Coca Biological Control Issues 6
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Coca Biological Control Issues 6 Biocontrol is something akin to gambling- it works, sometimes (13). radication l has been a component of U.S. supply reduction efforts for illegal narcotic crops (e.g., opium poppies, marijuana, and coca) for nearly two decades. Some experts believe that eradication must precede Ealternative development in the Andean nations. Others view coca eradication as futile and a threat to the culture and traditions of native Andean populations. Although key requirements, host country consent and cooperation are unlikely to be easily obtained (27,28). INTRODUCTION The level of coca reduction necessary to have a clear and measurable impact on cocaine availability is an unknown. Further, new processing technologies have changed the relation- ship between coca leaf production levels and cocaine availabil- c ity. For example, an intermediate product of cocaine processing, @l “agua rica, ’ appears to have excellent storage properties allowing processors to stockpile supplies. Thus, even with a reduction in cultivated area, a reduction in cocaine availability may not occur for years, if at all. Further, current cocaine (/) extraction techniques are only about 50-percent efficient; im- proved extraction could yield the same amount of cocaine from a much reduced leaf production base (28). 1 For tic ~Wo~e~ of ~js djsc~ssion, e~~icafion wi]l refer tO comp]e[c erasure Of d] traces of coca within a defined area. The area could be defined as small as a single plot or as kuge as a country. 183 331-054 - 93 - 8 184 I Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region Eradication efforts have included voluntary and involuntary removal of the target crop. Although coca eradication programs have relied solely on manual techniques, possible application of chemical methods have attracted attention. Renewed interest in application of biological control methodology to coca reduction also is evident. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has responsibility for research and development of coca control methods, including research on chemical control methods and classified research on biological control. MANUAL COCA CONTROL Uprooting coca shrubs is one method of manual Manual eradication of coca can be dangerous eradication, but it can be a difficult and slow process, and inefficient. The Special Project for Control Here, workers are uprooting coca in an eradication and Eradication of Coca in the Alto Huallaga, program in Bolivia. Projecto de Control y Reducción de los Cultivos has been bolstered by public concern over the de Coca en el Alto Huallaga (CORAH), in the release of chemicals in the environment. Herbi- mid- 1980s attempted manual coca eradication in cide formulation, chemical properties, and appli- Peru. CORAH workers destroyed 5,000 hectares cation methods most affect their environmental of coca in 1985 with ‘‘weed whackers’ and machetes (15). Although the manual eradication fate and thus the potential for creating environ- program had some success, the problems were mental or human health hazards. extensive. Between 1986 and 1988, 34 CORAH workers were killed by insurgent groups (31). I Formulation CORAH’S association with the Mobil Patrol Unit Herbicides are formulated as liquids (aqueous, of Peru’s Civil Guard, Unidad Móvil de Patrul- oil, emulsifiable concentrates), solids (dust, wet- laje de la Guardia Civil del Peru (UMOPAR), an table powders, granules, encapsulated products), organization accused of using repressive and and gases (fumigants). The type of formulation abusive tactics on local growers, led to great depends on the chemical nature of the pesticide, public resistance to eradication. Manual methods target pest, and other pesticidal properties (29). also can be ineffective. For example, some fields Granular and pelletized herbicide formulations eradicated manually by coppicing coca shrubs are preferred because the drift and volatilization showed invigorated growth later (10). concerns are reduced relative to sprays. However, the density of granular products can affect per- CHEMICAL COCA CONTROL formance and deposition. Because moisture is Chemical coca eradication thus became of needed to release the active ingredient, release greater interest as it was expected to reduce risk, rates can be highly variable depending on precip- achieve more uniform results, and increase the itation patterns. Controlled-release formulations potential treatment area. Nonetheless, proposals (e.g., starch-encapsulated herbicides, ethylene met with some resistance. Largely driven by vinyl acetate copolymers incorporated with active political, social, and economic realities in coca- ingredients) could contribute to regulated release producing countries (see chapter 2), resistance (29), particularly under high moisture conditions 6—Coca Biological Control Issues I 185 common in many coca-producing areas. Several have restrictive labeling limiting aerial applica- herbicides have been identified as prospective tion to helicopters (table 6-l). eradication agents for coca. Public information Disadvantages of using helicopters include the about the toxicity and environmental fate of these complexity and expense of maintenance, low herbicides has been derived mainly from tests fuel/distance efficiency, and susceptibility to conducted in the United States, although the U.S. hostile ground fire. Thus, helicopter application is Department of State conducted field tests in Peru unlikely to fulfill the needs of a broad-range in the late 1980s (l). chemical eradication effort (l). Fixed-wing air- craft are cheaper to maintain than helicopters, can B Application cover large application areas, and have good fuel-to-distance efficiency. The faster application Technologically, herbicide application is chal- speed of a fixed-wing aircraft also may reduce the lenging. Irrespective of formulation, ground- security risks associated with involuntary eradi- based and aerial methods are the basic mecha- cation programs. However, for accurate applica- nisms for delivering an herbicide to its intended tion, the optimum altitude is 5 to 20 feet above the target. Ground-based application offers precision; target. Higher altitudes result in a wider dispersal however, the inaccessibility of most coca plots, steep terrain, and bulky, heavy equipment can swath and increased likelihood of herbicide loss make this type of application inefficient. Security due to wind drift, propeller and wing-tip vortices, for applicators further constrains potential for and volatilization. Low-altitude application, how- ground-based application. ever, requires clear, unobstructed approaches Aerial application of herbicides may use rotary- with ample space to allow a safe climb at the end or fixed-wing aircraft. Helicopters can treat small of the run (l), conditions largely lacking in many areas surrounded by obstructions, like many coca coca production zones. plots, and also lower special equipment to avoid Liquid herbicide application also depends on major off-site dispersal problems for liquid for- mixing and loading sites within a reasonable mulations (l). Several herbicides screened for distance of the treatment area. Sites require a coca eradication (e.g., Imazapyr and Triclopyr) water source, containment equipment, equipment 186 I Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region for cleaning and decontaminating aircraft, mixing environmental effect, actions taken by the Presi- and pumping gear, and protective clothing for dent of the United States, and actions taken at the pilots and ground support personnel. While secu- direction of the President or Cabinet in matters of rity concerns would be significant for such national interest. Procedures may also be modi- operations near coca production zones, long fied to account for unique foreign policy needs, ferrying times between loading sites and target confidentiality, and national security. zones reduce application efficiency. Although similar to an EIS, a CER is less rigorous and provides little guidance as to the M Herbicide Testing content of the documents or the procedures by which those documents should be drafted. For Testing is a critical step in herbicide evalua- example, Order 12114 states without elaboration tion. Thorough testing investigates herbicide that a CER may be composed of environmental efficacy, environmental fate (e.g., mobility and assessments, summary environmental analyses, persistence), effects on non-target species, and or other appropriate documents (9). The De- potential for adverse human health effects. Al- partment of State guidelines for implementing though a number of candidate herbicides have Order 12114 require the responsible officer of a been tested, the most extensive testing has been proposed program to determine whether the performed on tebuthiuron (table 6-2). In addition action is likely to have a significant extraterrito- to tests in the United States, field tests of rial environmental impact. If so, the officer may tebuthiuron were conducted in Peru in 1987. prepare either an EIS, CER, or cooperative study Executive Order 12114 requires an analysis of to evaluate the effects subject to the requirements potential environmental impacts for certain extra- of Order 12114. Of these choices, only the EIS territorial activities that: has specific requirements for document contents ● May significantly affect the environment of and public and Federal agency involvement (33). the global commons outside the jurisdiction Prior to testing tebuthiuron in Peru, the Depart-