which provides flexibility or strength. • paired compound eyes Basic Information on Insects and Their • bilateral symmetry (right side looks like a mirror Relatives (The Arthropods) image of the left) • appendages jointed and body segmented The arthropods include the “jointed foot” (arthro = • produced by molting from an immature stage jointed; pod = foot) animals, such as insects, mites, • does not molt again after it becomes adult ticks, spiders, all of their various relatives (millipedes, • adult can reproduce and disperse centipedes, scorpions, pseudoscorpions, pillbugs, sowbugs, shrimp, crabs, crayfish, lobsters), and their relatives. For purposes of this discussion, we’ll focus on those land-dwelling, air-breathing arthropods we consider pests of ornamentals and turf. Later, we’ll re- view some common species that attack some of these same arthropod pests. Some of these attackers might be considered beneficial because they help control pests, while others are too venomous or too inefficient to be encouraged in our gardens. Finally, there are some common garden and landscape inhabitants that are not arthropods. But since they will not be covered elsewhere in this manual, you’ll find them addressed here. Adult insect common features.

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Molting • Simple Metamorphosis. The life cycle begins with the egg, proceeds through a series of progressively Having an external skeleton is a disadvantage for larger, more complex nymphs, ending in a winged insects and their relatives because it would appear (or wingless in some species) adult. Nymphs typi- to limit growth and development. The solution to cally look like smaller versions of adults and occupy this problem is molting or shedding the old skin and the same habitat and hosts as the adults. Nymphs expanding the new skin to a larger size. The new skin have compound eyes and external wing pads for can incorporate new, enlarged, or modified body winged species. parts, permitting new bodily functions or activities.

Molting is a complicated process controlled by various hormones. Depending upon species, insects may molt several to many times as immatures. For insects, molting ceases when they become adults.

split in skin over thorax

• Complete Metamorphosis. The life cycle begins with the egg, proceeds through a series of ever larger larvae, through a transitional stage, the pupa, molted linings of respiratory system and ends with the adult. Larvae look completely different from the corresponding adults with a few simple (single lens) eyes or no eyes at all and no external evidence of wing development. While some species are legless, others can have legs that look Metamorphosis radically different from those in the corresponding adults. Larvae may occupy very different habitats Metamorphosis refers to the changes in form that ac- and use very different food sources from adults. company growth and maturation. We’ll consider three levels of metamorphosis here and in the field guides that follow: Mouthpart Types

• No Metamorphosis. The life cycle proceeds from the egg through a succession of progressively larger, subtly changing nymphs, ending in wingless but reproductively active, crawling, or hopping adults. Springtails and silverfish are good examples.

Mouthpart types permit different insect species to exploit their environments effectively and often competitively. They also are useful in arthropod identification and for explaining the type(s) of damage done by insects and their relatives. Com- mon mouthpart types include:

• Chewing Mouth Parts. This is the most common mouthpart type. It may be found in immature

I.A.2 The Diagnostic Process

insects only or in both immatures and adults, de- left mandible is functional. Thrips feed by scraping pending upon species. Paired mandibles each have succulent plant tissue with the mandible and slurp- one segment and are jointed for side-to-side action. ing up the fluid-tissue slurry. Additional parts function as cheeks (maxillae), upper lips (labrum), tongue (hypopharynx), and • Siphoning Mouthparts. These are common lower lips (labium). These additional parts have among adult moths and butterflies. The long, flex- numerous sensory endings as well as muscles that ible, coiled proboscis is formed from two parts of permit insects to feel, smell, and taste their food as well as guide it into the jaws and mouth. A few examples include beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, termites, and earwigs.

• Piercing-Sucking Mouthparts. The mandibles are elongated into paired needles that form two chan-

Mandible Labrum Mandible

Maxilla Labium the cheeks, and there is no special salivary channel. Liquids are sucked through the proboscis. Blood pressure uncoils the proboscis, while its own elas- ticity recoils it.

nels for injecting saliva and ingesting liquid food. • Chewing-Lapping Mouthparts. Honeybees have Examples include aphids, whiteflies, stink bugs, these mouthparts. The mandibles are retained and squash bugs, and their relatives. a secondary tongue-like structure is formed from

• Rasping-Sucking Mouthparts. These are unique to thrips. The right mandible is reduced, but the

Cross-section of piercing-sucking mouthparts mandibles

Siphon extended

Siphon coiled

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parts of the cheeks and lower lip. Bees lap nectar sterile at best. from flowers, chewing at blossoms as needed to expose the nectaries. When a systematic entomologist finds a different insect, he or she studies it, compares it with similar described species, and determines whether or not it Systematics should be described as a new species. The scientific name is the formal name for this new species. It consists of a genus (capitalized) and species (lowercase) name plus the author’s (describer’s) last name. The genus and species are either italicized or underlined. Many of these names have their roots in either Latin or Greek. The scientific name for this species will have the same meaning worldwide. You will see a few scientific names in the field guides below.

Common names are more useful and understandable to gardeners and those will be favored if available. As the phrase indicates, these are common names for common creatures. They have little or no scientific mandible for chewing standing and may vary among different cultures or different areas of the world. tongue-like structure for lapping In the field guide that follows, insects and their relatives will be grouped by order and secondarily by family. The order is the most inclusive grouping. While the scientific names for the orders may be foreign to you, the common names for them or common Entomologists estimate that there are as many as 30 examples will probably be familiar. One benefit of this million species of insects in the world. The majority type of organization is that if you find an insect new of these are known from the complex ecosystems of to you, you can probably sort it into the proper order the tropics, where conditions support a great diversity without much difficulty and at least narrow the pos- of animals, plants, and microorganisms. More than sibilities of what it is by reviewing common families 100,000 species of insects are known from North or examples included in that order. America. As on other continents (except Antarctica), they can be found practically everywhere in all sorts of roles. Some are specialists, while others are general- Field Guide to Pests of Turf and ists. Some feed only on plants, while other species are Ornamentals in New Mexico omnivores, and still others are predatory or parasitic. Systematics is a method of not only organizing and Terrestrial Snails and Slugs. These potential garden making sense of this great diversity of species, but also of setting up rules for naming and describing new species. The same rules and procedures also are used for studying, naming, and organizing other life forms.

The basic unit of systematics is the species. A species is defined as a group of individuals or populations similar in structure, behavior, and physiology. With- in a species, individuals are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Species differ from each other based on structure and/or physiology. In- dividuals normally do not interbreed among species. If they do interbreed, even rarely, those offspring are

I.A.4 The Diagnostic Process pests are mollusks and not arthropods. Since they are plants (small, irregular holes in foliage). common in New Mexico and will not be treated elsewhere in this manual, they are mentioned here. All of Several species of slugs are distributed widely in our widespread pest species originated in Europe and New Mexico. Most are gray, brown, or black. Brown have been established in various parts of the state for garden snails have a globose shell decorated with many years. Most have several generations annually broad strips of tan and brown. Decollate snails have and overwinter in various parts of the state for many an elongated, tan spiral shell that is often broken on years. Most have several generations annually and the small end. Decollate snails feed on plants as well overwinter in various stages. Although highly depen- as other snails. dent on moisture, the habits of these pests ensure their survival and success even in arid areas. The remainder of animals in this section Terrestrial snails and slugs are legless, wingless crea- are arthropods or jointed-foot organisms. tures with slimy, soft, muscular bodies. Up to an inch long, snails have calcareous, spiral shells, while slugs are shell-less. Waves of muscle contractions on the Sowbugs and Pillbugs. Both are armadillo-like, land- underside of the body (the foot) propel the animal on dwelling, air-breathing crustaceans distantly related to a trail of secreted slime. All have raspy tongues that crabs, shrimp, and similar creatures. Both are wingless and have no metamorphosis. They mostly are nocturnal, preferring cool, moist conditions. Both have short, threadlike antennae and seven pairs of walking legs. They are multisegmented with body shields. They have chewing mouthparts and prefer rotting organic matter, compost, succulent foliage, roots, or fruit near the ground. Pillbugs roll into a ball when threatened; sowbugs cannot. All of these organisms came from Europe many years ago and have been disseminated Brown garden snail Shell of brown widely through the plant trade. They are most damag- garden snail ing where plants are heavily fertilized with organic matter.

Millipedes. The most commonly seen millipedes are elongated, usually cylindrical animals with multisegmented bodies. They have two pairs of legs per body segment. When crawling, their legs seem to move in waves. They have one pair of threadlike antennae. They are nonvenomous and have gradual metamor- Slug

scrape soft plant tissues into their muscular, jawless mouths. Numerous sensory organs are located on paired retractable, soft tentacles on the head, above Rolled pillbug Pillbug the mouth. Mainly nocturnal, snails and slugs prefer moist habitats with dense succulent plants, flowers, and fruits that touch the soil. They leave slime (fresh) or dried, silvery trails plus evidence of feeding on

Sowbug

I.A.5 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor phosis, hatching with six legs and adding more seg- Bulb mites feed on individual cells in bulbs and ments and pairs of legs with maturity. Often noctur- corms, killing them. Affected flower bulbs and corms nal, they prefer moist conditions; heavy rains may fail to sprout. Stored bulbs may turn to dust. force them to the surface. The largest New Mexico species grow to 6 inches. When disturbed, these slow- Clover mites are among the largest of the plant crawling arthropods often coil into a flat spiral; larger mites even though they are less than 1/10 inch species may release a dark brown fluid and a foul odor. long. Their bodies are dark brown to purple with Larger species often are dark brown; smaller species tan or orange legs. They normally feed on clover or and immatures are white or tan to gray. Millipedes have chewing mouthparts and feed on rotting organic matter. They burrow through upper layers of the soil, often aerating it. Millipedes can be nuisance pests around richly fertilized planting beds or turf covered with thick mulch or thatch. The much smaller and shorter duff millipede grow to 1/6 inch long; the plated body is covered in ringlets of short bristles with two brushes of longer bristles on the rear. These tiny Spider mite millipedes occasionally are seen by sharp-eyed homeowners, usually around moist mulches or in piles of fresh, moist firewood. They are harmless. other succulent outdoor plants. They may become nuisances in early spring when their populations Do not confuse millipedes with centipedes! Centi- soar and they start moving in search of new hosts pedes are venomous, nocturnal predatory arthropods and better habitats. Crushed mites can stain light with flattened, multisegmented bodies. They have one pair of legs per body segment and can run quickly when disturbed. Centipedes often hide in soil debris or under objects on the ground.

Bulb mite Clover mite Gall mite

colored surfaces red or brown. Millipede Gall, bud or blister mites are worm-shaped, microscopic mites that usually are quite host- specific. They Mites. Mites are usually extremely small (<1/25 inch cause characteristic damage to their hosts, such as long) with generally oval or elongated bodies, four galls, blisters, and rust marks. Examples include clove- pairs of legs, and no antennae. Many plant-feeding like galls on twigs and branches of aspen, fleshy red mites have paired piercing-sucking stylets with which filaments on male catkins of cottonwood, “gum balls” they puncture individual plant cells, feeding on the on catkins of male (fruitless) ash, warty leaf galls on liquid contents. native walnut, and black/brown spots on the undersides of pear or apple leaves. Numerous species occur Spider mites are serious plant pests, particularly in in New Mexico with a variety of gall types. hot, dry conditions, indoors or out and at any time of the year these conditions exist. Mites often increase dramatically following use of certain pesticides, Insects with Simple Metamorphosis: particularly those that kill their natural enemies. Af- Egg, Several Nymphs, Adult. fected foliage, particularly on the undersides of leaves, appears dusty and is covered with minute mites, cast skins, and fine silk webbing. Spider mites are slow- Order Collembola or Springtails. These minute moving and white to gray in color, sometimes with wingless insects, less than 1/25 inch long, get their darker gray spots visible on the body. common name from an unusual means of locomo-

I.A.6 The Diagnostic Process

nymphs and adults. tion. Many species have forked structures (the furcula) on the ends of their abdomens that can be cocked More than 160 species of grasshoppers or short- and forcibly released, flinging the cartwheeling insects horned grasshoppers occur in New Mexico. Adults into the air. Their chewing mouthparts are some- of different species range from 1 to nearly 3 inches in what elongated, styletlike, and concealed within the length, although fewer than one-fourth of the spe- head. The insects also have a knobby structure on the cies could be considered significant plant pests of underside of the first abdominal segment, the collo- rangeland, crops, and urban landscapes. Some spe- phore. This apparently helps in water uptake. While cies are well-known for their periodic population most springtails have linear bodies, one family has explosions, gregarious behavior, and strong flying a bunny-shaped body. The different species vary in capabilities—three characteristics that contribute to coloration. Many are solid white, gray or yellow, while extraordinary regional losses due to these pests based others are patterned with red, orange, metallic green, on plant damage and control costs. Damage ranges or lavender. from holes chewed in leaves or leaf margins to general defoliation, total consumption of edible stems and Springtails probably are the most abundant insects twigs, and even debarking of small trees. All immature on earth. Fertile garden soil can contain 100,000 and adult grasshoppers have antennae (horns) that are springtails per cubic meter or many millions per much shorter than the body, and hind legs that are acre. The majority of species feed on decaying plant enlarged and modified for jumping. Females of many material, fungi, and bacteria in the soil; others feed species lay their eggs in clusters or pods in plots of on arthropod feces, pollen, algae, and other materi- barren soil. Some grasshopper species are well-known by the sounds produced by adults as they click, rattle, or buzz while resting or flying. Many species have ears on either side of their abdomens. Most of the common pest species are mottled brown or gray. Some have nearly colorless hind wings, while adults of other species have brightly colored (red, yellow, or orange) Collembola or pastel colored (ivory or blue) hind wings. The red-kneed grasshopper and the barberpole grasshopper may be considered beneficial because they feed on als. A few species live in termite nests, caves, or snow fields, while others can be found on the edges (or even on top of) lakes or pools of fresh, brackish or saline water. Several species (mainly the bunny-shaped forms) may cause damage to tender seedlings in gardens, greenhouses, or mushroom cellars; gardeners may object to the presence of springtails in bags of commercial potting mix, a problem readily remedied by placing the bag in a sunny place for several hours. Gardeners and others also may object to springtails on water puddles; around the edges of pools and pond; in flooded, highly organic flower beds; and around drains and pipes in new houses. These tiny insects Grasshopper readily respond to moist, cool situations. Improved drainage, the natural drying of flooded soils, and re- pairs to exclude moisture and access to the soil should solve these pest problems.

Order Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Katydids and Crickets. These familiar, large-bodied insects have chewing mouthparts, simple metamorphosis, and usually two pairs of wings, the first leathery and the second membranous. The hind legs of many species are enlarged and adapted for jumping. Some species are short-winged or wingless. Most are plant feeders as

I.A.7 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor certain undesirable or even toxic range weeds. Most In profile, males have rounded abdomen ends, while species will have one generation annually, although females have prominent black swordlike ovipositors at the overwintering stage depends upon species. least 1/2 inch long. These insects are very gregarious as nymphs and adults and are known to march in large Katydids, Long-Horned Grasshoppers, and Mor- swarms, searching for any plants to eat and crossing mon Crickets. All of these large-bodied insects are roads, fields, farms and gardens in the process. These similar to grasshoppers, but they have threadlike insects also undergo large swings in their numbers. antennae (horns) that are as long or longer than their Their color and habits as nymphs and adults ensure bodies. Nearly all will have only one generation annu- their survival in cold areas as well as warm ones. They ally with the egg stages overwintering. also are cannibalistic when no other food is available. These are the damaging pests that attacked the farms Adult katydids of some species have leaf-shaped and orchards of the early Mormon settlers of Utah in forewings, while others have narrower, straplike the mid-1800s, hence the common name. forewings. The majority of New Mexico’s species are green, particularly as adults. Hosts include foliage of Child of the Earth, Jerusalem Cricket, or El Niño broadleaf trees and shrubs. Some species are part-time de La Tierra. (three common names for the same predators on other insects in these habitats. Females insect) is a colorful, robust insect up to 2 inches long. lay their lentil-shaped eggs, the overwintering stage, They are solitary, nonvenomous, wingless and neither in overlapping patterns on twigs. Adult males use file- common nor economic. The egg-shaped abdomen and-scraper structures on their forewings to sing at is banded in black, while the marble-shaped head night. Females have scimitar-shaped ovipositors. Ears is shiny russet brown with beady, protruding black are located in slits on the front legs. compound eyes. These insect bite if handled roughly. All of their legs are stout, spiny, and modified for For years, Mormon crickets were recorded in the walking and digging rather than jumping. All stages literature for New Mexico. In 2001, they were observed in small numbers in Torrance County in early summer and in considerably larger numbers in the higher elevations of northern Rio Arriba County. These robust black insects look like 1 1/2- to 2- inch long, wingless katydids with substantial chewing jaws and hairlike antennae nearly as long as the bodies. Mormon cricket

are found burrowing in soil and are most likely to be encountered while tilling planting beds. Their digging near the surface may disturb small roots on a variety of plants, but they rarely require any treatments. These insects probably eat white grubs, caterpillars, and other small underground organisms and possibly Katydid eggs some small plant roots.

Child of the Earth, Jerusalem cricket, or Katydid El Niño de La Tierra

I.A.8 The Diagnostic Process

Order Dermaptera, Earwigs. Earwigs are nocturnal, slender, beetlelike insects from 1/2 to 3/4 inch long Soldier with prominent black forceps on the end of the abdomen. Although they may wave the abdomen menac- ingly when disturbed, these insects are not venomous. Adults have very short wing covers, but full-sized flying hind wings. Most adults rarely fly. Nymphs Worker and adults of European earwigs commonly feed (by chewing) on many kinds of plants, especially succulent ornamental foliage, flowers or ripening fruits, Queen or vegetables in gardens. Most occasionally eat other insects. These can be invasive pests around homes and greenhouses where they frequent potted plants.

Order Isoptera, Termites. “White ants” or termites digest cellulose with the aid of microorganisms in their digestive systems. Our New Mexico species Winged prefer heartwood in trees, construction lumber, Termite landscape timbers, firewood or other wood stored on the ground, dead woody plants (cultivated or not), partially buried bundles of paper or cardboard, or even cow dung patties. All are soft-bodied insects with broad connections between thorax and abdomen.

Termites are social insects that live in colonies of sev- ages of insects in this caste; all are immatures. Soldier eral hundred to many thousands of individuals. Colo- termites have the bodies of workers but uniquely en- nies have two or three castes depending on species. larged brown heads with elongated mandibles. When collecting termites for identification, concen- trate on finding soldiers and/or reproductives. These have features useful for identification. Workers lack distinguishing features. Preserve your catch immediately in alcohol.

New Mexico has three types of termites with slightly Earwig different habits and preferences, only two of which are likely to be found in gardens or landscapes:

The reproductive caste includes brown to black male 1. Subterranean termites are the smallest at 1/8 and female termites. Following heavy rains or irriga- to 3/16 inch long for any of the castes. They tion, mature termite colonies produce dozens to thou- start their colonies on cellulose buried or partly sands of winged reproductives that disperse, mate, and buried in soil, retaining a link to soil where they establish new colonies. Initially, these reproductives can reach a moisture source. They may extend have two pairs of equal-sized, smoky gray wings with their colonies toward or over new cellulose food complex, netlike venation. Their wings pull off readily, sources by constructing mud tubes commonly especially after swarming and mating. The queen may seen during the rainy season. Colonies often are live for many years. Worker termites are dirty white, very large. These termites are common and very soft-bodied, wingless, eyeless insects commonly found damaging to homes and other structures, fences when partially buried wood or cellulose is disturbed. and mailbox posts. Treatments for termite- In late summer, workers may build mud tubes over infested homes almost always require the services the bases of dead garden or landscape plants as they of a professional pest control company licensed search for new food sources. Workers are the most nu- for structural pest control. merous caste in a typical termite colony. The variability in worker size in a colony results from the different 2. Dry wood termites need no association with soil or water sources in the soil. They use the moisture

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already in their wood diet and conserve the water produced during metabolism. Their colonies generally are smaller and are not as easily found as subterranean termites. Reproductives are golden to brown, and approximately 1/4 inch long without wings. Most colonies are found in old vigas, latillas, beams in adobe buildings and similar situations rather than turf or landscape situations. These termites produce ridged, barrel-shaped, hard fecal pellets, which they will eject periodically from tiny holes in infested wood. Look for accumulated fecal pellets in cavities, tunnels, nail Thrips holes, windowsills, and similar low spots. Treat- ments for these pests usually require the services of a professional pest control company licensed tinct, black veins. Forewings are longer than the hind for structural pest control. wings. The compound eyes of some species are red or brown and knobby, while the antennae are very short 3. Dampwood termites generally are found in heart- bristles. Depending upon species, the head and thorax wood in large trees, even live ones. Their colonies may be golden brown with black markings or mostly generally are small and lack soldiers. The workers black. The abdomen may be black, golden brown, or and queen are large, up to 1/2 inch long. Repro- covered in a flat white, waxy bloom that may rub off. ductives are golden brown and nearly 5/8 inch long without their wings. These occa- Adults have obvious piercing-sucking mouthparts sionally are found in large trees, particularly after on the underside of the head, but the gut typically is they have been wind damaged. not connected. While adults may probe the vascular systems of their plant hosts, they cannot feed. Liquid Order Thysanoptera, Thrips.Thrips are slender, feces released when adult cicadas are disturbed result agile, soft-bodied insects with rasping-sucking mouth- from metabolism of fat accumulated from feeding as parts. Most are usually shorter than 1/8 inch. Adults nymphs. Males are gregarious and sing loudly dur- are yellow, brown, or black, depending upon species. ing sunny, hot days by rapidly vibrating their sound- Adults have two pairs of straplike, fringed wings. They producing organs on the lower abdomen. At lower and the nymphs may be blown easily in the wind to temperatures, males produce a loud, ticking noise. Fe- new habitats. Hosts include flowers and succulent males are silent but respond to the song to find mates tissues of numerous plants. Plants damaged by them and apparently avoid some predators in the confusion. may have tiny, yellowing scratches on the foliage; Females use their saberlike ovipositors to insert eggs flower petals may appear burned and dry on the singly into woody tissues, including twigs of shrubs edges, splitting as the buds open. Females of many or trees or the woody flower stalks of yucca or sotol. pest species use their short, serrated ovipositors to This damage usually is minor. After hatching, young insert their eggs into soft plant tissues. Some populations of pest species are known from only female populations. Although the metamorphosis of thrips is simple, the last two stages of nymphs are quiescent. Common examples include the Western flower thrips (one of the most common species in New Mexico), onion thrips, tobacco thrips, and Cuban laurel thrips on ficus. Some species are predaceous (see section on beneficial insects).

Order Homoptera, Plant Feeders with Piercing- Sucking Mouthparts. Cicada nymph

Cicadas. Adult cicadas are robust, heavy-bodied, wedge-shaped insects up to 3 inches long. Both pairs of wings are colorless and membranous but with dis-

I.A.10 The Diagnostic Process nymphs emerge from their woody hosts, and drop to quent the same hosts. Females inject their eggs singly the soil where they burrow down several inches to 2 or into shallow slits cut into stems, midribs of leaves, or more feet to feed on the sap of various roots for one or other soft tissues of particular host plants. The cumu- more years. Mature nymphs are plump, off-white and lative effects of their piercing-sucking feeding damage egg-shaped with prominent piercing-sucking mouth- ranges from minute, white stipple marks to terminal parts and the first pair of legs obviously modified necrosis on leaves called “hopper burn.” In extreme for digging. These are most likely to be found while cases, foliage may wilt or fall early. Accumulated hon- trenching or digging large holes to transplant shrubs eydew produced by these insects can support sooty or trees. Insecticidal controls are not warranted or ef- mold. Several species are important vectors (carriers) fective for cicada nymphs. From early to late summer, of particular plant pathogens (for example, viruses, different cicada species emerge from the soil at night. mycoplasmas, rickettsias). One or more generations They molt, expand their bodies, and are ready to fly occur annually, depending upon the species. Com- by daybreak. Adult cicadas are short-lived, dying after mon examples include apple leafhoppers (on apple they have expended their body fat. and pear trees); potato leafhoppers (vegetable crops, field crops, some annual ornamentals); beet leafhop- Spittle Bugs. Adult spittle bugs look like miniature pers (vector of curly top virus to chile, tomatoes, and cicadas, up to 1/4 inch long, with red, black, or other annual ornamentals); and grape leafhoppers on brown forewings. Adults have a pair of short, thick grapes. spurs on the lower part of each hind leg in addition to a circlet of spines. Adults and nymphs may occupy Fulgorids or Plant Hoppers. Plant hoppers resemble the same hosts, at least temporarily. Although com- leafhoppers but usually are a little larger, to 5/16 inch mon on infested plants, the adults often go unnoticed. long, with short antennae attached below the eyes The nymphs are annoying pests, covering themselves and broadly flared forewings. Most common species in a very noticeable, white, frothy spittle, hence the in New Mexico are found on woody shrubs or vines, name. Most commonly, these are pests of ornamental especially honeysuckle. While adults may fly when junipers, rosemary, and a few other woody landscape disturbed, immatures rely on camouflage or remaining plants. These insects are not known to transmit plant very still to avoid detection. Adults usually are tan or diseases. gray, covered with a fine white wax powder. Nymphs are covered with white, fuzzy wax filaments. Larger Leafhoppers. Also similar to miniature cicadas, most nymphs also may have a thick, brushlike wax “tail.” adult leafhoppers are 1/5 inch or less in length and proportionately more slender. A few species in New Psyllids or Jumping Plant Lice. The wedge-shaped Mexico reach 1/4 inch, but they are not commonly psyllid adults are 1/10 to 1/5 inch long and are pale seen except in the higher elevations. Leafhoppers are further distinguished by several rows of short spines on the lower parts of the hind legs. Although their hind legs are not noticeably longer or specially modified, both leafhopper nymphs and adults jump when disturbed. They also may run sideways. Adults of most species are winged, and many are strong fliers. They also may be dispersed by the wind. Colors and pat- Leafhoppers terns are extremely variable among our New Mexico species, ranging from plain to striped or spotted with various colors. Adults and their nymphs often fre-

Beet leafhopper

Spittle bug adult

I.A.11 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor green, tan or reddish. Adults have short but strong cornicles (tailpipes) on the upper abdomen’s end. jumping legs and relatively long, hairlike antennae. Body colors include white, pink, yellow, blue, green, Both sexes of adults are winged. When disturbed, gray, brown, orange, and black. Some species are adult psyllids jump or fly. The beak is short, project- known only from females, while others reproduce by ing from between the first pair of legs. The sedentary parthenogenesis (reproduction without fertilization) nymphs of some species produce large amounts of a for part of the year, reverting to sexual reproduc- white waxy secretion. All nymph stages and the adults tion just before winter. During the growing season, feed on plant sap, and host plant relationships are of- parthenogenetic females also give live birth to their ten quite specific. The pear psylla and apple sucker are female offspring, further shortening the time between two species imported from Europe. Because it injects generations and increasing colonization rates. Cumu- mildly toxic saliva, the potato or tomato psyllid, Para- lative feeding damage may include chlorosis, necrosis, trioza cockerelli, causes “psyllid yellows” in potatoes, stunting, virus transmission, wilting, plant death, tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants. This disease reduces and buildup of objectionable honeydew deposits, supporting ants, bees, wasps, other insect pests or sooty mold. Aphid life cycles can be very simple in some species to very complicated in others. Alternat- ing hosts by season is common in some species. Host ranges vary by species from one host plant species to hundreds of plant species for insects, such as the green peach aphid. Populations of most species are largest in spring and fall when weather is cooler. When crowded Plant hopper adult or otherwise stressed, aphid populations often produce winged forms that either fly or are blown to new potential hosts for colonization. yield by dwarfing and discoloring the plant. A related species attacks mesquite foliage, including horticultur- Some common examples in New Mexico follow. al varieties, causing minor twisting of leaflets. A few Green peach aphids attack more than 270 plant spe- psyllids are gall-makers. Pachypsylla species produce cies. These are important virus vectors to many species small nipple galls on hackberry foliage. of edible and ornamental plants and also can cause fruit and flower loss. Rosy apple aphid, melon aphid, Aphids and Their Relatives. These are small, extreme- cowpea aphid, cotton aphid, cabbage aphid, and rose ly common, soft-bodied, slow-moving or sedentary, aphid are all common species with multiple plant pear-shaped insects with tremendous reproductive hosts. Giant willow aphids are 1/5 inch long, gray to potential. Adults of nearly all species have a pair of black aphids that feed only on willow twigs, causing

Psyllid

Psyllid nipple galls on hackberry leaf Aphids

I.A.12 The Diagnostic Process their deaths. Oleander aphids are bright yellow or Whiteflies.Adult whiteflies resemble minute white orange aphids with black legs and cornicles. They are moths with two pairs of dusty, white wings. Most are found only on oleander. 1/8 inch long or less. The common pest species may develop huge populations on host foliage, respond- Several close relatives of aphids also are common in ing in billowing flights when disturbed. Females lay New Mexico. Woolly apple aphids are small, grayish their nearly microscopic eggs on short stalks, often in insects that live in dense colonies on twigs of apple, circular patterns, on the undersides of host foliage. pear and pyracantha during the growing season. Hatchlings are flat “crawlers” that move away from They cover their bodies with strands of white wax their hatching sites to molt and transform into sed- filaments, making the aboveground colonies appear entary, scalelike stages that pierce the host plant and fuzzy or at least dusted with white wax. These insects suck sap. Nymph color, shape, and ornamentation also establish colonies on smaller roots of their host depend upon species. Numerous generations may be plants, producing woody galls and stressing the host produced annually with dramatic increases in popula- further by causing root dieback. Poplar gall aphids tions possible in late summer and fall. overwinter in cottonwood and poplar buds. In early Honeydew and sooty mold are common signs of spring, feeding damage by female aphids produces infestation, along with wilting, necrosis, leaf loss, or pea-sized galls on leaf petioles or bases. Galls mature spotty necrosis on foliage. by midsummer, drying and cracking open to release winged aphids that usually infest roots of alternate Greenhouse, banded winged, sweet potato and pos- hosts, such as Johnson grass, lettuce, and certain oth- sibly silverleaf and citrus whitefies are common pests ers forbs and grasses. of greenhouse and outdoor garden plants, especially mature plants or perennials. Some of these pests Cooley spruce gall aphid causes early spring devel- become well-established outdoors, also. Mulberry opment of terminal galls in spruce. These galls are whitefly can be a serious occasional pest of mulberry sectioned like an orange, but each section is hol- foliage. Nymphs are flat and black with a thick fringe low and full of aphids. The galls dry and open by of white wax filaments. Ash whitefly has been intro- midsummer, releasing winged aphids that colonize duced from California in the early 1990s. It has been Douglas fir needles without producing galls. These identified in landscape ash trees in both Las Cruces aphids return to spruce by the next spring. Pine and Albuquerque and is likely found elsewhere in the bark aphids resemble plump mealy bugs dusted in state. Its nymphs are flat, nearly transparent or pale white wax but occur on pine needles. They cause yellow, spiny and dotted with droplets of honeydew. twig dieback.

Woolly apple aphids

Nymph Adult

Whiteflies Woolly apple aphids on twig

I.A.13 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Mealy Bugs. These are plump, moderately active, soft-bodied insects covered with white wax filaments or wax powder. Adults usually are less than 3/16 inch long. These pests feed on all plant parts from roots to fruit, commonly seeking refuge in leaf axils or similar protected crevices on host plants. Several species are common pests of interior foliage plants; others attack certain landscape plants including sotol and ocotillo. All produce honeydew and may be tended by ants, which protect them from their Cochineal insect and cochineal infestation on cactus natural enemies. Left uncontrolled, these pests can cause leaf yellowing, foliage loss, or plant death, especially in some succulents. scale (on tropical foliage plants), black scale and Dactylopid Scales, Cochineal Insects. These are min- hemispherical scale (on a variety of woody shrubs and ute, aphidlike, dark purple, sedentary insects less than trees), cottony maple scale (on maple and mulberry), 1/10 inch long, whose dense foliar colonies are totally wax scales (on woody ornamentals and desert shrubs), covered in sticky white wax. The most common hosts and European fruit lecanium (on mulberry, pecan, in New Mexico are the pad or jointed cacti, especially fruit trees and many other woody perennials). Opuntia spp. These pests can kill affected pads, joints and even whole plants if not controlled. Armored scales are firmly attached to their plant hosts as older nymphs and adults, but their scales or tests These insects are the source of a unique, bright red can be pried off their bodies during identification. dye for textiles. They have been used and even raised Most of these scales are tiny, less than 1/8 inch. Large as dye sources by native peoples in the Southwest populations of these cryptic insects can kill or severely since antiquity. More recently, their bright red dye deform their hosts. Females lay their eggs under their product has been used in foods and cosmetics. scales, or they may give birth to live young. Examples

Scale Insects. Adult stages of most scale insects are covered by a scale distinctive for that species. Adult females generally are legless and without eyes, while

Male scale

Mealy bug males are winged, lack mouthparts, and resemble small mosquitoes. Only the hatchling or crawler stage has compound eyes, antennae and functional legs; older nymphs and adult females are immobile. Scale insects are divided into two groups, the soft and armored scales.

Soft scales produce lots of honeydew. Sizes for adults range from 1/10 to 3/16 inch in length. Their scales are connected to their bodies and cannot be removed Armored scales without killing the insects. They include brown soft

I.A.14 The Diagnostic Process include: pine needle scale (on pine needles), scurfy scale (on elm, willow, and other trees and woody Overwintering pinyon needle scales on pinyon ornamentals), oyster shell scale (twigs of many species foliage of fruit and landscape trees and shrubs), San Jose scale (many species of fruit, shade trees, and woody ornamentals), and euonymous scale (on euonymous). Pinyon needle scale females migrate to bases of Other Scale-Like Insects. This is a group of oddballs limbs or trunk belonging to different Homopteran families. Some are quite common and will be seen in much of the state on landscape plants. Pinyon tree and needles Pinyon needle scale is the minute “blackbean” on pinyon foliage. In early spring, females molt from these “beans” and crawl to the bases of pinyon trees, where European elm scale on elm causes twig dieback and they mate with the gnatlike males. Eggs are deposited sooty mold on its hosts. These small elliptical scales at the tree base. The crawlers move back up on tender are shiny black with a puffy fringe of white wax. They new foliage to feed. Severe infestations are common usually are found on the youngest twigs in the canopy. problems on pinyon and can cause serious defoliation. Weakened trees may be subject to attacks by other Kermid scales occur primarily on oak, resembling insect pests, particularly bark beetles. woody knobs on the twigs. The life cycles of most species are poorly known. These cause twig dieback. Ground pearls in Bermudagrass turf are off-white or pastel spherical “cysts” found in the root zone. The cysts are nonfeeding stages that are highly tolerant Cyst Live ground Close up of Volcano-shaped pearl adult female coverings of San Jose scales

Ground pearl

San Jose scales Order Hemiptera. These are the true bugs. Like members of the Order Homoptera, these insects also have piercing-sucking mouthparts. The saliva of the plant-feeding bugs in this group usually is more plant of adverse growing conditions and pesticides. The toxic than that of Homoptera, causing stipple marks, feeding stages can cause turf dieback. The common growth distortions, or loss of plant parts. On winged ground pearls in Bermudagrass are about the size of forms, the forewings are half leathery and half mem- pearls on necklaces, while other rangeland species can branous, hence “hemi-ptera.” be nearly the size of grapes.

Cottony cushion scale occurs on woody ornamentals, especially pittosporum and some dicot trees. Large mature females may be about 3/8 inch long with fluted wax “tails.” Nymphs and adult females can crawl slowly. The fluted tail on the female usually covers dozens of developing, salmon-colored eggs. Large infestations can cause significant twig dieback and even plant death. Cottony cushion scale

I.A.15 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

False Chinch Bugs. Found statewide throughout much of the year, these very active bugs are well- known for their tendency to crawl from place to place by the millions. Adults are 1/10 to 1/8 inch long and are mostly black. Although they have well-developed

False chinch bug

of these bugs occur on yucca foliage from spring through fall, causing yellowing arid stippling of foliage. European elm scale Leaf-Footed Plant Bugs. Adults are narrowly oval, wings, they rarely fly. Adults and all stages of the flattened bugs from 1/2 to 3/4 inch with broadly smaller, tan nymphs can be found in these milling expanded and flattened hind legs. Their brown swarms. Usually, they are more of a nuisance by get- gumdrop-shaped eggs are glued end to end on foliage ting into homes rather than damaging landscape in short strings. Adults and immatures may overwin- or garden plants. Usually, these bugs are most com- ter on native cacti or other succulent plants. Adults are strong fliers that disperse into gardens or orchards where there are developing fruit, nuts or vegetables. Their feeding may cause bud drop, loss of young fruit,

distorted fruit, or blackened, pithy nuts. Stink Bugs. Most pest species are flattened, shield- shaped bugs about the size of your thumbnail. Most

Kermid scales mon in late spring or early summer as their preferred weedy hosts dry. Plant bug

Plant Bugs. When viewed from the side, the ends of have a prominent triangle at the bases of their fore- the wings on adult plant bugs are bent sharply down- wings. When handled roughly, all stages of these bugs ward. Most are rather flat, oval bugs with a prominent release a pungent smell. Say’s green stinkbug, the triangle between the bases of the wings. Lygus plant conchuela and harlequin bug are common examples. bugs are extraordinarily common in field crops, especially alfalfa, from which they periodically disperse Box Elder Bugs, Red-Shouldered Bugs. Both are pre- to gardens and landscapes. Lygus may puncture plant dominantly black bugs with dark, orange-red lines on buds, blooms, developing fruits, and seeds, causing the upper surface of the body and wings. Adults are various kinds of damage from loss of that plant part about 1/2 long. Both have similar habits and are com- to deformity (“cat-facing” on fruit), failure to develop mon on box elder and golden rain trees. Adults and (abortion), or necrotic lesions. their dull red nymphs are gregarious nuisances around host trees or sheltered areas in the landscape. On yucca, the most common pest species is Halti- cotoma valida. These are dark red, very active bugs about 3/16 inch long. Two to three generations Insects with Complete Metamorphosis: Egg, Larva, Pupa, Adult

I.A.16 The Diagnostic Process

Leaf-footed plant bug Gall-forming midge

Order Diptera. These are the true flies. Nearly all around blossoms, where they feed harmlessly on nec- common species have two flying wings and two tar or other fluids. Adults of both families can be con- halteres, small, knobby hind wings used as balancing sidered nuisance pests of indoor plants. Plants grow- organs. Larvae are legless. Some have well-defined ing on heavily organic, well-watered potting mixes are heads, while others do not. most likely to attract these flies, which then reproduce in the moist soil. While adults are annoying, the Gall-Forming Midges. Adults resemble frail mosqui- slender, splinter-sized larvae burrow through the moist toes but are usually much smaller, 1/10 to 1/8 inch. surface soils, feeding on organic matter and delicate Most have a tan to gray head and thorax, but the rootlets. Such damage can limit growth and survival abdomen, depending upon the species, is black, red, of seedlings or recently rooted plants. Wounded roots green, yellow, or orange. Adults usually are nectar- can be susceptible to secondary infections. feeders, if they eat at all. Their larvae are minute, legless, spindle-shaped pink or orange creatures, with Fruit Flies, including Western Cherry Fruit tiny “wishbone” structures visible dorsally. Adults are Fly, Walnut Husk Fly, Picture-Winged Flies on most common in spring, although gall development Thistle Heads.Most of the common fruit flies in this occurs over the growing season. Common examples family are slightly smaller than a house fly and are dis- include the spindle gall midge and stubby gall midge tinguished readily by the brownish spots or bands on on pinyon, and cone-forming gall midge on native their wings. Adults of some species have a habit of do- willow.

March Flies or Bibionids. Most adults are slightly smaller and thinner than houseflies. They are somewhat hump-backed, black-bodied, and often with smoky wings. Adults are gregarious, especially in spring, and especially over potential breeding sites, such as managed turf, short range grass pastures, and meadows. Adults fly in slow zigzag patterns, 1 to 3 feet above the surface, searching for mates and ovipositing sites. Larvae are legless, dirty white, cylindrical insects with rough skins reaching 1/2 to 5/8 inch March fly Bibionid larva in length with well-developed, brown or black head capsules. Numerous larvae may burrow in grass thatch or decomposed manures, causing them to “heave.” Simple raking may expose dozens to thousands of ing “slow calisthenics” with their wings and when they wriggling, thin maggots. Removing thatch during the land on flowers or vegetation, presumably showing off following winter will decrease significantly the likeli- to interlopers or potential mates. Larvae of nearly all hood of March fly infestation the following spring. species in this fairly large (more than 200 species in North America) family mine in fruits or seed heads of Fungus Gnats. Adults are about 1/8 inch long, their various host plants. The most serious fly pests of slender brown or black flies. Both usually are found fruit are in this group, including Mediterranean fruit in damp places, where decaying plants or fungi are fly, Caribbean fruit fly, olive fly, melon fly, Mexican common. Some of the larger fungus gnats are found fruit fly and others, none of which are currently I.A.17 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor known to occur in New Mexico.

Western cherry fruit fly has been known from cherry fruit grown in the Albuquerque metro area since at least the mid-1980s; it has since been verified in San- ta Fe, Rio Arriba and San Juan counties and may be elsewhere. These flies have one generation annually, with the adults emerging from the ground beneath infested trees in midspring, mating and laying their Maggot Picture winged fly

easily by cutting into the husks. While some nuts may be lost because of such infestations, they usually remain on the tree. Husks may be difficult to remove later, and the shells may show “worm tracks” after the husks are removed, but the nut meats would still be edible in most cases.

Fungus gnat Observe the flowering heads of thistles growing in higher elevations during midmorning and see any of several species of fruit flies that are ovipositing in the eggs in developing cherry fruit. The maggots are developing seed receptacles. Many of these flies are mature at the same time as the cherries and are often about the size of houseflies but have yellow bodies overlooked and consumed by the uninitiated. Left and brown-banded or brown-patterned wings. Mag- uncontrolled, they may infest nearly 100 percent of gots burrowing through the seeds limit that means of the crop. reproduction for some thistle populations.

These are very close relatives of apple maggot, a seri- The fruit flies described above are in the families ous pest of apple fruit in states as close as Tephritidae or Otitidae. The smaller, 1/10-inch-long Colorado and Utah, but still not known to occur yellow and black fruit flies with bulging red eyes that in New Mexico. The maggots burrow through the buzz around ripe fruit are members of the fly fam- fruit, rendering it inedible. ily Drosophilidae. These are Drosophila, sometimes called pomace flies, vinegar flies or small fruit flies. Walnut husk fly infests the leathery coats of native These are the fruit flies studied in genetics experi- walnuts and pecan nuts wherever they occur in New ments. Adults frequent ripe or damaged fruit, indoors Mexico. Adults oviposit in maturing nuts in midsum- or out, laying eggs on or in the fruit or its broken mer. As the maggots burrow through the fleshy husks skin. The minute larvae feed in mushy, overripe fruit, on the nuts, the husks turn black. Maggots are found maturing frequently in several days, pupating outside the fruit mass and developing into adults. Numerous life cycles may be completed within a year.

Leafminer Flies. Adults are about 1/10 inch long and are either all black or black and yellow with red compound eyes. Although similar to Drosophila fruit flies, leafminer flies do not frequent overripe fruit. Adult females stipple foliage with their ovipositors, drinking oozing plant sap. The smaller males follow the females, using their stipple marks as places to feed. Females oviposit in about 1 percent of these stipples; Fruit fly adult the resulting flattened maggot creates a serpentine mine in the foliage. The mature larva usually exits the mine, pupating in the soil. Life cycles usually require

I.A.18 The Diagnostic Process less than 2 weeks. These are usually secondary pests. Mexico scarabs, the unicorn beetles of our higher Large numbers of mines can stunt plant growth, cause elevations, reach lengths of nearly 2 inches. Fortunate- foliage, flower or fruit loss, or plant death, especially ly, these large scarabs are not landscape plant pests. in seedlings. White grub is the general, common name for the immature, subterranean stage of this beetle family. White Order Coleoptera. The beetle order is one of the grubs are the pudgy, ivory grubs that curl into a C- largest orders of insects with more than 300,000 de- shape when exposed by digging. They have three pairs scribed species in the world. They are highly variable of well- developed walking legs on the thorax but no in size, color, and shape. Usually, their forewings are legs on the abdomen, features that will distinguish thickened and either leathery or hard. The forewings them from any caterpillars and also billbug larvae. meet in a straight line down the center back. In flight, Their head capsules are large and usually brown. Their the forewings are held to the side, while the larger, mandibles are well-developed, powerful and sharp. membranous hind wings beat. Both larvae and adults have chewing mouthparts. Larvae usually are cylin- Many scarab species infest the plant root zones. drical or flattened. They usually have well-developed Adult scarabs will bore holes several inches into the head capsules and three pairs of legs; larvae of some soil, where they will mate, and females will lay eggs species are legless. in mid- to late summer. The white grubs that hatch shortly thereafter feed on roots to the point of serious- Scarab Beetles, White Grubs, May Beetles, June ly damaging or even killing turf or smaller shrubs or Beetles, Japanese beetles. More than 1,300 species of trees. Damage usually is greater the following spring, this large, diverse family occur in North America and when the larvae are largest and hungriest. Depending many are significant pests of plant roots, foliage or upon species, pupation usually occurs the year after fruit. These are heavy-bodied, oval to elongate, convex the eggs are laid, but some species require two years to beetles with spiny legs often modified into stout complete development, particularly at higher eleva- digging tools, and short antennae obviously elbowed tions. The convex brown to very dark brown beetles or modified into flared, toothbrush shapes. At 1/16 attracted to nightlights in the summer are variously inch long, Ataenius spp. are some of the smallest golf called May beetles or June beetles. Different species course green pests and among the smallest scarabs may be found in turf from May through the fall. found in New Mexico. Adults of the largest New

Scarab beetle Scarab adult

Small fruit fly Scarab larva

I.A.19 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

These different species vary in length from about 1/4 to 1 inch; at least one June beetle species has striped wing covers in ivory and brown.

Green June beetle adults are about 1 inch long, dull dark green on top with bronzed wing covers but iridescent dark green on the underside. These native beetles emerge in mid- to late summer. They are powerful fliers during the day. They are attracted readily to ripening fruit and are well-known for burrowing into damaged spots or overripe fruit. Their mature larvae can be the length and girth of a finger and usually Japanese beetle are found in early spring in heavily fertilized planting beds or under compost piles. When exposed, these large larvae roll onto their backs, crawling upside down to find a crevice in the soil to escape. multisegmented larvae mine under bark, create twig galls, or bore deeper into the wood of stressed trees Japanese beetles (Popilia japonica) are dark metallic or dying logs and branches. The area just behind the green or dark metallic copper with four to six visible, head is broad and flat. Consequently, larval tunnels tiny white brushes of hairs around the abdomen’s are characteristically oval in cross section. These tun- outer rim where it meets the edges of the wing covers. nels commonly are seen in firewood, pruned wood, Japanese beetle adults are about the length and shape or pruning cuts. Larvae and adults may emerge from of a little fingernail. They are known from the north- ornamental wood or trees processed into lumber for western Albuquerque metro area since 1997, although home construction. they may be in other parts of New Mexico. Adults and larvae are known to feed on any of several hundred Long-Horned Beetles, Round-Headed Wood Borers. broadleaf hosts. Their larvae feed in the root zones of This is another large family of beetles in New Mexico all types of plants, including turf, while adults skel- with habits similar to those of flat-headed or metal- etonize foliage in mid- to late summer. Adults seem lic wood borers. Some species prefer conifers, while to prefer foliage and blossoms of roses and berries as others attack broadleaf trees or shrubs; a few species places to feed, gather, and mate. They have one gen- bore into stems of herbaceous plants. The majority of eration annually with adults flying in early summer. adults are elongated and rather cylindrical and most Japanese beetles are recently introduced into New have filamentous antennae as long as or longer than Mexico and serious regulatory pests for nurserymen the body. Adults are strong-fliers by day or night, and others. depending on species. Larvae are cylindrical, heavy- bodied, dirty white larvae with well-developed brown Metallic Wood-Boring Beetles, Flat-Head Borers. or black head capsules and chewing mouthparts. Legs Adults often are metallic copper, green, blue or black, on larvae of many species are tiny and probably not especially on the underside of the body and top of the effective. Larval tunnels in wood usually are circular abdomen. Their bodies usually are very hard, flat- in cross section. While many smaller species complete tened, and bullet-shaped. They are strong daytime a generation annually, others may take several years to fliers and can be common around dead or dying mature into adults. Those larvae present in trees felled trees. Depending upon species, their ivory-colored,

Green June beetle larvae Agrilus adult Buprestid larva

I.A.20 The Diagnostic Process for house timbers may persist indoors for 10 or more ing insects usually about a year later. Emergent adults years before emerging. gnaw their way out.

Common examples include Oncideres spp., the twig Ator 1 t 2 o more inches in length, Prionus, girdlers. These mottled gray beetles are about 5/8 to Derobrachus spp. and their relatives are among the 3/4 inch long. The antennae of females are as long as largest beetles in this family in New Mexico. Adults the body, but those of males can be longer than the are brownish black to reddish brown. Adults usually body. In early summer, these beetles with the sharp, are found walking around garages, porches, or under down-turned mandibles girdle twigs of elm, apple, night lights in midsummer. Females lay several eggs in mulberry, mesquite, and other trees and shrubs, caus- fresh tree wounds, recently cut tree stumps, and large ing them to flag and turn brown. roots of stressed trees, usually dicots. At 2 to 3 inches, the mature larvae are among the largest of beetle Neoclytus spp., the red-headed ash borer, is reddish larvae likely to be seen in New Mexico. Larvae are brown, while most other species in the genus are dark cylindrical; those of the largest species have a diameter blue-black. All have two or more yellow chevrons on their wing covers. These 1/2 to 5/8 inch long beetles and their comparably sized larvae are common borers in ash, willow, pecan, and other stressed trees. Their antennae are characteristically short and barely reach the end of the thorax.

Moneilema spp., a black cactus long-horned beetle, varies from 1/2 to more than 1 inch long. These are stout-bodied beetles with shiny black bodies. At least the upper surface is marked with lines of shallow, minute punctures. The adults feed on cacti, first ap- pearing in May or June each year, and continuously Neoclytus adults emerging through September. During the day, they

Adult long-horned beetles slightly larger than a nickel. Tunnels and larvae commonly are seen in firewood, pruning wounds, or cut branches. Tunnels, larvae, and adults may be seen on ornamental wood (crosscut or split and planed pieces) or in beams installed in homes.

Darkling Beetles, Tenebrionids. This is a common, Cerambycid very diverse family of mostly black beetles that are larva often confused with beneficial carabids or ground beetles. Adults of some darkling beetles are almost oval, while others are cylinidrical. Adults of some species are flatter than others. Lengths are highly variable, from barely hide on the lower shady part of the cactus. After mat- 1/2 to well over 1 inch. Adult darkling beetles have no ing, females lay their eggs singly into fresh wounds extra segment projecting from the base of each hind they make with their mandibles at the base of a pad leg like carabids do. Adult darkling beetles typically or joint. The larvae bore through the cactus, pupat- have notched compound eyes, 11 segments in their antennae, five visible segments on the underside of the abdomen, five tarsal segments on each of the first two pairs of legs and four tarsal segments on each hind leg. Adults of most species are harmless, although adult mealworms and lesser mealworms can be nuisances Twig girdler around mulched plants or indoors in homes. One of adult the more commonly known darkling beetles is the “stink beetle,” “stink bug,” or pinacate beetle in the

I.A.21 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor genus Eleodes. These dull black, inch-long beetles Larvae are cylindrical, hard-bodied, and shiny yellow usually are seen crawling over desert soils. When or brown. They are found in the root zones of plants, disturbed, the beetle stands on its head, releasing a where they can do considerable damage, particularly foul-smelling fluid in self defense. to root crops. These larvae are called “wireworms” due to their shape, feel, and toughness. Larvae are cylindrical, off-white, multisegmented and best distinguished by a pair of yellow to brown “can Leaf Beetles. This is an extremely common group of opener” structures on either side of the end of the foliage-feeding beetles, most of which are 3/8 inch abdomen. Larvae of many species are found in loose long or less, flattened-oval in shape and with fila- soil near growing plants. Larvae sometimes feed on mentous antennae shorter than the body. Colors and seedling roots, damaging or even killing some plants. patterns shown by adult leaf beetles vary widely from These also are called “false wireworms.” solid, metallic black, to green with black spots, yellow with black stripes and metallic gold. The majority of Wireworms, Click Beetles or Elaterids. Numerous species overwinter as adults. Larvae are often alligator- species of adults fly at night in mid-summer and are like in appearance with variable development of short, readily attracted to lights. Most are dark brown to stubby spines, knobs, and secretory organs. Some black and 1/2 inch long or less with parallel-sided species are gregarious as larvae. Larvae may feed in bodies and numerous small parallel grooves running habitats similar to those of the adults (generally on the the length of the wing covers. Many species have external surfaces of host foliage) or some species may sharp points or spines projecting backwards from the be leaf miners, root feeders, or stem borers for parts of rear corners of the thorax. The common name, click their life cycles. beetle, comes from the adult’s ability to right itself after being turned upside down. The inverted beetle Flea beetles are generally metallic and often 1/4 inch bends its head and thorax backward so that only the long or less. Adults can fly or jump with the aid of end of the abdomen and the end of the head contact their enlarged hind legs. Flea beetle larvae may par- the substrate. By forcefully and quickly snapping tially or totally defoliate host plants. Larvae of some (click!) the body forward and downward, the beetle species feed on host plant rootlets. Dichondra flea is flipped into an aerial somersault. If it fails to right beetles are small, shiny black flea beetles associated itself, it continues clicking and flipping until it does.

Darkling beetle larva

Darkling beetle adult

Click beetle larva Click beetle adult

Eleodes adult

I.A.22 The Diagnostic Process exclusively with dichondra, the ground cover. Adults very numerous around blooming plants, particularly make crescent-shaped feeding marks on the foliage, members of the melon and cucumber family. Adults causing them to turn brown and plants to die. Larvae also consume flowers of various blooming ornamen- feed on dichondra roots from 1 to 4 inches deep in tals, including Mexican elder. The comparably sized the soil, also potentially killing these plants. larvae are cylindrical, off-white in color, and have three pairs of short legs. These are found around the Willow leaf beetles (Phyllodecta spp.) and cotton- roots of these same host plants, where they bore into wood leaf beetles (Calligrapha spp.) defoliate their the surfaces of larger roots. respective hosts. Eggs are bright yellow and laid on the undersides of host foliage. Smaller hatchlings scarify Elm leaf beetles defoliate elm hosts as both larvae and or skeletonize foliage, while larger ones consume all of adults. Small, lemon-shaped eggs are laid in irregular it, except perhaps for the midrib. Mature larvae gener- masses on the undersides of host leaves throughout ally attach themselves to their host twigs to pupate. the growing season. The larvae scarify foliage, eventu- The adults also colonize host trees and shrubs, permit- ally causing entire leaf surfaces to turn brown by late ting two or more generations annually. Adult willow summer. Several generations are produced annually. leaf beetles are metallic blue or yellow with thin black The 3/16 inch long golden pupae are found around stripes on the wing covers, while cottonwood leaf the base of infested trees, in crevices in the bark, or beetles are yellow to tan with thin, black lines and crotches of tree limbs. Adults produced in late fall spiral marks on the wing covers. may migrate into buildings, homes, and other protected areas where they become nuisances.

Mexican Bean Beetles. These brownish yellow beetles

Colorado potato beetle Colorado potato beetle larva

Colorado potato beetles are tan and black striped beetles about 1/2 inch long. Both the adults and their very plump pink and black larvae chews holes in the foliage of potato plants. Spotted cucumber beetles are among the most common insects found on a Cottonwood leaf beetle and larva (below) variety of crops, ornamentals, and flowering weeds. Adults are 1/4 inch long and pale green with black spots and appendages. They commonly and errone- have eight black spots on each wing cover. Adults are ously are called “green lady beetles.” Adults can be almost oval, convex, and about 3/8 inch long. They look like ladybird beetles because they are in the same family. However, Mexican bean beetles are significant pests of bean foliage and fruit. Both the adults and the spiny golden larvae chew tiny holes in the foliage. Flea beetle larva Blister Beetles. New Mexico is home to dozens of blister beetle species. These beetles get their common name from the blistering agent, cantharadin, in their bodies. When roughly handled, these beetles regur- gitate or bleed from the joints, daubing the attacker with cantharadin. If the beetle is crushed on your skin, you will find painful, swollen “water blisters” on that area a few hours later. If the blisters are Flea beetle adult Flea beetle hind leg lanced, the fluid from them may still contain enough

I.A.23 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

cantharadin to generate more blisters. From a black spots. Adult Epicauta can be significant plant gardener’s perspective, these chance encounters with pests of vegetable and flower gardens, since adults are blister beetles usually can be avoided by brushing highly active, capable fliers with appetites for a variety off insects instead of crushing them absentmind- of host plants in bud or bloom. Adults are most com- edly. Otherwise, first aid, a protective bandage, and monly seen in summer. This is the genus some healing time will suffice. Most blister beetles are of blister beetles that invades alfalfa fields, also, ren- minor, occasional defoliators of flowering annuals or dering affected hay toxic (because of cantharadin) vegetables. The winged forms are the usual culprits to animals. here, and their visits are usually brief.

Elm leaf beetle adult Cystiodemus

New Mexico’s gardeners can see all three body types Branch Borers and Twig Borers, False Powderpost of blister beetles but at different times of year. In the Beetles. Adults generally are elongate and cylindrical. spring, Cystiodemus will be the metallic blue-black, The head is obviously bent down and scarcely visible spiderlike beetle running on desert soils or climb- from above in most common species. The clubbed ing flowering plants. The largest of these very active, antennae are straight and relatively short. Most spe- flightless beetles with the grossly inflated wing covers cies vary in length from 1/8 to 1/2 inch and in color is about 3/4 inch long. from dull black to dull brown. Most species are wood borers and attack living trees, dead twigs, vines, and branches or seasoned, chemically unprotected wood. Adult emergence holes may be coated with powder- fine wood dust. At least one species is a common borer on salt cedar, but it is not especially damaging.

Mexican bean beetle Mexican bean beetle larva In fall and winter, a very large (to almost 2 inches in length), arrowhead-shaped, black blister beetle will be seen climbing various weeds or dragging its heavy abdomen around open ground. The abdomen characteristically is three to four times wider at its base than either the beetle’s head or thorax. The wing covers are very short, twisted, and trimmed in dark red. This Megetra obviously flightless blister beetle is Megetra spp. Al- though both Cystiodemus and Megetra are commonly seen in lower elevation landscapes, neither are damag- Larvae generally kill the twigs in which they bore. ing to turf or ornamentals. Damaged twigs remain on the host. Some trees and shrubs respond to such twig pruning by a prolifera- The third body type of blister beetles is cylindrical. tion of branches below the injury. Many belong to the genus Epicauta. Depending upon species, body lengths can vary from about 1/2 to near- Snout Beetles, Curculionids, the Weevils. Nearly ly an inch. Colors can vary from dull yellow to sage 2,500 species occur in North America and some are green, and pale blue-gray to black. Some of the pale very common. Adults generally are distinguished by blue-gray species are practically covered in minute their well-developed snouts bearing the elbowed an-

I.A.24 The Diagnostic Process

Epicauta Bostrichid tennae; the chewing mouthparts are tiny and located The yucca weevil (Scyphophorus spp.) is a shining on the end of the snout. Adult weevils are often dull black, stout-bodied weevil with sparse, shallow punc- colored (brown, gray, black), mottled or lined. They ture marks on its thorax and narrow lines on the wing may play dead when disturbed. Larvae are C-shaped, covers. The snout is bent downward. Adults occasion- wrinkled and legless, with well-developed brown head ally are seen crawling on sandy desert soils. Adults are capsules. Most larvae burrow inside host plant tissues, flightless. Adults and their plump larvae are found particularly seeds or ripening fruits. Adults may drill commonly boring in fleshy, fibrous cores of agave, holes into developing fruit, seeds, or similar structures and occasionally yucca, killing them. Adults inoculate to access food or tissues suitable for ovipositing. their new agave hosts with microorganisms from their now-rotting larval hosts. These microorganisms prob- Black vine weevils, strawberry root weevils (genus ably facilitate feeding and tunneling by adults and lar- Otiorhynchus) and their relatives are black or brown vae of these beetles. Infested plants appear shrunken weevils with broad, short snouts. Most are less than and withered. 3/8 inch long. Adults notch the leaf edges of their numerous hosts, including many species of broadleaf Pepper weevil (Anthonomus eugenii, about 1/4 inch trees, shrubs, and many ornamental monocots. Adults long) is a potential seasonal pest of chile fruit. Dark emerge and feed at night but hide by day in sheltered brown to black as an adult, it has a teardrop-shaped areas (mulch, thick vegetation, porches, doorways). body and slender, arching beak. Larvae bore through Larvae usually are found deep in the soil (12 to 24 the developing buds or in pepper seeds, causing flower inches), where they feed on host roots.

Billbugs (Sphenophorus) attack grass sod and certain other grassy hosts, such as corn, sorghum, and probably some ornamental grasses. Adults generally are about 5/16 inch long and dull black, but some have tiny, clay-colored spots on the wing covers. Adults hide by day in turf and play dead when exposed. The C-shaped, legless larvae are the destructive stage. They can burrow into grass runners, stems, or stolons, or feed externally on roots.

Root weevil

Snout beetle Weevil grub

I.A.25 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor and fruit losses. Infested pepper pods commonly have and nut damage every year, since generations have brown, dry caps and may turn red in streaks; emer- variable development times. Larvae develop in late gence holes of adult weevils are nearly the diameter of summer and fall in maturing pecan nuts with one to a pencil lead. Damaged pods often are inedible due six larvae per nut in larger, improved varieties. Mature to secondary growths of fungi and other microorgan- larvae bore a perfectly circular escape hole through the isms. nut shell, dropping to the soil and burrowing down approximately 24 inches to rest and eventually pupate. Pecan weevil, Curculio caryae, is not native to New Adults emerge from the soil in midsummer, crawl up Mexico but has been confirmed at three locations in potential host trees, and feed in pecan nut centers, southern New Mexico: Tularosa in Otero County, causing their loss. After mating, pecan weevil females lay eggs in batches od 1-6 in

Pepper weevil adult and larva

the husk of a maturing nut, completing the life cycle. This pest is not to be confused with pecan nut case Billbugs bearer, or hickory shuckworms, which are both caterpillar pests of pecan nuts.

Vado in Doña Ana County, and Deming in Luna Bark Beetles, Engraver Beetles, Ambrosia Beetles, County. Adults are approximately 1/2 inch long and Scolytids. Most bark beetle adults are dark brown, mottled graying brown. They have extremely thin, red or black, cylindrical insects with short, elbowed almost hairlike snouts. This most serious pest of pecan antennae bearing terminal clubs. Most are less than nuts is widely established in the eastern and central 1/4 inch long and many are barely 1/8 inch. Their United States. It is the target of eradication efforts in heads are turned down and are not visible from New Mexico, where it has potential to cause serious above. On the rear of the abdomen, some adults have damage to the pecan industry. The nearly 1/2-inch scooped out areas, rimmed by short, backward point- long, plump larvae are transported easily in in-shell ing spines. Larvae are minute at maturity, C-shaped, nuts or contaminated harvest equipment. This pest ivory-colored and legless, with well-developed brown also is subject to various interstate shipping regula- head capsules. Larvae may be numerous under host tions, particularly when destinations are either Ari- tree bark in elaborate, feather-shaped or fan-shaped zona or California. Each generation requires 2-3 years tunnels. Bark beetles attack the live bark of host trees, to mature; established populations produce weevils where they feed on succulent phloem and cambiim. While stressed trees are preferred, bark beetle numbers in outbreak situations may permit them to overwhelm the stronger defenses of healthier trees.

Yucca weevil and larva

Pecan weevil and larva

I.A.26 The Diagnostic Process

Numerous bark beetle genera and species occur in move to larger diameter branches, and eventually New Mexico. Some are associated only with dicot trees, attack the tree trunk, ultimately killing the tree. Both while others specialize in one or more conifer genera. American and Chinese or Siberian elms are attacked by these 1/8 inch long, brownish black beetles. These Engraver beetles create deep tunnels across the sap- are the vectors of Dutch elm disease in the East and wood, particularly in pine and spruce. Midwest. Dutch elm disease has not yet been confirmed in New Mexico. The disease could infect and Ambrosia beetles bore into the wood of live or freshly kill American elm trees here, but apparently has little killed conifers, especially pines, with relatively high effect on Chinese or Siberian elms. Elm bark beetles water content. They introduce spores of blue stain are not to be confused with elm leaf beetles; see above. fungi, which grow into and clog vascular tissue and provide most of the actual food for the developing lar- Since the early 1990s, ash bark beetles (Hylesinus vae. Recently emerged adults walk through the spores spp.) have become more common, serious pests of of these fungi, leaving the dying hosts with inoculum all varieties of green ash, particularly in northern for the next generation of larvae in new host trees. and central New Mexico. These are likely to spread naturally to other areas of the state. Adult beetles Twig beetles may be 1/12 to 1/8 inch long, cylindri- chew egg galleries under the bark, while larvae chew cal and brown or black. Some species attack twigs of tunnels perpendicular to that gallery. Tiny ventilation Arizona cypress, causing browning and flagging of holes may perforate bark above the egg galleries. Tun- terminals; other species attack twigs or larger diameter nels almost always are colonized by fungi that stain wood of weakened dicot trees, such as black walnut the wood a dark brown color around feeding sites. and others. If host material is limited, twig beetles Sap may ooze from wounds in the twigs, staining the may reinfest available hosts numerous times, gradually bark. These pests can girdle and kill branches, mak- weakening and finally killing it. ing canopies sparse and susceptible to attacks of other wood- boring insects. These pests eventually can kill Elm bark beetles are known from at least one-third of even mature ash trees. New Mexico counties, where they attack elm trees under stress. Successive generations begin with the twigs, Order Lepidoptera, the Butterflies and Moths. These are the familiar scale-winged insects as adults. Generally, butterflies are day-flying insects with knobbed antennae, slender bodies and fluttery flight behavior. Moths are night-flying insects with threadlike or feathery antennae and plump bodies. The immature stages of both are called caterpillars (preferred) or “worms,” particularly the pest species. The larvae have chewing mouthparts and can spin silk. Nearly all will have three pairs of legs on the thorax and up to five pairs of fleshy prolegs on the abdomen, Bark beetle tunnels each tipped by minute hooks called crochets. De- pending upon the species, body ornamentation varies from practically none to scattered bristles on smooth or wrinkled bodies. Other species may be extremely hairy or covered with obvious spines. Larvae of most species are plant feeders and many are significant, economic pests of plants, fiber, and stored products. The pupa may be enclosed in a chrysalis or cocoon created by the mature larva.

Adults of many butterflies are beautifully colored and are valued in art, jewelry and scientific collections as well as butterfly gardens. Adults may lack mouthparts or have rolled up siphons permitting only fluid diets. Bark beetle Spruce beetle Spiny Elm Caterpillar, Mourning Cloak Butterfly.

I.A.27 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Mourning cloak butterflies overwinter as adults in milder climates, emerging to fly on sunny days in late winter and early spring. Mourning cloaks have nearly inch-long bodies with wing spans of 2 to 2 1/2 inches. Their bodies and wings are dark purplish brown with ivory wing margins. Females scatter their egg masses along small twigs of various broadleaf trees, including aspen, willow, elm, hackberry, cottonwood, poplars, and mulberry. Newly hatched larvae are gregarious, stripping foliage from branches as they feed. Mature caterpillars scatter, pupating either on the tree or Mourning cloak butterfly nearby. Adults from this generation may be seen in July or August, where they lay eggs for a second generation. Adults from this second generation overwinter, continuing the life cycle the next spring.

Mature caterpillars have scattered, branched, black spines down their backs. They are dark gray to nearly black with sparse, short white bristles, and large, Spiny elm caterpillar brick red spots down the center of the back and on the prolegs. Even the black head has short, black branched spines. Since these caterpillars defoliate ously, often “shoulder to shoulder,” skeletonizing host only a few branches on a tree, they are more of a foliage. Larger skeletonizer larvae are bright yellow nuisance than a serious pest. with several broad, bright blue bands on their bodies. Fringes of sparse black hairs separate each colored band. These hairs are easily dislodged when infested foliage or caterpillars are handled, often causing skin rashes and itching in sensitive people.

Leaf Blotch Miners. This is a large group of small to minute moths (generally less than 3/8 inch long) with lance-shaped wings pressed tightly to the body when Crochets the insects are at rest. The night-flying adults are dull gray to tan or white. Our most common species create Carpenterworms, Cossids. Larval carpenterworms are blotch mines visible from the upper surfaces of oak, stout-bodied, ivory-colored, wood-boring caterpillars, aspen, or cottonwood. Pupation occurs in a silken nearly the length and diameter of a finger at maturity. cocoon at the end of the mine, often at the basal edge Most require 2-3 years to complete their life cycles of the leaf. Two or more generations occur annually in various species of dying broadleaf trees. Pupating depending upon elevation and species. in the spring, emerging adults leave tattered, brown parchment pupal skins sticking out of their host trees and round holes up to 3/8 inch in diameter. Adults are uncommonly seen, since they are nocturnal. The adult carpenterworm has a wingspan of 2 to 3 inches and has wings spotted or mottled in various shades of gray. The leopard moth is slightly smaller but has pale wings, marked with numerous large black dots; the larval habits are similar to carpenterworms.

Grape Leaf Skeletonizers. Larvae of these insects are more commonly seen and recognized than the small, 1/2 inch long, narrow-winged, blue-black adult Cossid adult Carpenterworm moths. Eggs are laid on foliage of grape or Virginia larva creeper by midsummer. Younger larvae feed gregari-

I.A.28 The Diagnostic Process

Bagworms. These broadleaf and ornamental tree pests have one generation annually. Eggs are laid in the fall in the bag of the adult larviform female. Eggs hatch in the spring and young larvae disperse by walking or ballooning on silken threads to other host plants. Young larvae use silk and remnants of host plant foliage to construct tubular bags covering and hiding their bodies. The cryptic larvae defoliate their hosts Apple leafminer adult over the summer, retreating to their bags to pupate. The uncommonly seen grayish brown males emerge and fly in search of adult females in the fall; although females pupate, they retain their larval appearance and are flightless.

Peachtree Borers, Ash Clearwing Moths, Lilac Clearwing Moths. Peachtree borers are the major enemies of peach and other fruiting and flowering Apple leafminer and damage stone fruit trees in New Mexico. Their larvae feed in the live bark of the host, damaging their hosts trunks, upper roots, and lower limbs. Substantial portions of the main limbs or trunks eventually are girdled, trees, increasingly fragile wood. Affected trees may be weakened to the point of death or be made more susceptible to attacks by other insect pests.

Adults of all of these pests are wasplike in appearance and behavior. Adult peach tree borers have metallic blue-black bodies, limbs and nearly scale-free forewings with wingspans of about 1 1/4 inches. Slighter smaller but superficially similar in appearance and coloration, lesser peach tree borers have one or more Grape leaf skeletonizer yellow-orange bands on their abdomens. The ash and lilac clearwing moths resemble paper wasps in size (approximately 1-inch wing spans, 3/4- inch-long bodies) and color (reddish brown and yellow with

Grape leaf skeletonizer larva causing major dieback and eventual tree death after continued reinfestation. Look for balls of pitch up to 1 inch in diameter on the trunks and tree crown; the nearly inch-long mature larvae feed on the live bark under these pitch balls. Larvae of ash or lilac clearwing moths cause similar damage to their hosts, particularly in northern New Mexico. Prior to pupation, mature caterpillars of these pests make gouging wounds in larger diameter host wood, penetrating to Bagworm larva depths or 1 to 2 inches. Affected trees or shrubs show twig and limb dieback, poor growth and, for larger

I.A.29 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor smoky or nearly colorless wings). One or two genera- serious. Adult leafrollers are broad-winged moths with tions occur annually but are very poorly synchronized flared wing tips; many are tan to orange moths. in emergence and development times. Grape berry moth larvae feed in maturing grapes, Codling Moths, Spruce Budworms, Fruittree Lea- often hiding themselves by webbing grapes together in frollers, Grape Berry Moths, Hickory Shuckworm. an infested bunch. There are two generations annually. Although they obviously attack very different hosts, all of these pests are members of the same moth family— Hickory shuckworms are close relatives of codling the Tortricidae. Most of these moths are fairly small, moths that bore into the shucks of developing pecan 1/2 inch long or less, with gray, tan or brown wings, nuts. Mature caterpillars are ivory-colored and ap- variously banded or mottled with darker colors. The forewings of many species are usually square-tipped. At rest, the wings are often held rooflike over the body.

The most familiar pest species in this group is the codling moth, a key pest of apples and pears wherever these fruit trees are grown. Adults appear in late spring and lay their flat, transparent eggs singly on foliage. Young larvae bore into developing fruit, often from the blossom end. These larvae are light yellow to tan with darker brown heads. After feeding in the fruit core, they emerge and pupate in the soil, under bark

Codling moth life stages

proximately 3/8 inch long. Adult moths are very dark gray to nearly black with square-tipped wings and nearly 1/2 inch wing spans. These are sporadic pests in southern New Mexico pecans apparently because the overwintering stages are quite susceptible to sustained Peachtree borer cold weather.

Pine tip moth include several species whose larval or similar protected areas. More than one generation stages bore into the buds and shoots of various pines may occur annually. This is the “worm in the apple” nearly statewide. Damage includes brown, dead tips that, left uncontrolled, may affect all fruit on a tree. on terminals and lateral branches, crown deformity, seedling death in some cases, and irregular bushiness Spruce budworm larvae feed on the buds of new foli- in surviving trees. Mature larvae are bare and about age and are sometimes very serious defoliators in and 5/8 inch long. Look for them boring dying branch near infested forests. In outbreak conditions, their tips or terminals. Larvae may be golden yellow, or- sustained attacks can kill host trees. ange, or pink. The nocturnal adults of the various species are about 1/2 inch long and are variously marked Fruittree leafrollers can make unsightly leaf nests with brown and gray on wings kept swept back when in fruit and forest trees. The small, generally green, at rest. The wing tips are square-tipped (these are all hairless caterpillars secure host foliage into rolls with distant relatives of codling moths and others listed strands of silk. Defoliation can range from minor to above). Common species include: Nantucket pine

I.A.30 The Diagnostic Process

Fruittree leafroller Pine tip moth larva

tip moth (introduced, especially on Afghan pines from Mesilla Valley pecans since the early 1990s. Two in southern New Mexico; two to three generations to three generations occur annually, with partially annually) and Southwestern pine tip moths (slightly grown larvae overwintering on the surfaces of the larger than the Nantucket as an adult, one generation trees. When they become active again in early spring, annually; pupae overwinter). Additional species attack these tiny caterpillars may bore into pecan twigs Ponderosa pines, especially in northern New Mexico. (causing twig dieback) to complete their life cycles. Pinyons have their own species of Dioryctria, a snout After pupating, adults fly and find mates. Females lay moth that bores the tips of these pines in either forests one to two tiny, white, spherical eggs on developing or landscapes. pecan nuts. Larvae often bore all of the small nutlets in a cluster, leaving silk filaments and small, granular, Snout and Grass Moths, Pecan Nut Casebearer, Na- black waste pellets covering their entrance holes. Later vel Orangeworm. The distinguishing feature for these in the growing season, subsequent generations of moths is the elongated, snoutlike development of the larvae also bore into pecan nuts, although the damage palps that protrude forward from the head. Other- done is confined to only one nut per larva instead of wise, they are dull tan and gray moths with swept several nuts per larva. Larvae consume the interior of back, narrow or triangular wings. Most are small with the developing nut, often pupating inside. Damaged wingspans of 5/8 to 1 inch. nuts fall from the tree or are culled during the nut cleaning process. These pests hitchhike to infest new areas on untreated nursery stock.

Navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella, is native to parts of the Southwest, where it has been documented as a pest of navel oranges and pistachio nuts in Cali- fornia and Arizona and almonds and English walnuts in California. According to literature from Califor- nia, it also may feed on dried, decayed, or damaged Hickory shuckworm larva fruits of many other trees, including stone fruits, figs,

Grass moths, such as sod webworms, bore into grass stems, crowns, or roots. Most feed at the bases of grasses, where they construct silken webs. The moths usually are whitish or pale yellowish brown. When at rest, they hold the wings very close to the body. In New Mexico, they have not been as important pests of turf as beetle pests like white grubs and billbugs.

Pecan nut casebearer, Acrobasis nuxvorella, has been known from Pecos Valley pecans since the 1950s and Pyralid moth

I.A.31 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor pomegranates, apples, pears, acacia, and locust. Since the late 1990s, it has been confirmed boring into nuts of English walnut, almond, and pecan in southern New Mexico. Several generations occur annually with most damage being done at hull split in New Mexico. Mature yellow to pink caterpillars are 5/8 to 3/4 inch long and nearly hairless. They bore throughout the developing nutmeats, leaving trails of silk and waste pellets. At least some caterpillars pupate inside the Navel orangeworm adult nuts with some surviving the winter still inside. Adult and larva moths have narrower grayish tan wings, which typically are kept swept back against the abdomen at rest. Moths are about 5/8 inch long and are marked with darker gray zigzag lines. regurgitation. Many species exhibit body colors and Hornworms, Hawk Moths, Sphinx Moths, Tomato patterns that camouflage them from their enemies. Hornworm, White-Lined Sphinx Moths. Adult moths in this group are mostly medium to large, Mature larvae of some species, particularly the tomato narrow-winged, fast-flying, often colorful moths with hornworms and white-lined sphinx, can reach the very plump, conical bodies. Hawk moth or sphinx length and girth of a finger. Head capsules of differ- moth are acceptable common names for any of the ent species may be globose or even have some broadly moths in this large family; hornworm is a useful, angled “horns” above the simple eyes. The hairless descriptive common name for the larvae in the group. bodies of these larvae are wrinkled as well as segment- Wingspans on some of the larger species can be 4 to 5 ed. The large yellow and brown buttons running the inches. These moths visit blooming plants, especially length of the abdomen on both sides of these larvae at dusk, and are often confused with hummingbirds, are the spiracles.

Larger larvae are ravenous feeders. After 4-6 weeks of feeding and growth, caterpillars leave their host plants and pupate in loose soil nearby. These pupae can be nearly 2 inches long, dark brown to black and are shaped like elongated pitchers or classical Greek wine flasks. Several generations may be passed each year; Pecan nut casebearer larva most species overwinter as pupae. because of their size, hovering ability, loud humming While tomato hornworm larvae are all fairly similar sounds, general behavior around flowers and their in color (green), larvae of the common white-lined very long, thin siphoning mouthparts that resemble sphinx moths can show a variety of color patterns, tiny hummingbird beaks. including stripes of varying widths and irregular

Eggs of many species are pale green or opalescent and nearly the size of small craft beads. These hatch, producing a larva with a conspicuous, curved, anal horn. In the achemon sphinx (a mottled gray-brown and purple sphinx larva found on grape), the horn is lost when the larvae are about half grown. A shiny black button remains as a scar. In other species, the horn remains, although the proportions of horn to body length change considerably as the caterpillars grow and molt. Although threatened larvae may wave the horn or one end of the body or the other at an attacker, these insects cannot sting. Other defensive behaviors include the release of large fecal pellets or Sphinx moth

I.A.32 The Diagnostic Process bands, dashes or spots in black, yellow and/or char- the North American species have proven satisfactory treuse green. These larvae feed on foliage and small for this purpose. All of our common species have one stems of a variety of common desert and rangeland generation annually. Several species in this family are weeds. Populations of this and other species undergo relatively common in parts of New Mexico. dramatic cycles. When in outbreak mode, droves of caterpillars can crawl across landscapes and sidewalks Io moths, Automeris spp., are some of the most com- in search of food or shelter. The marching caterpillars mon and widespread of the saturniids. Mature larvae can cover roadways, leading to slick driving condi- can reach 3 inches in length. They are lime green with tions. Despite their numbers, even outbreak popula- stout, branching spines and black tips. Larger larvae tions of these large caterpillars apparently cause little have narrow reddish stripes edged with white, extend- or no damage to ornamental plants, vegetables or turf. ing the length of each side of the body. Frequently, The caterpillars are more of a novelty or nuisance than these caterpillars are collected from willow in our a destructive pest. higher elevations.

Hornworms often are attacked by tiny parasitic wasps Several species of buck moths, Hemileuca spp., (braconids, see below). The larvae of these tiny wasps occur in New Mexico. At maturity, the larvae are feed internally in the caterpillars. At maturity, they finger-sized and covered with branched, black spines. bore out of their host, often along its back, where Significant to range managers in northeastern New they create white silken pupae, each about the size of Mexico, but not landscapers and gardeners, are the a grain of rice. Parasitized caterpillars die shortly after range caterpillars, Hemileuca oliviae, which are these mass emergences but long after the caterpillars strictly grass feeders. Other species of Hemileuca are have done their damage to their host plants. locally abundant in southeastern New Mexico, where

Giant Silkworm Moths, Royal Moths. This family includes some of the largest moths in the United States. with wingspans of nearly 6 inches in some species. Many of these moths are brightly colored and many have transparent eyespots in the wings. The antennae of female moths are threadlike, but those of males are feather-shaped. Mouthparts of adults are reduced or absent, and the adults do not feed. Female moths produce a sex pheromone that males can detect from long distances downwind.

Mature larvae are about the length and girth of a finger. The various species are armed with conspicuous tubercles or spines. Note: these larvae should be Giant silkworm moth handled with care, since the spines sting and can cause an itchy, painful rash. Most saturniids pupate in silken cocoons that are attached to the twigs or leaves of host the spiny larvae defoliate shinnery oak, a perennial plants, although the larvae of royal moths burrow range weed. Mature caterpillars sometimes “march” into loose soil and pupate there without cocoons. over area roads in late spring, when this species has While a few species in this group have been used for completed feeding. of commercial silk production—and some of the Asian species produce silk commercially—none of One of the royal moths, Anisota oslari, is fairly widespread on native scrub oaks. After pupating in the soil all winter, the paper bag brown adults emerge in early spring to mate and lay their eggs on the younger foliage of scrub oak. These hatch to produce crayon red caterpillars with rings of sparse, shiny black spines. Smaller caterpillars skeletonize host plant foliage, while larger ones consume entire leaf blades. At matu- Tomato hornworm larva rity, some of these caterpillars can be 2-3 inches long.

I.A.33 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

By early summer, these caterpillars have completed their development and disperse over the soil until they find appropriate sites to pupate.

Tiger Moths, Fall Webworms, Woolly Bears, Woolly Worms. The more common species in this family are small to medium-sized, brightly spotted or banded moths with wingspans of 1 to 2 inches. Adults of some are white or uniform brownish, but others have colorful scale patterns on the abdomens and Tiger moth Fall webworm hind wings. The densely hairy larvae of some species adult are commonly called “woollybears” and are folklore

in the fall. Severely affected trees will be stripped of foliage and appear to be enveloped in a giant, sheer, brown pantyhose dotted with dried, cast skins and numerous black fecal pellets. Most homeowners object to such unsightly trees, and pesticide applications Io moth larva against these pests are common in late summer and early fall as the communal webs grow larger. The size of the tree and the scope of the job often require that favorites for those trying to predict the severity of the trees be treated by professional pest control operators coming winter. Many species are quite common and with access to appropriate equipment and materials. some are occasionally destructive to foliage of trees, Smaller infestations that can be safely reached by the shrubs, and other ornamentals and vegetables. Many homeowner may be pruned out of the infested tree species have several generations annually. and destroyed in many cases.

Some of the more common tiger moths in the genus These insects pass the winter in tightly constructed, Apantesis have black forewings with red or yellow brown, silken cocoons found under surface litter or strips and pink hind wings with black spots. Salt- sometimes under tree bark. The moths begin emerg- marsh caterpillars, Estigmene acrea, produce white ing in early spring and continue to do so for several adults with sparse black pepper spots on the wings; weeks. Both sexes have full-length, satiny white wings. the abdomen is pink with black spots. Males have yel- At rest, these half-inch long moths hold their folded lowish hind wings. Larvae feed on various grasses. wings swept back against their abdomens. These moths fly and mate at night and hide from daylight. The banded woollybear is rusty brown in the middle Females lay their tightly packed, pale green egg mass and black on either end. Larvae feed on various com- on the undersides of host foliage, dotting the masses mon weeds. Multitudes of these soft, fuzzy larvae with their white hairy scales. When these hatch, the creep across area roadways in the fall. Larvae overwin- slightly fuzzy caterpillars work together to spin an ever ter and pupate in the spring. These are the larvae that tighter canopy of silk over themselves and the foliage are supposed to predict trends in winter weather; the they will soon consume. The youngest stages skeleton- amount of black is supposed to be proportional to ap- ize foliage, while older stages consume entire sections proaching bad weather. of leaves. Feeding continues for 4-6 weeks, with mature caterpillars leaving the host plant and spinning Larvae of some tiger moths feed on tree foliage and their cocoons for pupation on host bark or somewhere may seriously defoliate some deciduous trees. The nearby. Adults emerge shortly thereafter, starting the prime example here is the fall webworm, Hyphantria second generation. Two and possibly three generations cunea. The fuzzy off-white larvae (reaching 1 1/2 to occur annually. 2 inches at maturity) often build large, communal silk webs on the ends of branches in pecan, mulberry, Noctuids, Cutworms, Corn Earworms (Cotton Boll- cottonwood, poplar, and numerous other common worms, Tomato Fruit Worms), Fall Armyworms, deciduous shade, nut, and fruit trees. With two to Armyworms, Loopers, Mesquite Defoliators, Black three generations annually in most parts of the state, Witch Moths. With more than 2,700 species in the the largest and most destructive generation is the one United States and Canada and probably several hun-

I.A.34 The Diagnostic Process dred more in Mexico, this is the largest moth family in North America. These moths are mostly nocturnal; many of the moths attracted to outdoor lights are members of this large family.

Many noctuids have heavier bodies with somewhat narrowed forewings and broad, fanlike hind wings. Their antennae are threadlike. Some have tufts of scales on the top of the thorax. Many species are patterned but drably colored in grays, tans, browns, and black. Many species have several generations annually.

Noctuid larvae are mostly smooth and dull-colored. Except for loopers; most have five pairs of prolegs. Noctuid moth Most feed on foliage, but some bore into various plants, and a few also feed on fruits. Many species in this family are serious pests of various plant crops as well as turf and ornamentals.

One of the more colorful adult noctuid groups is the underwings with wingspans of about 2 inches. The forewings are patterned in gray tones but the hind (under) wing is often brightly colored in red, yellow, or orange. At rest the hind wings are covered by the backward angled forewings. If disturbed, the underwing quickly spreads its wings, flashing its patches of bright coloration, a defensive behavior. Underwing caterpillars can be nearly 2 inches long at maturity. Underwing moth Most have sparse hairs on their bodies and irregular patterns in gray. At rest, they flatten themselves against their substrate, making them even more dif- ominous appearance. The larvae are considerably ficult to see. larger than those for any other North American species. They develop on various perennial legumes, none The largest noctuid in North America, the black of which occur in the United States. These moths are witch (Erebus odorata), resembles a brown bat in size, harmless for New Mexico gardeners but are always color, and behavior. Wingspans of 8 to10 inches are remarkable to see. not unusual for these chocolate brown moths that fly through New Mexico in the summer from breed- The loopers have only three pairs of prolegs and move ing grounds in Mexico and perhaps farther south. like inchworms. The cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, They may visit damaged, oozing fruit, sipping the is a serious pest of cabbage and related cole crops. fermented fluids. Otherwise, these moths are harm- Similar species in New Mexico also focus on groups of less. Both males and the larger females take part in related plants. Nearly all are pale green, nearly hair- these long distance movements, with adults being less and with few markings. Adults of most species are found occasionally as far away as southern Canada dark brown with golden or silver highlights and small and the New England states. It is unknown whether markings on the forewings. They have a wingspan of the species also moves south like the monarch butter- about 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 inch. Many have a small, elon- flies. Typically these large moths rest during the day in gated silver spot in the middle of each front wing. darker protected areas with wings spread. Places like garages, covered porches, barns, large tree canopies, Gardeners studying damaged grape or Virginia creeper depressions in rocks, caverns and mine shafts are all foliage may see forester moth caterpillars up to 1 1/2 potential resting spots. Native peoples of Mexico and inch long, nearly hairless, and marked with thin bands Central and South America have given these insects of ivory and black. These are the larvae of the eight- common names associated with death or misfortune, spotted forester. After pupating, the adult is a black probably as a result of size, dark color, and a rather moth with a wingspan of about 1 1/2 inch. It will

I.A.35 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor have a pair of white or yellow spots in each wing and they reach 1 to 1 1/2 inches and begin consuming slightly clubbed antennae. large quantities of food, they can cause great alarm. If these pests are very numerous, they also can march The fall armyworm and beet armyworm are both across bare ground and roads in search of other food. members of the genus Spodoptera. Both are rather These caterpillars vary in color at maturity from green dull grayish brown moths with wingspans of about to light tan to nearly black. All have three yellowish 1 1/4 inch. Both are strong fliers and quite prolific. white hair lines down the back from head to tail. Next Most of the time, these insects are kept under control to the yellow lines on the sides is a wider, dark stripe by a variety of natural (arthropod) enemies in New and next to that an equally wide, somewhat wavy Mexico, but they can quickly become significant pests yellow stripe, splotched with red or orange-brown. if conditions permit. The head capsule has an inverted white Y on it, and there are scattered black tubercles on the insect’s back. While their preferred hosts are corn and related mem- Caterpillars on the march may invade gardens, inflict- bers of the grass family, fall armyworms may also feed ing serious damage before they are noticed. Mature in alfalfa, cotton, various grain crops, and a variety of caterpillars may disappear suddenly when they burrow vegetables, including tomato, cucumber, and vari- underground several inches to pupate. ous kinds of beans. While many preferred hosts are commercial agricultural crops, those fields are often Beet armyworms tend to be more common in cool near landscaped areas or home gardens. These in- weather or in the spring. In New Mexico, a variety sects overwinter farther south than New Mexico and of natural enemies generally are successful at keeping reinfest higher, more northern locations in successive these pests below economic levels. These caterpillars generations each year. The moths are strong. Females mature at about 1 1/2 inches long. All sizes of these can lay more than 1,000 eggs in several clutches of caterpillars are various shades of army green with 100-150. They lay these on the undersides of host at least three broad, rather indistinct green stripes foliage, covering them with hairs from their bodies. running down their backs. These insects have a very The small larvae feed near the ground surface and may broad host range with larvae consuming a variety of be gregarious in the center whorls of plants like corn, vegetable and ornamental plants. creating a characteristic pattern of shot hole damage. The smaller caterpillars are often overlooked, but once Cutworms are another large group of noctuids that are well-represented in the Southwest. Generally, these caterpillars feed around the bases of plants, particularly seedlings, at night, retreating to cavities around the root zone by day. Affected seedlings may be “cut off” at soil level; often cutworms will fatally injure a series of plants in a row in just one night. Most are very drab both as larvae and adults; shades of gray, tan, and brown and black dots and lines are common. When disturbed, the caterpillars often curl into a protective Looper larva spiral.

The true armyworms and army cutworms feed on New Mexico rangelands in late fall and early spring where forage permits. When their food sources are exhausted, they also may march, a phenomenon most common in eastern New Mexico, where grain fields often provide attractive alternatives to starvation. These insects pupate in the soil in late spring and then fly in droves to our higher elevations where they rest all summer. People who have mountain cabins or who live in higher elevations are familiar with the sometimes overwhelming abundance of these dull gray- Forester moth brown moths indoors and out. They seem especially talented at finding any crack or crevice in a building, making major nuisances of themselves in homes,

I.A.36 The Diagnostic Process

Beet armyworm

Beet armyworm larva Beet armyworm damage businesses, and places like observatories. In addition cotton bollworm are all appropriate for this common to their ubiquitous presence, alive and dead, they shed pest. Larvae are highly variable in color, depending clouds of dustlike scales (causing allergic reactions in to some extent on their food source. Those on corn some people). They also spray liquid feces whenever can have gray, brown, or tan stripes, while those on they are disturbed or take wing. These feces have a tomato may be distinctly pink and rose colored. On high pH that can cause staining or even disintegration corn, the tan adult moths (wingspan of about 1 1/4 of some fabrics. to 1 1/2 inches) scatter their eggs singly in the young silks. While several larvae may hatch and enter the Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) is another insect developing ear, they are highly cannibalistic. These with several common names, depending upon the are the “worms” in the ear of corn that consume the crop infested: corn earworm, tomato fruitworm, and kernels near the tip of the cob. These pests also develop on the fruits of tomatoes and bore into cotton bolls. They are among our more damaging garden pests.

Order Hymenoptera, the Membrane Winged In- sects. This large order contains the sawflies, ants, gall- forming wasps, bees, and related forms. Reproductive adults are characterized by two pairs of membranous wings. The tiniest of the gall-forming wasps may have no or very few veins in the forewings and no veins in the hind wings. The larger hymenopterans typically have well-developed patterns of wing venation useful Cutworm for identification by specialists. While most species have solitary individuals, many bees and wasps are well-known social insects that live in communal, ge- netically related colonies composed of different castes with different appearances and roles in colony main- tenance. Larvae of solitary forms are caterpillarlike in appearance, while those of social species usually are legless and without well-defined heads. Cutworm larva Sawflies.Adult sawflies are wasplike insects that often are brightly colored. They usually are found foraging

I.A.37 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Sawfly adult and larva Corn earworm adult on foliage or flowers of various plants. Most are small species are known for their communal threat displays to medium-sized insects, rarely more than 3/4 inch to predators, rising cobralike off their substrates when long. All have broad connections between thorax and threatened. abdomen rather than the exaggerated wasp waists seen in ants, hornets, and wasps. Adults are harm- Most of our common species are found on pines and less to man, even though the ovipositors of some (for other conifers. Several species attack currants and at example, the horntail) are long and needlelike. The least one is known to feed on hollyhocks in north- “saw” in “sawfly” comes from the serrated edge of the western New Mexico. female’s ovipositor, which she uses to slit twigs, stems, or other tissues of specific kinds of host plants. Many Cynipid Wasps, Oak Gall Wasps. These are small sawfly species are associated with conifers. Some to minute wasps, less than 1/4 inch long, that are prefer various deciduous trees and shrubs, although a harmless to humans. Characteristically, they have few frequent annuals or biennials but no grasses for reduced wing venation patterns. Most are black or egg laying. Most species are in New Mexico’s higher metallic with very shiny and somewhat compressed elevations or more northern counties. abdomen. Adults generally are active early in spring, laying eggs in or on buds of host oak species. Presum- Most sawflies have a single generation annually with ably, this allows the insects to feed on the oak when the insect overwintering in a pupal cell or cocoon, tannin levels are at seasonal lows. Galls on oak vary either in the ground or in a protected situation. widely in appearance, depending upon the species of Sawfly larvae look very much like caterpillars, com- wasp involved. They may resemble peas in a pod, bare plete with fleshy prolegs. However, unlike caterpillars, marbles (paper galls), warty potatoes (oak apples), sawfly larvae have single simple eyes on either side fuzzy leaf galls, or button leaf galls. Larvae generally of the head capsule, and the prolegs are tipped with are small to minute sack-like creatures that are off- simple claws rather than a semicircle, circle, or bands white, yellow or pink. Most have poorly developed of crochets. Sawfly larvae typically are bare with more head capsules. Their initial feeding causes their host to or less wrinkled bodies. They usually are colored like respond with gall tissue characteristic for that group their host plant backgrounds. Some are gregarious of gall wasps. Rarely observed or collected, gall wasp and most are external feeders, although a few create larvae feed inside this gall tissue, mostly protected galls or even mine leaves on birch or elm. Horntail from extremes in the environment but not necessarily sawfly larvae bore in wood of dying hardwoods. The from their natural enemies or other insects that might external feeders on foliage tend to rest with the body bore into galls for food and shelter. or posterior end curled over the leaf’s edge. Some

I.A.38 The Diagnostic Process

Ants. Extraordinarily abundant and common, many of thousands) of adult workers, one or more queens, species of these social insects occur almost everywhere all stages of the queen’s brood, and, seasonally, new in North America. The largest ants in New Mexico winged female and male reproductives that swarm to are almost 1/4 inch long; these include the harvester disperse, mate, and establish new colonies elsewhere. ants and carpenter ants. Some of the smallest ants in Worker adults are wasp-waisted and have elbowed an- the state are about 1/10 inch long. Colors vary from tennae. All workers are females incapable of reproduc- yellow to red or black with combinations of colors ing. All workers in a nest are siblings, products of the common in some species. While some ants are well- one to many queens that live there, depending upon known structural pests around homes and buildings, species. Some colonies produce workers of radically others can be key pests of ornamentals, especially different sizes. Depending on size, some of these spe- ball-and-burlap plants or container nursery stock. A cialize in defending the colony, while others perform a few are known to tend aphids on ornamentals or veg- broader range of duties for the colony, including for- etable plants, protecting the aphids from their natural aging. The reproductive caste is winged initially. These enemies and even carrying them underground to feed virgin male and female ants have two pairs of wings of on host plant roots prior to onset of winter weather. unequal size with relatively few veins in their wings. Some ant species also are known to infest turf, where Their other body features are the same as for worker they create objectionable mounds or ant trails through ants. These are produced seasonally, emerging from the grass, annoying people and animals. Worker ants their home nests by the dozens to thousands following of many species are well-known for stinging people summer rainfall. These “swarmers” fly away, eventu- and animals, causing itchy welts, illness, or even ally finding potential mates from other colonies. After death in cases of hypersensitive reactions. Although mating multiple times, the new queens find appropri- some species lack the modified ovipositors that serve ate shelter and raise their first brood of worker ants. as stingers, workers still defend themselves and their As their numbers increase, these workers perform all colonies by biting and chewing attackers, while spray- tasks in the colony for mutual benefit, including car- ing formic acid into the wounds from the tips of their ing for and defending the queen, other workers, and abdomens. all of the queen’s brood. Do not confuse winged or wingless ants with termites (see above). Ant colonies include large numbers (sometimes, tens

Oak galls

Ants

Oak gall wasp

I.A.39 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Important species in this group include the red beneficial, these insects also may be dangerous pests imported fire ant. This is an introduced species into encountered by homeowners, pest control operators, the Southeastern and south central United States. hikers, bikers, farm workers, gardeners, landscap- It is now found in isolated areas in the Southwest, ers, outdoor enthusiasts and generally anyone in the including Doña Ana County, N.M., Phoenix, Ariz., Southwest. They also can cause extensive damage to and several counties of southern California. A federal homes and other structures if they are not excluded quarantine is in place for this key crop pest. It also from building colonies in the ceilings or walls. Bee is recognized as a significant public health and safety alert! pest for humans, livestock, and wildlife. Harvester ants (Pogonomyrmex spp.) are robust ants with potent Both Africanized (AHB) and European honeybees stings. They are common throughout the Southwest. (EHB) belong to the same species, Apis mellifera. They often construct low, broad mounds in sandy or Although crossbreeding can occur, it seems to be rocky soil. These nests can penetrate 6-8 feet in the more infrequent than might be expected. EHB are soil, often containing tens of thousands of worker found statewide as managed or feral (wild or escaped) ants. Other common species seen in yards and gardens colonies, occurring in all types of habitats and at all include pyramid ants, odorous house ants, acrobat but the highest elevations. AHB is known from the ants, and thatch ants. southern third of New Mexico counties as of 2001, although more counties are likely infested. AHBs are Leafcutter Bees. Characteristic damage associated wild and very unpredictable honeybees. Although with these otherwise beneficial pollinators includes they pollinate plants and produce honey, they would paper-punch holes in leaves of broadleaf hosts, be difficult if not impossible to manage by agricultur- especially roses and lilacs. These bees can nest singly ists using standard beekeeping tools and methods. or gregariously, depending upon habitat availability. Leafcutters nest in narrow diameter cavities, includ- Both of these honeybees are moderately hairy, golden ing nail holes, drain holes in flower pots, or practically brown insects with several very dark brown to al- any manmade cavities including soda straws or drilled most black bands on the abdomen. These also have holes. The leaf discs are used to line the cells in the black appendages. Workers typically are about 1/2 short, tubular nests, where usually as many as 10-12 inch long. They can be seen foraging at any time of eggs and larvae will develop. Adults usually are slightly the year when temperatures are mild, and it’s calm fuzzy and are smaller and thinner than the common and sunny. Foraging bees of either type of honeybee honeybee. Usually, these bees cut most of their leaf present little or no threat to people, pets, livestock, or disks just after dawn and just before dusk. Leafcutter wildlife. These insects are looking for pollen or nectar abdomens often are black with narrow white bands (food) or water for their colony. Leave these focused, and upturned ends. Adults can carry pollen on the industrious insects alone. Leave colonies of managed undersides of their hairy abdomens. These bees do not honeybees alone, also, unless the colonies are obvi- make honey, but can be managed for excellent pol- ously abandoned. Report abandoned colonies to the lination services of some crops. New Mexico Department of Agriculture.

Africanized and European Honeybees. Although

Winged red harvester ant Leafcutter bee damage

I.A.40 The Diagnostic Process

tural damage as their combs grow larger, age, and start to leak honey. In addition to odor, honeybee colonies can be very attractive to other pests, including other honeybees, wasps, ants, flies, rodents, and other wildlife.

While some communities may have beekeepers who will remove honey bee swarms for free or for a nomi- nal cost, most do not. Few beekeepers would consider removing a honeybee colony from a structure due to Leafcutter bee Honeybee the uncertainty of the exact location of the queen and brood inside walls or ceilings. Even long-established honeybee colonies that have been docile for years can become overly defensive if the old queen dies or if the old queen is replaced by an Africanized queen and her Both types of honeybees swarm at least once an- offspring. Employ an exterminator as soon as possible nually. EHB typically swarms once annually in to eliminate stubborn swarms or established colonies. the spring, while AHB may do so multiple times Check the phone book under “pest control” or “bee during the year and during any season. EHB removal” or similar headings. Look for companies that frequently swarms when the old colony is over- advertise their bee removal services. crowded, whereas AHB swarms whenever its local sources of food or water are exhausted or the While foraging honeybees usually are harmless, avoid colony is disturbed. A fertile queen initiates the working around plants especially attractive to these swarm. Adults that join the swarm often gorge insects. If you see large numbers of bees or hear large on honey and water prior to flying away with the numbers of bees in an area, foraging or not, be aware queen. The departing swarm may contain dozens that a swarm or colony may be nearby. Avoid that to thousands of bees, depending upon subspecies area at least temporarily. If you feel threatened or are and the initial colony size. The gardener is likely to attacked by honeybees, run to safety immediately. hear loud, steady humming overhead or nearby or Run to a building you can enter, closing the door and see a seething cloud of honeybees flying at rooftop windows behind you to prevent bees from entering levels. Alternatively, when the swarm tires, darkness and stinging you. Alternatively, run to your vehicle approaches or weather conditions prevent flight, and jump inside, closing the door and rolling up the the gardener may see large globs of honeybees on windows behind you. While there may be some angry the sides of buildings, tree limbs, or other struc- bees inside with you, you can escape the brunt of the tures. While honeybees in a swarm tend to be fairly attack and kill the invading bees as time and opportu- docile, the gardener should keep people, pets, and nity permits. Never jump into water to avoid attack- livestock safely away from the swarm while it is ing bees. They will sting as you surface for air and flying or resting. After several hours of rest or an may persist in their attack until you drown. While overnight stay, the bee swarm may leave as quickly disturbed EHB may chase you for a few hundred feet as it arrived. On the other hand, scout bees may from an established colony, angry AHB may pursue have communicated to the swarm that an adequate you 1/4 mile or more. Run as fast as you can and, nesting site was nearby. The bees have entered that while running, pull up your collar, jacket, or shirt to nesting site and, in several days, will have produced protect your neck and head as much as possible. Don’t enough honey comb for the queen to begin laying obscure your vision while running to safety. Never as- eggs and for foraging bees to have started storing sume bees will stop their attack at some point. nectar and pollen. At that point, the behavior of either kind of honeybee is likely to change for the If you are stung in a bee attack, expect some degree of worse. Do not allow honeybees to establish colonies allergic reaction. For most people, pain and swelling on your property, particularly in your home or in are common. Seek emergency medical care immedi- other buildings. They can represent a significant ately if you feel faint; develop “hives” or itchy blotches threat to the safety and well-being of your family on your skin; have hot, itchy hands or feet; or if you as well as your neighbors, pets, and livestock. In ad- have any difficulty breathing. Also, if swelling prevents dition, if the bees are established in your home or you from removing rings or other jewelry or restrictive another building, they can cause extensive struc-

I.A.41 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor clothing, get emergency assistance. When disturbed, EHB colonies will produce dozens or perhaps hundreds of bees in defense. As a rule, they Have another person take you to emergency services, pursue their attacker for up to several hundred feet. since your condition may worsen dramatically if They calm down fairly quickly after a disturbance, symptoms escalate. You may be experiencing anaphy- certainly within a day for most events. AHB colonies lactic shock, a potentially life-threatening condition. can produce hundreds to thousands of angry bees fol- The good news is that emergency medical personnel lowing a disturbance. They may pursue their attacker can relieve your distress quickly and effectively, if much farther, at least 1/4 mile, and they may remain you arrive at their facility soon enough after the at- disturbed and ready to attack for many hours or days tack. Thereafter, if your physician determines you are afterward. hypersensitive to bee venom, he or she may prescribe a special self-injection kit for you to carry at all times. Prompt and correct use of this kit may save your life Beneficials at Work the next time you are stung by bees and seeking emergency medical care. Arthropods and their relatives, near and distant, occupy different roles in the environment: herbivores, AHBs are descendents of honeybees brought to Brazil predators, parasites, pollinators, and scavengers. from southcentral Africa in the mid-1950s to breed Whether these arthropods are “pests” or “beneficials” more efficient pollinators and honey producers for depends on a complex set of human values. If garden- the tropics. These highly defensive, unpredictable bees ers are interested in developing an Integrated Pest were accidentally released from a field facility. They Management (IPM) plan for their property, they may became established in Brazil initially but dispersed want to rely to some extent on beneficials to suppress over the next 40 years in all directions. They currently some pests on turf and ornamentals. are known to occur in most of South America, all of Central America, much of Mexico, and Texas, New After determining what pests are of concern for Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and California. While more the property, the next step is to determine which than half of Texas counties are known to have AHB beneficials might control the pests to some extent colonies, the southern parts of the other states are and which are not effective or are even dangerous to primarily the areas affected at this time. have around from the standpoint of venomous bites or stings. European honeybees were brought to the Ameri- cas beginning with the Spanish colonists in the late Identification is the first step in making IPM deci- 1500s. These were followed by other strains of honey- sions for both pests and potential beneficials. Garden- bees from France, Germany, England and elsewhere, ers may opt to conserve at least certain beneficials in as colonists established farms and ranches. These bees dveloping their IPM program. Some species might be provided pollination services and honey. They were available commercially to augment the levels of con- bred and selected like other livestock for docility, trol already presnt on the property. The section below overwintering abilities, and productivity. Beekeeping is aimed at helping gardeners identify many common- equipment and skills were developed and adapted ac- ly seen arthropods that can be variously categorized as cordingly for different parts of North America. predators or parasites. Some have broad host ranges, while others are quite narrow. Some attack certain The casual observer cannot distinguish an AHB from stages only, even of their preferred hosts. Manipulat- an EHB either by size or behavior. AHB are slightly ing beneficials can have advantages for the gardener, smaller than EHB, but these differences must be but it may not address all pest problems, an important determined by sophisticated sampling and measur- consideration. ing techniques. Their venom chemistry is the same, although the amount of venom per sting released by First, let’s look at some of the predators that might AHB is slightly smaller than that released by EHB. be encountered in the garden environment. Typically, Regardless, AHB and EHB can only sting once each a predator would kill many host (or pest) oranisms before dying. This is because the bee stinger has small during its life cycle. Contrast with the definition of barbs that are snagged in the skin during stinging. parasites below. As a rule, predators suppress pest The stinging bee is unable to free itself and eventually populations, but do not eliminate them. Some of tears the stinger out of the body, killing the insect.

I.A.42 The Diagnostic Process these will be too dangerous to keep, while others are some are larger. Although these bristly creatures with too inefficient to rely on for pest suppression. massive jaws look like spiders, they technically belong to their own group. Closer examination will show the Predatory Snails. Rumina decollata, the decollate first pair of legs is usually held and used like antennae. snail, is known to feed on browngarden snails as op- The remainder are used for walking or running. Two portunity permits. But it also may feed on native spe- pairs of pliers-like jaws are located on the head. These cies of snails or even plants, if snails are not available. are usually encountered early in the morning alive, Rumina has an elongated spiral, brown shell, usually running along the floor close to a wall. These inquisi- with the end broken off. It has a very dark brown to tive, highly active predators are mainly nocturnal and black, slime body. It will occur in the same shadd, do not spin webs. Although they have an effective moist, protected areas as brown garden snails. threat display, they are harmless and nonvenomous.

Centipedes. Almost everyone recognizes a centipede The rest of the animals described below are Ar- as a multisegmented, flattened arthropod with numerous legs. Our largest desert centipedes can be thropods or jointed-foot organisms. 5-6 inches long. These predators have a disklike head bearing a pair of chewing mandibles. They inject their prey with venom through the first pair of legs. Spiders and Predatory Mites. This group includes These are modified as hollow, caliperlike structures. spiders that vary in size from barely visible to at least The venom kills small prey and liquefies the tissues to 3 inches across, from leg tip to leg tip. Spiders have facilitate consumption. The last pair of legs frequently two, usually obvious body regions. Some are nearly is thicker and longer than legs in the middle of the devoid of hairs, while others have short, dense hairs. body. The last body segment also is often larger and Still others have scales or a dense pile of hairs with darker. Presumably, these features confuse potential scattered, longer bristles. Spiders are highly variable predators, leaving the centipede with a 50/50 chance in color, habits and size. Some spin elaborate webs of protecting its head from attack. Centipedes con- regularly, catching a variety of small insects, killing sume a variety of insects and small animals, but rest and draining them of their body fluids, and wrap- and hide by day in cracks and crevices. Always wear ping their remains in more silken strands. Others are gloves and use tools to turn over items partially buried highly visual hunters that stalk their prey, jump on in the soil. it, and kill it. Although many are venomous, few are large, aggressive or potent enough to be a threat to humans. Two species that are medically significant in New Mexico include the black widows (including the Western widow) and the violin spiders.

Most of the predatory mites are barely visible. All mites have eight legs, no antennae, and one body region. Most have sparse, coarse hairs or setae on their bodies and two pairs of jaws. Their prey consists of other mites, mite eggs, and some small insect eggs. Crab spider Spider Most of the common or commercially available predatory mites belong to the mite family Phytoseiidae.

Sun Spiders or Solpugids. Most of these tan to brown arthropods are 1 inch long or less, although

Decollate snail shell Tarantula

I.A.43 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Phytoseiid mite Centipede

If humans or animals are bitten by centipedes, the bite The effect of a scorpion sting depends primarily on is painful but not deadly. Swelling may be extensive, the species. The sting of most species is painful and slow to heal, and prone to secondary infections. usually accompanied by local swelling and discolor- Physicians or veterinarians should be consulted if ation but is not dangerous. Of the 40-odd species of the victims are small, young, old, frail, or if pain and scorpions in the United States, the sting of Centruroi- swelling are major problems. These are too dangerous des exilicauda is potentially life threatening. This par- to encourage. ticular bark scorpion occurs in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Recommendations Scorpions. Several species of scorpions are distributed for professional care of sting victims are the same for widely in New Mexico and other parts of the Chi- scorpions as they are for centipedes (above). huahuan Desert. The head and thorax are fused into a flattened, almost rectangular structure that bears Pseudoscorpions. Although they resemble scorpions two to six pairs of simple eyes, the paired chelicerae superficially, pseudoscorpions lack both the cylindri- (mouthparts), the lobsterlike claws and four pairs of cal abdomen and stinger. Also, most are barely 1/4 generalized walking legs. The multisegmented abdo- inch long at maturity. They are relatively common men is cylindrical, ending with a fishhook-shaped predators on and under the bark of trees and can stinger. Scorpions are mainly nocturnal and most spe- be collected from certain bark mulches and from cies are yellowish tan, some with darker stripes on the fresh firewood. These tiny predators have venom and body. Our common species are up to silk glands in their pedipalps. They are harmless to 2 inches long. When the scorpion runs or is threat- humans but feed on small insects and mites in their ened, it arcs the tail up and over the body, aiming the habitats. snapping claws toward the attacker or prey. Scorpions Vinegarones, Whip Scorpions or Uropygids. These large, robust arthropods superficially resemble scorpions, but they have threadlike or whiplike tails that lack stingers. Mature vinegarones can reach 4–5 inches in length, including tails. The claws are thickened and powerful. The first pair of legs is usually elongated, very slender, and often waved in the air like antennae. Only the three pairs of hind legs are used in walking. When disturbed, vinegarones may raise their Sun spider claws and open them. They also extend the stiffened tail straight up into the air. When threatened, they catch small prey with their claws, stinging them as release a strong scent of vinegar (acetic and various needed. Young are born alive and, briefly after birth, other organic acids). These are nocturnal predators they are carried about on the back of the mother. that typically spend their days under rocks or other Scorpions grow slowly with some species needing sev- debris. Eggs are carried in a membranous sac under eral years to reach maturity. They have the odd chem- the female’s body. When they hatch, the young may istry in their exoskeleton to fluoresce when under an ride around on the back of the female. These large and ultraviolet light, a feature exploited by often impressive arthropods are harmless to humans those who collect and study them. and make good short-term terrarium occupants.

I.A.44 The Diagnostic Process

Scorpion Vinegarone

Predatory Beetles (Order Coleoptera). Collops instead of four and by having a “dangling trochanter” Beetles. Adults are 1/5 to 1/4 inch long with metallic on the hind leg that darkling beetles lack. The highly blue stripes or with brick red appendages, red under- active, predatory larvae are cylindrical and somewhat sides and a single red dot on each wing cover. These flattened with three pairs of legs and forward-pointing are general predators that feed on moth and stink bug mandibles. Their abdomens end with a pair of short, eggs, small caterpillars, aphids, and leafhoppers. The upturned spurs. Although harmless to humans, larvae cylindrical larvae are about the same size as adults. may threaten an attacker with these spurs. They are highly active predators but are rarely seen. Lady Beetles or Lady Bugs. Gardeners and others Ground Beetles. The common name for these vora- should recognize the hemispherical, shiny, tomato red cious nocturnal predators comes mostly from the beetles with black appendages and black spots on the habitat of these usually black or dark brown beetles; a wing covers as beneficial predators of aphids and other few have metallic dark green or blue highlights. They soft-bodied insects. With more than 450 species of usually are seen on the ground where they hide by day lady beetles in the United States, expect variability in under stones, bark, mulch and similar debris. Adults the colors, patterns, and sizes of these familiar insects. of different species vary greatly in size from less than Familiarize yourself with the other life stages of these 1/2 inch to more than 1 inch long. The general shape beetles to avoid mistaking beneficials for pests. The of most common species is broadly oval to elongate Mexican bean beetle and squash beetle are members with longitudinally grooved wing covers, narrow of the lady beetle family but are recognized pests heads, and mandibles aimed forward. Many adult of these crops. (See above Field Guide to Pest Arthro- ground beetles look like adult darkling beetles but can pods for details.) be correctly identified by having five tarsal segments Eggs of some of the larger lady beetles are lemon yellow to orange, and elongate oval to cigar-shaped. They often are clustered in irregular groups of 3-10 or more with the eggs arranged “on-end.” Look for egg masses on foliage in the vicinity of aphid colonies and similar infestations.

Larvae of most larger lady beetles are alligator-shaped, short-legged, highly active predators. Most are black or dark gray and some have orange, yellow, or blue markings. Larvae of some of the smaller species of Pseudoscorpion lady beetles may be covered in white wax flakes or strands. Larvae of all species are solitary feeders.

I.A.45 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Collops Ground beetle Lady beetle

At maturity, lady beetle larvae often pupate in or lady beetle. It is an introduced species that is wide- near their larval habitat. For the larger species, the spread throughout New Mexico and may be especially black larval skin usually is wadded up at the end of common in and near alfalfa fields. the abdomen, which has been firmly attached to the substrate. The bean-shaped body of the pupa is vis- The twice-stabbed lady beetle is slightly smaller than ibly segmented and usually dangles from the attach- 1/4 inch with the familiar hemispherical shape, but ment point. it has black wing-covers, each with a single red spot (hence “twice stabbed”). At about 1/4 inch long, the convergent lady beetle is among the most familiar. The black pronotum has a The ash-gray lady beetle is slightly smaller than narrow white rim with two convergent dashes on it. 1/4 inch with gray to grayish tan wing covers with The wing covers are tomato red with black dots. These black spots. Adults can be common on certain beetles and their alligator-shaped black, blue and dull aphid-infested trees, particularly in the spring. orange larvae can be found on almost any garden and landscape plant, including weeds. The orange-brown, Among the smallest of the common lady beetles are 1/4 inch long pupa can be found attached to foliage Scymnus and Stethorus spp. At barely 1/8 inch long, by the end of the abdomen. these shiny black beetles and their equally tiny larvae feed on smaller fare, including spider mites, whiteflies, The Asian mulicolored lady beetle is about the same and mealybugs. size or slightly larger, but has a pair of white “false eyes”—football-shaped markings just behind the Predatory Bugs (Order Hemiptera). head. As indicated by the common name, these insects vary from mustard to red to black (mustard to red is Assassin Bugs. While nymphs often are overlooked in more common) with zero to 20 spots (16 or more is the summer, assassin bug adults become more promi- more common). These beetles were introduced into nent by early fall. Adults are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long, tan the United States from Asia in the 1970s and 1980s to to brown, with reddish markings. These are slender, control aphids primarily on trees. They have expanded their range rapidly and are becoming increasingly common in the Southwest. Larvae have the typical alligator appearance and are black with an orange streak on both sides of their abdomens. With several generations annually, numbers can increase substantially by late season. Adults will seek overwintering shelter in homes and other structures, becoming nuisances.

Slightly larger and with seven black spots (instead of Convergent lady beetle life stages 12) on a dark red background is the seven-spotted

I.A.46 The Diagnostic Process

Asian multicolored lady beetle Scymnus long-legged insects with the wings folded compactly to large, often multicolored insects with stiletto-like over the body. At rest, the stiletto-like mouthparts abdomens and four wings of nearly equal length and are folded under the head. Nymphs are often brown size. Each wing has numerous cells. The head bears tones, or occasionally, green. They resemble the adults chewing mouthparts, very short bristlelike antennae but are wingless. Both stages feed on caterpillars and and a pair of greatly enlarged compound eyes. Adult other soft-bodied insects. Nymphs and adults can give dragonflies are strong, fast fliers that frequent ponds, painful bites. rivers, irrigation ditches, and similar habitats, snatch- ing small, flying insects out of the air with their spiny Big-Eyed Bugs. Adults are about 1/8 inch long and legs. Some species hunt for minute flying insects have somewhat oval, rather flattened, bodies. Most are farther from water and can be attracted easily to shiny yellow to brown and have bulging compound eyes. surfaces, such as recently washed or waxed cars. While Adults usually are seen running around on foliage. dragonflies cannot fold their wings when they land, Nymphs look like wingless, slightly smaller versions of the smaller damselflies can. These are much weaker adults. Both stages feed on eggs, small caterpillars and fliers, but they often are found in the same habitats as soft-bodied insects; spider mites are a favorite prey. dragonflies. The nymphs or naiads of both dragonflies and damselflies are aquatic in still or gently flowing Flower Bugs Or Minute Pirate Bugs. Adults are water and would be found only in yards with perma- 1/16 inch long, shiny black, elliptical bugs with a white, X-shaped pattern on the back where the wings fold together. Nymphs are golden yellow with red compound eyes. Both stages are voracious feeders on eggs of many moths; they also attack small caterpillars, aphids, and spider mites.

Nabids or Damsel Bugs. Adults are tan to gray, slender, long-legged insects, about 3/8 inch long. They resemble assassin bugs, but nabids have numerous tiny cells on the outer margins of the forewings. Nymphs are slender, tan to gray, wingless bugs, closely resembling the highly active adults. Prey for all stages includes eggs, small caterpillars, leafhoppers, and other soft-bodied insects.

Other Common Predators Assassin bug Dragonflies and Damselflies. Adults are medium

I.A.47 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Big-eyed bug Minute pirate bug Damsel bug nent, naturally landscaped water features. Dragonfly than their bodies. The bulbous compound eyes of nymphs are spiderlike, while those of damselflies different species are metallic gold or metallic copper in are more linear, with external gills on the end of the life. When handled, many species give off a disagree- abdomen. Nymphs are fearless and will attack and able odor. Adult brown lacewings are slightly smaller eat a variety of prey, both small invertebrates and, for than the green lacewings. Brown lacewings tend to be dragonflies, sometimes small vertebrates. a little more compact and all of their colored features are brown, sometimes mottled slightly with gray. Praying Mantids or Mantis. Bodies and wings of Browns tend to frequent shadier habitats, particularly several common species are green, although some are wooded areas, whereas greens are at home in open straw-colored. Species found on the desert or on tree fields, gardens, and a variety of other habitats with trunks may be mottled in gray, brown and black. The limited shading. While both brown and green lace- distinguishing features for these large predators in- wing adults can fly, their flight is fluttery and weak. clude large grasping forelegs armed with spines, which are typically held in an angular “praying” stance as the insects hunt or prepare to capture prey. Adult females may have broad, flattened abdomens, while males retain more cylindrical, slender abdomens. The first segment of the thorax is greatly elongated and slender, permitting considerable mobility of the body, head, and legs. The head is triangular with the chewing Dragonfly mouthparts and two enlarged compound eyes at the angles. Adults of different species range in length from 2 1/2 to nearly 5 inches. After mating, the female lays 75-100 or more eggs in a mass, coating them with a frothy material. This ootheca or egg mass hardens on a branch or fence wire. The eggs overwinter, and young mantids hatch in the spring. Nymphs resemble adults, except they are quite small and lack wings. Small mantids feed on aphids, leafhoppers, and other tiny Damselfy nymph insects, including their siblings, if they tarry. Larger nymphs and adults eat many kinds of larger insects, including small grasshoppers, squash bugs, and others.

Green Lacewings and Brown Lacewings. Although green and brown lacewings belong to two different families in the order, they are superficially similar in appearance. Adult green lacewings are about 5/8 to 3/4 inch long and have two pairs of teardrop-shaped wings, each with pale green netlike venation. Their soft bodies, heads, and appendages are similarly pale Dragonfly nymph green. The filamentous antennae are slightly shorter

I.A.48 The Diagnostic Process

Praying mantis Lacewing larva Green lacewing

The larvae of both green and brown lacewings are Syrphid Flies or Hover Flies. Adults of most com- voracious predators. Both are alligator shaped with mon species are marked like bees but without furry sparse, short hairs on the usually striped bodies. bodies. Most are about 1/4 inch long with brown or Some are grayish, but many are ivory with dark red black heads; bright yellow bands on black abdomens; or brown stripes. Their prominent mandibles are and paired, colorless wings. Look for them around elongated, hollow and sickle-shaped. They grasp flowering plants or near aphid colonies on plants. their aphid prey with these jaw-tongs, puncture Adults fly and hover. While they are not predaceous as their bodies, inject saliva, and suck out the lique- adults, mated females seek out aphid colonies, tossing fied body contents. their eggs singly into the midst of the aphids. The eggs hatch shortly, producing maggots with the typical Green lacewing eggs are minute, white, oval objects conical shape of true flies. The mouth hooks are on laid singly on the ends of 1/2 inch long flexible stalks. the pointed head, the body is wrinkled but legless, Single eggs or groupings of up to several dozen often and, at maturity, is as much as 3/8 inch long with a are placed on the undersides of aphid-infested foliage. greenish, cream or grayish color. When surrounded White, silken cocoons, which are slightly less than by aphids, the syrphid larva creeps within range, grabs 1/4 inch, are formed around developing pupae. Eggs its aphid victim, and raises it into the air. The mouth and pupae of brown lacewings are similar to those of hooks penetrate the prey’s soft body, and the maggot green lacewings but are less commonly seen. sucks out the contents, repeat- Antlions. Adults resemble damselflies. But antlion ing this action numerous times adults have short knobby antennae, while damselflies during the day. Syrphids are have short, bristlelike antennae. Antlion adults have common and important preda- two pairs of wings with numerous gray/black veins tors of aphids in the garden as that are folded into a V-shape close to the abdomen. well as on larger shrubs and The abdomen is slender and cylindrical, the thorax is trees. Green lace- short and somewhat broadened, and the head bears a wing eggs pair of bulging compound eyes. Most of the body is Velvet Ants, Cow-Killer quite soft and gray. Adults are feeble fliers, generally Wasps. Female velvet ants are nocturnal, and often attracted to lights. They are com- wingless, antlike and covered, more or less, in dense monly seen clinging to windows, door screens, and brightly colored hair, often red or orange, but occa- foliage in the spring and summer. sionally white. Most are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long. Males are similar to females, but they are larger and winged. Antlion larvae, or doodlebugs, are plump, bristly Most species have “felt lines” on the second segment larvae that live at the bottom of sand pits they dig in of the abdomen, particularly the less hairy species. protected areas. Their jaws are long and sickle-shaped, Solitary females are seen commonly in open, arid areas when at rest, the jaws are aimed towards the base of throughout the West. They run frantically over the the pit, waiting for hapless prey to fall in. Although ground, searching and probing. Most species whose the larvae are voracious predators of ants and other life histories are known are external parasites of the small, ground-dwelling arthropods, they are rarely ap- larvae and pupae of various wasps and bees. A few at- preciated. They can be collected from the pit bottoms tack certain beetles and flies. Female velvet ants have a by using a small screen or sieve. very painful sting. That’s why they’re called cow killers!

I.A.49 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Doodle bug

Pit Syrphid fly

Parasites of Arthropods host becomes weaker and increasingly susceptible to various microbes. When the host dies and decompos- Some pest arthropods are effectively controlled by es, the nematodes leave the host’s body, completing species with parasitic life styles. While many of us are the rest of their life cycle and reproducing to start the familiar with parasites of people (such as lice) or pets next generation. (fleas and ticks), some arthropods and their kin prac- tice parasitism on host arthropods in more unusual Parasitic Wasps. A variety of species occur in natural ways. Rather than merely feed on the surface of the and manmade settings. Some are available commer- host or rob it of some of its nutrients, some parasitic cially through nurseries or mail order catalogs. Others arthropods and their kin will kill their hosts or steril- occur naturally. Many species can be manipulated ize them. For many, the host/parasite relationship to some extent to bring about more efficient pest tends to be more host-specific than the association control. However, the warnings on host specificity between hosts and predators. Once the parasite com- are pertinent here, also. Not all parasites affect all pletes the parasitic part of its life cycle, it may not feed pest hosts or even all stages of the pest hosts. They again as an adult. Or, if it does, it may be a predator may not be so closely attuned to pest problems to or feed on pollen, nectar, or other fluids. When ready keep specific pest populations at or below acceptable to reproduce, the adult seeks new hosts in/on which to place its eggs or offspring.

Parasitic Nematodes. Nematodes are neither insects nor arthropods. The parasitic species are relatives of the roundworms that attack the digestive systems of dogs, livestock, and wildlife. They also are related to the minute nematodes that attack the roots of garden plants. These eel-shaped organisms are microscopic in size and mostly transparent. Identification is best left to specialists. Certain species are available commercially in nurseries or mail order companies, while others occur naturally in some areas. Velvet ant The immature stages of several genera of nematodes are parasitic on various arthropod hosts in soil-related settings. When they encounter a potential host insect, the parasitic nematodes enter its body through natural openings (including the mouth, anus, and openings to the respiratory system), feeding on nutrients in the host’s blood. As the nematodes molt and grow, the

I.A.50 The Diagnostic Process levels or reduce damage caused by certain pests. Also, and very few species have even proposed common no effective species of natural enemies may exist for names. Other wasps in this group include encyrtids, certain pests causing the most damage to a garden or eupelmids, eucharitids, eulophids, and mymarids landscape. While some of the following species are (fairyflies). relatively common, the average gardener may not have noticed them since many are small and not especially Braconid Wasps. The largest of these wasps is barely showy. 1/4 inch long. Many species are black or mostly black with two pairs of colorless wings and long, hairlike Chalcidoid Wasps. These include more than 2,200 antennae. Abdomens of females are typically tapered species have been described in North America. Nearly to a point; ovipositors are either not visible or barely all species of this group are small to very small (1/8 inch visible when the insects are at rest. The bodies of these or less) and some are minute (less than 1/50 inch long). wasps are often slender with the length of the abdo- All of these are completely harmless to humans, pets, men approximating the combined length of the head livestock, and any other organisms that are not their and thorax. If males are available, females may mate. hosts. Chalcidoids can be found almost everywhere Fertilized eggs produce female wasps, while unfertil- there is mixed vegetation. But because of their small ized eggs produce males. Some species are known size, they are easily overlooked. Adults occur in a from female-only populations. Adult females hunting variety of situations, generally on flowers and foliage. for hosts will fly from plant to plant, landing, prob- Many of these have black, dark blue, green or purple ing, and sensing their environment through their bodies with metallic highlights. While some species are ever-active antennae. Depending upon the species, wingless, others have two pairs of colorless wings. Chal- potential hosts include aphids, various caterpillars, cidoid wings typically have one visible vein ending in a cutworms, and a wide variety of harmful insects, par- dot on the leading edge of each forewing. Most species ticularly those with exposed life stages. Some braco- of chalcidoids are parasites on other insects, attacking nids parasitize beneficial insects as well. Ovipositing chiefly the egg or immature stage of the host. Most females “sting” the host with the ovipositor, insert- hosts are butterflies ormoths, some true flies,beetles, ing one or more eggs into it. The wasp larvae hatch, or members of the Order Homoptera (scales, leafhop- feeding inside the host until they mature and the host pers, whiteflies,mealybugs and their relatives). Since starts to die. Aphid parasites may turn their hosts these orders contain most of the crop pests, it can be a different color from unparasitized aphids. Aphid parasites pupate inside the host, one parasite per host, emerging from the insect’s abdomen as young adults. Gardeners see this evidence of parasitism as “aphid mummies.” Species that attack caterpillars or some sawflies often have more than one parasite larva per host, either because several eggs were inserted into the host or the parasite embryo fragments. Parasitized Nematode caterpillars may lag in development. When the parasites are mature, they usually emerge from the host en masse, spinning short white cocoons on the surface of said that the chalcids are a very beneficial group in that the dead or dying host. Some braconids deposit their they aid in keeping pests in check. Many species have been imported into the United States from other parts of the world to aid in controlling various agricultural pests, many of which were introduced earlier from other parts of the world.

Trichogramma Wasps. Most of these egg parasites are almost microscopic even as adults. Eggs of cabbage loopers, corn earworms and many other moths and butterflies are their hosts. One larva develops per host egg. Chalcidoid wasp Many other parasitic wasps are placed in this large group, but their names are foreign to most gardeners

I.A.51 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

larvae or eggs on the surfaces of their hosts, particu- the tree. Her larva develops as an external parasite of larly when these hosts live in protected environments the beetle larva. (in leaf mines). Scoliid and Tiphiid Wasps. Scoliids are relatively Ichneumonid Wasps or Ichneumon Wasps. Most large (almost 3/4 inch long), hairy wasps with black members of this family are at least 1/2 inch long, and bodies banded in yellow. Adults are seen commonly many are considerably longer. As with braconids, on flowers or flying in zigzag patterns just a few inches their bodies are extremely slender. Their abdomens above turfgrass. Larvae are external parasites of scarab often are longer than their combined head and thorax beetles larvae (white grubs). Upon finding a potential regions. Females of many species have needlelike ovi- host, the female wasp burrows into the ground, sting- positors that protrude to some degree from the ends ing and paralyzing it. She continues deeper into the of the abdomens. Favored hosts for many ichneu- soil, constructing a cell around the grub and oviposit- monids include caterpillars and the larvae of larger ing on it. Many grubs may be stung without the wasp boring insects (flat-headed or round-headed borers, ovipositing; such grubs usually do not recover. horntail larvae), including wood-boring species. The largest and most conspicuous of the ichneumon wasps Tiphiid wasps are about 1/2 inch long, dark red- belong to the genus Megarhyssa. The slender bod- dish brown to nearly black, slightly hairy, and with ies of females can be more than 2 inches long, but relatively short legs compared to other wasps. Many the three long threadlike parts of the ovipositor can common species have a constriction in the first few add 2-3 inches to overall body length. These ichneu- segments of the abdomen. They also parasitize white mons specialize in parasitizing larvae of wood-boring grubs in turfgrass and have similar habits to scoliids. beetles. After tapping her antennae on infested tree bark and finding a beetle larva fairly near the surface, Tachinid Flies. Although this family contains more the ovipositing female will curl her ovipositor fila- than 1,300 species in North America and its members ments up and over her arched abdomen, insert them can be found almost everywhere, few gardeners may into the bark, and slowly drill her way through bark be aware of their importance as biological controls for and wood to the cell where the larva is located. After certain other arthropods. While tachinids look like laying an egg on the beetle larva, the female may or other common flies, all have bristly bodies and some may not be successful at pulling her ovipositor out of can be quite robust. Most tachinids attack the lar-

Braconid wasp

Parasitism Parasitic larvae emerge from this caterpillar to pupate

I.A.52 The Diagnostic Process

Scoliid wasp Tiphiid wasp Tachinid fly

vae of butterflies and moths, sawflies, or beetles, but decreased markedly since then, a phenomenon noted others are known to attack true bugs, grasshoppers, also by gardeners nationwide. katydids, and members of some other orders. Some even attack arthropods other than insects. A number of tachinids have been imported into this country to Honeybees, both European and Africanized, have help control introduced pests. Most tachinid adults been discussed previously under the pest section, since deposit one or more eggs directly onto the body of both represent public health and safety concerns under their hosts. Upon hatching, the tachinid larva (a mag- certain circumstances. Honeybees maintained by got) burrows into its host and feeds internally. When beekeepers in regularly managed hives should be valued fully developed, the tachinid emerges from its host and respected by the general public for their commu- and pupates nearby. The host dies shortly thereafter. nitywide pollination services. Honeybees in hives are Other tachinids lay their eggs on foliage. Here, tachi- private property. Their owners consider them valuable nid survival depends on the success of the hatchling livestock. To avoid stinging incidents, never enter a larva in finding, attaching, and penetrating a suitable bee yard (apiary) or permit anyone to molest any bee arthropod host. Still other species hatch only when hives or individual honey bees. Follow the precautions the eggs are ingested (along with the foliage) by a given earlier for bees on private property. Bee-proof caterpillar. your residence and the rest of your property.

Pollinators Bumble Bees. Substantially larger than honeybees, bumble bees are more brightly banded in black and yellow (sometimes with a little red) and obviously This group includes pollen-collecting insects that fuzzier. Mated females overwinter in protected areas. also increase fertilization rate for various flowers. As soon as flowers are available the next spring, they People have learned to manipulate some pollinators establish their nests as clusters of wax pots. Larvae for increased seed, fruit, and vegetable production on are tended and reared in some pots, while limited a variety of crops. Only honey bees produce honey amounts of nectar are stored in others. Colonies are and beeswax for food and cosmetics and medicinal or semisocial in structure and almost never reach the size industrial uses. of even small honeybee colonies. The annual nests often are located in firewood or lumber piles or in burrows of small animals like mice. While long known to Honeybees. These are well-known widely distributed be more efficient pollinators of clover than honeybees, pollinators of numerous plant species. Since the late some species of bumble bees have been reared com- 1980s, beekeepers have been plagued by several seri- mercially for use in greenhouses in recent years. These ous problems including parasitic mites, the arrival bees may also sting if provoked. of Africanized honeybees, competition from cheaper imported honey, and decreased profits from honey production and pollination contracts. The numbers of European colonies, both kept and feral, have

I.A.53 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Bee Bee larva Leafcutter bee

Leafcutter Bees. Also described in the pest section above. These are well-represented in the state with more than 70 species of these tube-nesting bees. None are raised commercially here. But in the Pacific Northwest and southern Canada, Megachile rotundata have been reared commercially for nearly 40 years in bee boards drilled into post lumber or made from cut soda straws. They are highly efficient pollinators of a variety of crops raised for seed and will greatly increase yields if handled appropriately. Unfortunate- ly, the pressures of domestication and handling have made these insects increasingly susceptible to their parasites and diseases, and the industry is not as viable as it once was.

Blue Orchard Bees, Horned Bees. These are native to New Mexico. As semisocial insects and tube nest- ers, they will colonize hanging, manmade nests in the spring near orchards in our higher elevations. These insects are being investigated as possible pri- mary pollinators for apples and other fruit crops, particularly in areas where honeybees are not available to fruit producers. Adults are dark metallic blue with short, black hairs over most surfaces of the body. Most are less than 1/2 inch long. Adults are active only at that time of year when the fruit crops are in bloom. The rest of the year is spent as developing larvae or pupae in the nest. One generation is produced annually. They also are available commercially in some nursery catalogs.

I.A.54 The Diagnostic Process

Notes

I.A.55 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Notes

I.A.56 The Diagnostic Process

Billbugs III.E.26 Black vine weevils III.E.25 A black walnut III.E.27 Black Witch Moths III.E.35 acacia III.E.32 Blister Beetles III.E.24 Acrobasis nuxvorella III.E.32 blister mites III.E.6 adult insect III.E.1 Blue Orchard Bees III.E.54 Afghan pines III.E.31 blue stain fungi III.E.27 Africanized III.E.41 Bostrichid III.E.25 Africanized honeybees III.E.54 Box Elder Bugs III.E.17 agave III.E.26 Braconid Wasps III.E.52 alfalfa III.E.25 braconids III.E.33 almond III.E.32 Branch Borers III.E.25 almonds III.E.32 Brown Lacewings III.E.49 Ambrosia Beetles III.E.27 buck moths III.E.34 American III.E.27 bugs III.E.16, III.E.53 Amyelois transitella III.E.32 Bulb mites III.E.6 Anisota III.E.34 Bumble Bees III.E.54 Anthonomus eugenii III.E.26 Butterflies III.E.28 Antlions III.E.49 butterflies III.E.3, III.E.51, III.E.53 Ants III.E.39 Apantesis III.E.34 C Aphids III.E.12 cabbage looper III.E.36 aphids III.E.3, III.E.49 cabbage loopers III.E.52 Apis mellifera III.E.41 cactus III.E.21 apple III.E.21 Calligrapha III.E.23 apple maggot III.E.18 carpenter ants III.E.39 apple sucker III.E.12 carpenterworm III.E.29 apples III.E.30, III.E.32 Carpenterworms III.E.28 Arizona cypress III.E.27 caterpillars III.E.3 army cutworms III.E.37 Centipedes III.E.44 Armyworms III.E.35 centipedes III.E.1 armyworms III.E.37 Centruroides exilicauda III.E.45 ash III.E.27 Chalcidoid Wasps III.E.51 ash bark beetles III.E.27 Chewing Mouth Parts III.E.3 Ash Clearwing Moths III.E.30 chewing mouthparts III.E.5, III.E.6, III.E.7 Asian mulicolored lady beetle III.E.47 Chewing-Lapping Mouthparts III.E.4 aspen III.E.28 Child of the Earth III.E.8 Assassin Bugs III.E.47 chile III.E.11 Ataenius III.E.19 Chinese III.E.27 Automeris III.E.34 chlorosis III.E.12 Cicadas III.E.10 B Click Beetles III.E.22 Bagworms III.E.29 Clover mites III.E.6 Bark Beetles III.E.27 Cochineal Insects III.E.14 bees III.E.50 codling moth III.E.30 beet armyworm III.E.36 Codling Moths III.E.30 Beet armyworms III.E.37 Coleoptera III.E.19, III.E.45 beet leafhoppers III.E.11 Collembola III.E.7 beetles III.E.3, III.E.50, III.E.51, III.E.53 Collops III.E.45 Bermudagrass III.E.15 Colorado potato III.E.23 Bibionids III.E.17 convergent lady beetle III.E.46 Big-Eyed Bugs III.E.48 Cooley spruce gall aphid III.E.13

I.A.57 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Corn earworm III.E.38 eupelmids III.E.52 Corn Earworms III.E.35 European elm scale III.E.16 corn earworms III.E.52 European Honeybees III.E.41 Cossids III.E.28 Cotton Bollworms III.E.35 F cottonwood III.E.13, III.E.28 fall armyworm III.E.36 cottonwood leaf beetles III.E.23 Fall Armyworms III.E.35 Cottony cushion scale III.E.15 Fall Webworms III.E.34 Cow-Killer Wasps III.E.50 False Chinch Bugs III.E.16 Crickets III.E.7 False Powderpost Beetles III.E.25 Curculio caryae III.E.26 figs III.E.32 Curculionids III.E.25 Flat-Head Borers III.E.20 curly top virus III.E.11 Flea beetles III.E.23 Cutworms III.E.37 flies III.E.50, III.E.51 Cynipid Wasps III.E.39 Flower Bugs III.E.48 Cystiodemus III.E.24 forester moth III.E.36 Fruit Flies III.E.18 D Fruittree Leafrollers III.E.30 Dampwood termites III.E.10 Fulgorids III.E.12 Damsel Bugs III.E.48 fungi III.E.27 Damselflies III.E.48 Fungus Gnats III.E.17 Darkling Beetles III.E.22 Dermaptera III.E.9 G Derobrachus III.E.21 Giant Silkworm Moths III.E.33 Dichondra III.E.23 grape III.E.29, III.E.32, III.E.36 Dioryctria III.E.31 Grape berry moth III.E.31 Diptera III.E.17 Grape Berry Moths III.E.30 doodlebugs III.E.50 Grape Leaf Skeletonizers III.E.29 Douglas fir III.E.13 grapes III.E.11 Dragonflies III.E.48 Grass Moths III.E.31 Dry wood termites III.E.10 Grasshoppers III.E.7 Dutch elm disease III.E.27 grasshoppers III.E.3, III.E.53 dye III.E.14 Green June III.E.20 Green Lacewings III.E.49 E Ground Beetles III.E.45 Earwigs III.E.9 earwigs III.E.3 H eggplants III.E.12 hackberry III.E.12, III.E.28 El Niño de La Tierra III.E.8 Halticotoma valida III.E.16 Elaterids III.E.22 Harvester ants III.E.40 Eleodes III.E.22 harvester ants III.E.39 elm III.E.21, III.E.28 Hawk Moths III.E.32 Elm bark beetles III.E.27 Helicoverpa zea III.E.38 Elm leaf III.E.23 Hemileuca III.E.34 encyrtids III.E.52 Hemiptera III.E.16, III.E.47 English walnut III.E.32 Hickory Shuckworm III.E.30 Engraver Beetles III.E.27 Hickory shuckworms III.E.31 Epicauta III.E.24 Homoptera III.E.10, III.E.51 Erebus odorata III.E.35 Honeybees III.E.4, III.E.54 Estigmene acrea III.E.34 Honeydew III.E.14 eucharitids III.E.52 honeydew III.E.15 eulophids III.E.52 honeysuckle III.E.12 euonymous III.E.15 Horned Bees III.E.54

I.A.58 The Diagnostic Process

Hornworms III.E.33 Mealy Bugs III.E.14 Hover Flies III.E.50 mealybugs III.E.51 Hylesinus III.E.27 Megachile rotundata III.E.54 Hymenoptera III.E.38 Megarhyssa III.E.53 Hyphantria cunea III.E.34 Megetra III.E.24 mesquite III.E.12, III.E.21 I Mesquite Defoliators III.E.35 Ichneumon Wasps III.E.53 Metallic Wood-Boring Beetles III.E.20 Ichneumonid Wasps III.E.53 Metamorphosis III.E.2 insects III.E.1 Mexican Bean Beetles III.E.24 Io moths III.E.34 Mexican elder III.E.23 Isoptera III.E.9 Midges III.E.17 Millipedes III.E.6 J millipedes III.E.1 Minute Pirate Bugs III.E.48 Japanese beetles III.E.19, III.E.20 Mites III.E.6 Jerusalem Cricket III.E.8 mites III.E.1 Johnson grass III.E.13 mollusks III.E.5 June Beetles III.E.19 molting III.E.2 junipers III.E.11 Moneilema III.E.21 Mormon Crickets III.E.8 K Moths III.E.28 Katydids III.E.7, III.E.8 moths III.E.3, III.E.51, III.E.53 katydids III.E.53 Mourning Cloak Butterfly III.E.28 Kermid scales III.E.16 Mouthpart III.E.2 mulberry III.E.21, III.E.28 L mymarids III.E.52 Labium III.E.3 N Labrum III.E.3 Lady beetle III.E.46 Nabids III.E.48 Lady Bugs III.E.46 Nantucket pine tip moth III.E.31 Larvae III.E.2 necrosis III.E.12 Leaf Beetles III.E.23 nematodes III.E.51 Leaf Blotch Miners III.E.29 Neoclytus III.E.21 Leafcutter Bees III.E.40, III.E.54 nipple galls III.E.12 Leafhoppers III.E.11 Noctuids III.E.35 leafhoppers III.E.49, III.E.51 nymphs III.E.2 Leafminer III.E.19 Lepidoptera III.E.28 O lettuce III.E.13 oak III.E.16, III.E.39 Lilac Clearwing Moths III.E.30 Oak Gall Wasps III.E.39 lilacs III.E.40 ocotillo III.E.14 locust III.E.32 Oncideres III.E.21 Long-Horned Beetles III.E.21 Opuntia III.E.14 loopers III.E.35, III.E.36 oranges III.E.32 Lygus III.E.16 order III.E.4 Orthoptera III.E.7 M Otiorhynchus III.E.25 Mandible III.E.3 Mantis III.E.49 P March Flies III.E.17 Pachypsylla III.E.12 Maxilla III.E.3 Parasitic Nematodes III.E.51 May Beetles III.E.19 Parasitic Wasps III.E.51

I.A.59 New Mexico State University Gardening Advisor

Paratrioza cockerelli III.E.12 Rumina decollata III.E.43 peach III.E.30 Peachtree Borers III.E.30 S pear psylla III.E.12 salt cedar III.E.25 pears III.E.30, III.E.32 Saltmarsh caterpillars III.E.34 pecan III.E.31, III.E.32 saturniids III.E.33 Pecan Nut Casebearer III.E.31 Sawflies III.E.38 Pecan nut casebearer III.E.32 sawflies III.E.53 Pecan weevil III.E.26 Scale Insects III.E.14 Pepper weevil III.E.26 Scales III.E.14 peppers III.E.12 scales III.E.51 Phyllodecta III.E.23 Scarab Beetles III.E.19 Phytoseiid mite III.E.44 scarabs III.E.19 Piercing-Sucking Mouthparts III.E.3 Scoliid III.E.53 piercing-sucking mouthparts III.E.11 Scolytids III.E.27 Pillbugs III.E.5 Scorpions III.E.44 pillbugs III.E.1 scorpions III.E.1 Pine bark aphids III.E.13 Scyphophorus III.E.26 Pine tip moth III.E.31 Siberian elms III.E.27 pines III.E.27 silverfish III.E.2 Pinyon needle scale III.E.15 Siphoning Mouthparts III.E.3 Pinyons III.E.31 Slugs III.E.5 pistachio nuts III.E.32 Snails III.E.5 pittosporum III.E.15 Snout Beetles III.E.25 Plant Bugs III.E.16 sod webworms III.E.31 Plant Hoppers III.E.12 Soft scales III.E.15 Pogonomyrmex III.E.40 Solpugids III.E.44 pomegranates III.E.32 sooty mold III.E.14 Ponderosa pines III.E.31 sotol III.E.14 Popilia japonica III.E.20 Southwestern pine tip moths III.E.31 Poplar gall aphids III.E.13 Sowbugs III.E.5 poplars III.E.28 sowbugs III.E.1 potatoes III.E.12 Sphenophorus III.E.26 Praying Mantids III.E.49 sphinx moth III.E.32 Predatory Mites III.E.43 Spider mites III.E.6 Predatory Snails III.E.43 Spiders III.E.43 Prionus III.E.21 spiders III.E.1 proboscis III.E.3 Spiny Elm Caterpillar III.E.28 Pseudoscorpions III.E.45 Spittle Bugs III.E.11 pseudoscorpions III.E.1 Spodoptera III.E.36 Psyllids III.E.12 Springtails III.E.2, III.E.7 Pyralid moth III.E.31 spruce III.E.13 Spruce Budworms III.E.30 R squash bugs III.E.3 Rasping-Sucking Mouthparts III.E.3 Stink Bugs III.E.17 red imported fire ant III.E.40 stink bugs III.E.3 Red-Shouldered Bugs III.E.17 strawberry root weevils III.E.25 root zones III.E.20 stunting III.E.12 rosemary III.E.11 Subterranean termites III.E.9 roses III.E.40 Sun Spiders III.E.44 Round-Headed Wood Borers III.E.21 Syrphid Flies III.E.50 Royal Moths III.E.33 royal moths III.E.34

I.A.60 The Diagnostic Process

T Y Tachinid Flies III.E.53 yucca III.E.16, III.E.26 Tenebrionids III.E.22 yucca weevil III.E.26 Termites III.E.9 termites III.E.3 Thrips III.E.10 thrips III.E.3 Thysanoptera III.E.10 ticks III.E.1 Tiger Moths III.E.34 Tiphiid Wasps III.E.53 Tiphiid wasps III.E.53 Tomato Fruit Worms III.E.35 Tomato Hornworm III.E.32 tomato hornworm III.E.33 tomatoes III.E.11, III.E.12 Tortricidae III.E.30 Trichogramma Wasps III.E.52 Trichoplusia ni III.E.36 Twig beetles III.E.27 Twig Borers III.E.25

U Uropygids III.E.45

V Velvet Ants III.E.50 Vinegarone III.E.45 Vinegarones III.E.45 Virginia creeper III.E.36 virus III.E.12 viruses III.E.11

W Walnut Husk Fly III.E.18 walnuts III.E.32 wasps III.E.39, III.E.50 Weevils III.E.25 Western Cherry Fruit Fly III.E.18 Whip Scorpions III.E.45 White Grubs III.E.19 white grubs III.E.53 white-lined sphinx moths III.E.33 Whiteflies III.E.13 whiteflies III.E.3, III.E.51 willow III.E.28 Willow leaf beetles III.E.23 Wireworms III.E.22 Woolly apple aphids III.E.13 Woolly Bears III.E.34 Woolly Worms III.E.34

I.A.61