FIREGROUND SUPERVISION FOR SECTOR COMMANDERS AND CREW LEADERS
COURSE MANUAL FOR FIREGROUND SUPERVISION (FORESTRY TASMANIA COMPETANCY NUMBER FT074R)
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 1 Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INCIDENT ADMINISTRATION ...... 4 Introduction...... 4 Multi – Agency Coordination ...... 5 The Incident Control System...... 5 Inter-Agency Fire Management Protocol...... 8 ICS forms and reports ...... 13 The Incident Action Plan (IAP) ...... 13 Resources Management ...... 17 STRATEGIES AND TACTICS...... 21 Introduction...... 21 Sizing up the task...... 21 Hazards and risk management ...... 22 Effective use of resources...... 23 Fireline construction with machinery ...... 24 Fireline construction with handcrews...... 26 Pumps and hose lines ...... 29 AIRCRAFT IN FIREFIGHTING...... 32 Introduction...... 32 Operational constraints ...... 32 Safety...... 33 General Instruction in relation to use of aircraft in support of incident management...... 35 AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS...... 36
CONDUCTING BRIEFINGS AND DE-BRIEFINGS ...... 37 Introduction...... 37 The Communication Model...... 37 Format ...... 38 Organisation...... 38 Conducting the briefing...... 39 Debriefing...... 39
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 3 Incident Administration
Introduction Bushfire tragedies in Australia, the United States, South America and indeed just about everywhere in the world where firefighting is done, remind us all of the need to ensure that our bushfire management systems have the capacity to support competent, well-resourced field operations. Dysfunctional management appears as a common thread running through previous events, which resulted in injuries and loss of lives.
The Tasmanian fire and land management agencies were aware of serious shortcomings in large fire management, involving more than a single agency, during the 1999-2000 fire season. A particular incident was the Glen Huon Fire in February 2000, which involved most of the potential responders in the State. That particular incident demonstrated most of the elements of dysfunctional management systems with divided command, multi-frequency communications, nomadic resources and uncoordinated strategies. Luck played a major role in the accident-free outcome.
Following that fire, senior managers in the Tasmania Fire Service, Forestry Tasmania and the Parks and Wildlife Service resolved to implement a strategy designed to reinforce ICS principles and ensure that a unified command structure would be in place for all future events. It was apparent that there was inadequate understanding of the principles of the Incident Control System, resulting in a failure to properly implement and integrate the functional streams of Control, Operations, Planning and Logistics. A significant issue identified was the tendency for “Operations” to absorb the other management functions and concentrate on a reactive response to the fire.
This clearly is the preferred mode of operation for many field commanders, uncomfortable with delegation or the idea of any form of management, other than “leading from the front”. This is understandable, given that it was how all fires were managed, historically and most of the senior and experienced “fire bosses” arrived at their current positions by this apprenticeship, following the example of others.
Notwithstanding the surge of ICS training which occurred during the early ‘90s (and in retrospect, the 5-day course and 30 hour exercise tended to reinforce operational imperatives) the newly-badged “Incident Controllers”, with few exceptions, adapted ICS to “business as usual”. The task of changing this was identified as principally one of changing a culture by re-focussing Incident Management Teams to the primary task of management and all of its supporting functions. A renewed emphasis on a team-based approach was an important component.
In August 2000 Tasmania, along with the other States and New Zealand had a unique opportunity to participate in the United States’ firefighting efforts. The Tasmanian contingent was a combined team from the fire and land-managing agencies. This team identification was an important development and a major step in the integration of local operating environments. The US experience demonstrated the value of centralised coordination through multi-agency groups and “Area Command” structures. Consequently, a Tasmanian Multi-Agency Coordinating group was formed (MAC). This received the approval of the Heads of Agency.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 4 Multi – Agency Coordination The Multi-Agency Coordinating Group monitors the state wide fire situation on a daily basis during the fire season. For going fires, there is regular consultation with the local managers to determine an incident’s status. Bushfires are classified Type 1 to Type 3. A Type 1 is typically confined to one tenure, localised and capable of being handled with district resources. A Type 2 is a larger incident requiring several days and multiple work periods to manage. It may involve additional intra-agency resources but will always be confined to a single tenure. A Type 3 is a large and complex incident, which involves multiple tenures. At the request of a district or agency, the MAC will appoint Incident Management Teams to manage Type 3 bushfires and thereafter assume a coordinating role with respect to IMTs and specialised resources. It is the MAC’s role to ensure that there is a unified command structure in place and that it is operating effectively. It facilitates the deployment of inter-agency resources and sets priorities for resources where a number of incidents occur simultaneously. The MAC ensures that all stakeholders receive regular reports on progress. When the fire is contained, the MAC collates and files the IMT performance reviews and conducts post operational analyses of incidents. Other functions include IMT development through training and workshops and the development and promulgation of multi-agency Standard Operating Procedures and Performance Standards.
The Incident Control System The Incident Control System is a method for managing emergency situations using a systematic approach which copes with all the activities which may occur. The word “incident” is used deliberately because the I.C.S. can be put into a range of emergency situations. Examples where the I.C.S. has been used successfully include bushfires, earthquakes, floods and oil spills. The type and scale of the incident does not affect the application of the principles of management which are the basis of the system.
The I.C.S. has been modified to suit Australian needs from an original idea developed in America. Since the late 1980’s, throughout Australia, the majority of emergency services and fire-fighting agencies have adopted the I.C.S. as their standard procedure for incident management.
The I.C.S. provides a consistent response to incidents, using procedures and terminology that are familiar to all the users. It allows agencies to integrate their resources within a unified command structure. In Tasmania, the Fire Service, Forestry Tasmania and the Parks and Wildlife Service have all agreed to use I.C.S. at jointly managed bushfires.
The I.C.S. considers the whole incident, including its predicted development, not just the part which is causing immediate concern. Planning for action takes account of probable future developments, an objective is set within a shift plan and all actions work towards achieving the desired result . This forward-looking approach gives the managers an advantage in having resources organised and in place when they are needed and incident management becomes pro-active rather than re-active.
The I.C.S. indicates when tasks need to be shared to ensure that no-one is overloaded with work and responsibilities. One or two people, trying to do everything, is often the cause of many problems in large fires. The first thing to suffer is communication.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 5 Under the I.C.S. no-one should need to supervise or communicate with any more than four to seven individuals or pieces of equipment. This is the limit one person can effectively control in a critical situation. Under the I.C.S., management of an incident divides into four separate functions
Control: this function has overall responsibility for the management of the incident which includes ensuring the safety and welfare of all the people involved and maintaining regular contact with the MAC and involved agencies. The Incident Controller (IC) approves the Incident Action Plan (IAP) which details all shift operations.
Planning: this function gathers and analyses all the information about the incident. It predicts future developments and drafts the IAP with input from all the other functions. It is also responsible for keeping track of all the resources being used.
Operations: this function deals directly with the incident. It assess the results of the IAP and contributes feedback to the development of the next shift plan.
Logistics: this function supplies all the resources needed to deal with the incident. It maintains all the facilities and services which support the whole operation.
Each function may have specialist sub-units established within it, depending on the size and difficulty of the incident. Within each function, the responsibilities are clearly defined and roles are not interchangeable to both preserve accountability and ensure that no responsibility is overlooked.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 6 Control Planning Operations Logistics
Division Commander
Sector Commander Sectors
Crew Leader Crews
Firefighters
The first person in charge at the scene of a bushfire may be responsible for all four functional areas of mangement. While the incident remains small, this may be all that is needed. If it is clear that the incident will grow, more resources arrive, or the situation changes, some of the functions may be delegated to others to ensure that effective supervision can be maintained. The operations function is usually the first to be delegated. As more resources are deployed, fire crews are allocated to sectors, usually no more than five crews in each, with a Sector Commander in charge. As the number of sectors increases, they may be grouped into divisions, based on their geographical distribution and Division Commanders appointed. These groupings of resources ensure that an appropriate level of supervision is maintained with no one being responsible for more than five other people or groups of people. Effective communication up and down the chain of command is maintained. This system can be expanded and contracted according to the needs of the incident.
The I.C.S. introduces some unfamiliar names for functions such as Incident Controller, Operations Officer, Planning Officer, Logistics Officer and Division and Sector Commanders. On the fireground all of these people will be easily identifiable by coloured vests or signs. This is a part of the I.C.S. which requires functions and places to be clearly identified, so that there is no confusion about who is in charge, where to assemble or the location of the Control Centre.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 7 Because it is a system which applies to many agencies and it is essential that all understand the same terms and follow the same procedures so that they can all work together without confusion. Forestry Tasmania , the Tasmania Fire Service and the Parks and Wildlife Service will often be involved together at the same fires under a combined IMT.
I.C.S. does not mean that hundreds of people are routinely involved or that complex management structures are always established. However, all fires are systematically analysed to work out the best control objective. From this, the numbers of people and equipment needed are organised and set to work. At the same time limits to effective supervision are observed and tasks are delegated to others as necessary. This must be done from the outset, when it is most important.
Experience
Skills Multi - Agency Incident Management Teams
Teamwork
Leadership
Strategic Focus
Inter-Agency Fire Management Protocol Wherever more than one agency shares a common problem, such as fire management, it makes good sense to cooperate to achieve greater efficiency and effectiveness. The reason that different agencies exist relates to their core business and to the legislative framework which governs their activities. In Tasmania, the principal firefighting agency is the Tasmania Fire Service. However, the legislation makes it clear that fire management is a landowner’s or “occupier’s” responsibility and for the purposes of the Act, this applies equally to the Crown. Forestry Tasmania and the Parks and Wildlife Service together are the “occupiers” and the responsible land managers for more than half the area of Tasmania. Responsibility for fire suppression is specifically delegated to these agencies under sections 43 and 45 of the Fire Service Act 1979. As well as laying out the “ground rules” for cooperative firefighting, the protocol specifically defines the areas of State land where responsibility for fire suppression has been allocated to either the Fire Service or the Parks and Wildlife Service. The
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 8 protocol is reviewed and updated on a regular basis. An example of the protocol which was current in 2003/04 and will be for 2004/05 is reproduced below.
INTER-AGENCY FIRE MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL 2002 – 2003 Introduction: This is the fourth edition of the protocol which is the operating agreement between the three organisations most closely involved with the management of vegetation fire in Tasmania. The protocol underpins the cooperative spirit which exists to ensure that the management of fire is safe, efficient and cost effective.
Summary of the main changes to this edition: References to Department of Primary Industries, Water and the Environment (DPIWE) have been replaced by Department of Tourism, Parks, Heritage and the Arts (DTPHA) reflecting the transfer of the Parks and Wildlife Service to the new department.
DEFINITIONS: Fire Management: Means all activities necessary to prevent, minimise, control and extinguish bushfires. DTPHA: Department of Tourism, Parks, Heritage and the Arts. (Represented in the field by the Parks & Wildlife Service - PWS). TFS: Tasmania Fire Service. FT: Forestry Tasmania. TFRF: Tasmanian Fire Research Fund. MAC: Multi-Agency Coordinating Group. IMT: Incident Management Team. FMP: Fire Management Plan. Type 3 fire: A complex, long duration bushfire, usually involving more than one land tenure and more than one agency. Type 2 fire: A less complex bushfire, usually confined to a single tenure and the responsible agency. Marginal Costs: All abnormal costs incurred as a direct consequence of fire suppression. Redirected Costs: Normal budgeted expenditure, e.g. salaries and wages.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 9 1. RESPONSIBILITY 1.1 DTPHA is responsible for fire management on land reserved under the Crown Lands Act (1976) and the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1970). By agreement, the TFS is responsible for suppressing bushfires on some Reserves and Crown Lands. 1.2 FT is responsible for fire management on State Forest. 1.3 TFS is responsible for all structural fires, bushfire suppression on all private lands and the Wellington Park. 1.4 The policies of the managing authority for the land will be applied in suppressing fires. 1.5 Where necessary, the Chief Officer of the Tasmania Fire Service will arbitrate to resolve disputes.
2. PREPARATION 2.1 The agencies will appoint a representative and a deputy to a Multi-Agency Coordinating group. The MAC group will have delegated responsibility for facilitating and coordinating the management of inter-agency responses to Type 3 bushfires. 2.2 The agencies will maintain a directory of contacts which will be updated annually and distributed between them by the 1st November. 2.3 Before and after each fire season, there will be regional inter-agency briefing and debriefing which will include the forest industry and other relevant organisations. 2.4 Before the declaration or revocation of fire permit periods, the TFS will consult with FT and DTPHA.
3. BUSHFIRE SUPPRESSION 3.1 The guiding principle is that: “the most able fire fighting crew of any agency will respond immediately to a reported fire as a priority”, regardless of the land tenure involved. 3.2 All operations will be managed under the Incident Control System. 3.3 Details of all bushfires must immediately be reported to the TFS through Firecomm. 3.4 Agencies will commit their locally available suppression resources before seeking help. This may be varied by local agreement. 3.5 If assistance is sought or likely to be required, the relevant Regional Officer (TFS), State Duty Officer (FT) or Fire Duty Officer (DTPHA) will be contacted. These officers are responsible for notifying and seeking the approval of their agencies as required. 3.6 The MAC group will facilitate and coordinate inter-agency responses and appoint IMTs to manage Type 3 incidents. 3.7 The MAC group will monitor the statewide fire situation and liaise with local districts about fires with the potential to escalate to Type 3 status. 3.8 Following the initial response, work periods should not exceed 12 hours.
4. RESOURCE SHARING 4.1 Agencies will promote the standardisation and compatibility of fire management equipment and procedures. 4.2 Wherever possible, agencies will assist each other.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 10 4.3 Where equipment is provided, the receiver will take responsibility for its care, maintenance and return or replacement.
5. COSTS AND REIMBURSEMENT 5.1 For Type 3 fires, other than escapes from planned burns, each agency will be responsible for the redirected and marginal costs which apply to its own resources. 5.2 The costs of hired plant, equipment and personnel deployed to Type 3 fires, other than escapes from planned burns, will be shared between the agencies, in proportion to the area of tenures burnt. 5.3 The initial costs under 5.2 will be paid by the agency with the majority of the tenure at risk. 5.4 For all other fires, including Type 3 escapes from planned burns, the marginal costs of the assisting agencies are reimbursable. 5.5 For all other fires, including Type 3 escapes from planned burns, the redirected costs of the assisting agencies only become reimbursable after the equivalent of 50 person days have been expended by an agency. 5.6 All claims for reimbursement should be made before the 14th May in any financial year.
6. PAYMENTS TO TFS VOLUNTEERS 6.1 For a TFS volunteer to be eligible for payment for firefighting, which is reimbursable by another agency, the TFS Regional Officer must have received a written request for paid assistance. 6.2 Requests for paid assistance must specify the numbers of personnel, number and type of appliances and other equipment required, where and to whom reporting and the anticipated duration of deployment. 6.3 Not withstanding 6.1 and 6.2, TFS volunteers who attend as first responders to any fire which is wholly on FT or DTPHA tenure may be eligible for payment, if they have not been relieved by the managing agency’s resources within four hours. 6.4 Where TFS volunteers may be eligible for payment, details must be forwarded to the TFS Regional Officer by the Incident Controller at the completion of the deployment or at least fortnightly, for processing by TFS. 6.5 Where TFS volunteers are paid, TFS will be reimbursed by the managing agency in accord with 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6. 6.6 Where volunteers are eligible for payment they will follow the check in / out procedures specified by the incident’s management.
7. FIRE MANAGEMENT PLANNING 7.1 Each agency will adopt similar methods and procedures. 7.2 Agencies will cooperate in the implementation of FMPs. 7.3 Where FMPs cover more than one tenure or land which is adjacent to another tenure, there will be consultation between the managing agencies.
8. DETECTION 8.1 When a fire permit period has been declared, operational fire towers with coverage of the area will be staffed when the Forest Fire Danger Index exceeds Moderate 9.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 11 8.2 When a fire permit period has been declared, fire towers may operate at Forest Fire Danger Indices less than Moderate 9, if conditions indicate there is a need for surveillance of particular areas.
9. TRAINING 9.1 The agencies will exchange information about training of mutual interest and provide opportunities for their volunteers and employees to attend relevant courses.
10. RESEARCH 10.1 Fire research will be facilitated through the Tasmanian Inter-Agency Fire Research Fund to which the agencies may contribute periodically. 10.2 Agencies will consult about fire research proposals to avoid duplication and to maximise mutual benefits. 10.3 The Inter-Agency Fire Research Fund will be managed by a steering committee of representatives from FT, DTPHA and TFS. 10.4 The steering committee of the TFRF will report to the State Fire Management Council.
11. NATIONAL REPRESENTATION 11.1 By agreement, any agency may represent another at meetings of the Australasian Fire Authorities Council and its relevant Strategy Group(s) and Working Parties. 11.2 Where authorised, an attending agency will deliver the proxies for an absent agency.
12. REVIEW
12.1 A participating agency may initiate a review of the protocol at any time.
12.2The protocol will be reviewed at the end of each fire season to maintain currency.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 12 ICS forms and reports Effective management of an incident depends upon a reliable supply of accurate information from the field. The best way to provide consistent information is to use a standard form or checklist. This will ensure that all the relevant detail is considered. If circumstances cause some gaps in information, a least this can be noted as outstanding, to be supplied when available.
The type of report most often required of field commanders is the Situation Report (SITREP). This provides essential information to the Incident Management Team for reviewing progress, evaluating effectiveness of plans and developing new plans. The Situation Report provides a snapshot of the incident from an identified perspective at a particular time. The report might be from a division or sector or a specialist unit. It begins with a brief summary of the situation from that perspective. It then outlines the overall incident objective and details the progress of the various resources against their allocated tasks. Any critical issues, likely to impact on the reporting area are noted, particularly issues which might have safety implications such as an approaching weather change. Weather information at the location should be recorded. A Situation Report will generally be supported by a map showing the location of fire boundaries, sectors and other relevant details.
The Incident Action Plan (IAP) The imperatives of Duty of Care, OH&S principles and accountability demand a high level of documentation relating to large incident management. This is captured in the daily shift plan called the IAP. It is the responsibility of the Incident Controller to ensure that the IMT produces a plan for the next shift period. Following experience in the US, significant changes were introduced locally and in other States to the form of the IAP. They are however, becoming very large documents, requiring significant resources for daily production. Some thought needs to be given to this process to ensure that the IAP does not become an all-consuming end in itself - it is, after all a shift plan which should facilitate the running of the incident. The technology permits these templates to be completed on a computer, thus making it easy to update. This is the cover sheet. The tick boxes indicate which parts are included with this edition. Some sections may only need to be done once, such as the Medical Plan or the Facilities Layout Plan and some, such as the latter, may not be needed at all.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 13 INCIDENT ACTION PLAN
The items checked below are included in the incident Action Plan
1. SITUATION REPORT 2. INCIDENT OBJECTIVES 3. ORGANISATION LIST 4. COMMUNICATIONS PLAN 5. AIR OPERATIONS PLAN 6. SAFETY PLAN 7. DIVISION ASSIGNMENT 8. SECTOR ASSIGNMENT 9. MEDICAL PLAN 10. FIRE MAP 11. WEATHER FORECAST AND MAP 12. FACILITIES LAYOUT PLAN 13. … 14. … 15. … 16. …
4. Approved by Incident Controller:
Field supervisors at Division and Sector level should be familiar with these plans which map out the day’s expected outcomes and provide information about resources and operational issues. The Division and Sector assignments will be quite specific in relation to strategies and tactics, based on the input from supervisors. The following illustrates some of the main parts of an IAP.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 14
1. Incident Name 2. Operational Period INCIDENT Date: OBJECTIVES Time: 3. Overall Incident Objectives
4. Objectives for specified Operational Period
5. Prepared by: Date / Time Û
This is the page which specifies the Incident Objectives. These may not change over the course of the operation but Section 4. (if completed) may need to be revised, depending on how specific it is. Note that it is not mandatory to write in every space, just because it is available!
1. Incident Name 2. Operational Period ORGANISATION Date: Time: LIST 3. Incident Control Incident Controller Deputy IC Information Officer Safety Officer Liaison Officer 4. Agency Representative Lead Agency: Agency: Agency: 5. Planning Section Planning Officer Situations Unit Resources Unit Management Support Unit Information Unit Fire Behaviour Analyst GIS Specialist 6. Logistics Section Logistics Officer Supply Unit Catering Unit Facilities Unit Finance Unit Communications Unit Medical Unit 7. Operations Section Operations Officer Deputy Operations Officer Division One Commander Sector A Commander Sector B Commander Sector C Commander Sector D Commander Division Two Commander Sector E Commander Sector F Commander Sector G Commander Sector H Commander Air Operations Manager
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 15 The Organisation List is a vital piece of information which must be updated for each shift, as it it is the “who’s who” directory of the operation. Remember, incidents of this size will often involve people from different areas and different agencies. If you need to call the Sector Commander of an adjoining sector, it saves time if you know who they are. Once entered, it is easy to make adjustments for any changes which occur.
1. Incident Name 2. Operational Period DIVISION Date: Time: ASSIGNMENT DIVISION: Description:
3. Operations Personnel: Positions Name Affiliation Contact # (s) Operations Officer Deputy Operations Officer Division Commander Air Operations Manager 4. Resources Assigned this period Sector Supervisor # Crews
5. Division Assignments
6. Special Instructions for Division
7. Communications (radio / phone numbers needed for this assignment) Name / Function Radio: freq/system/channel Phone Command / ICP Division One Division Two Air Operations Sector A Sector B Sector C 9. Prepared by: Date / Time Û
The Division & Sector Assignments detail the specific tasks for these parts of the incident’s management. A resources list should be available for each sector. It will identify task forces, strike teams and individual pieces of equipment and their deployment with start & finish times. This information is essential for safety reasons as well as business management.
It is not proposed to detail here every part of an IAP but rather, to provide examples of sections relevant to field supervisor positions and particularly those which are likely to be updated between shifts. The incident’s Safety Plan will be compulsory reading for all involved.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 16
1. Incident Name 2. Operational Period SAFETY Date: Time: PLAN 3. General Safety Points: Everyone will be signed in and out of the fire ground through the Incident Control Point for both safety check and payment records.
Remember 20 watchouts and 10 standard fire orders
L - Lookout(s) A – Anchor Point(s) C – Communication(s) E – Escape Route(s) S – Safety Zone(s)
Maintain regular situation reports (containing all relevant information) via line supervisors 4. Specific Safety Points
5. Prepared by: Date / Time Û
The communications plan is another important part of the IAP. It sorts out the communications priorities for the incident and makes the best use of available equipment. Congestion is prevented through channel allocation and an operating procedure is specified. This may involve the use of a controlled network where all transmissions are passed through radio operators who log calls and allocate priority to messages. Alternatively, tactical level traffic may be diverted to simplex channels with the repeater channel reserved for “command” functions.
Once the communications plan has been developed, field supervisors must ensure that they have access to any additional equipment needed. If divisions and sectors are operating on local simplex channels, the repeater can still be monitored, but if one division is allocated a simplex channel which is not matched to a local repeater, then key people will need a second radio to monitor the command channel. Field supervisors need to monitor traffic to ensure compliance with the communications plan and its operational procedures.
Resources Management The effective management of resources is a critical safety and coordination function in running any sort of large incident where numerous personnel and equipment are deployed. Some form of systematic tracking of resources is required. The system used should be capable of identifying the call-sign, capabilities, logistical needs, location, tasking and operational endurance of the resource. This information is vital for the safety, relief and payment of resources. Currently, the Tasmanian fire agencies have agreed to use a database known as IRMS (Incident Resource Management System). This is an evolving system which will ultimately be electronically linked to the IAP to avoid duplication of data entry such as personnel lists etc.
As the results of recent coronial inquiries have shown, adequate data must be stored in relation to firefighting incidents and it is no longer (and never was) acceptable to ignore this aspect of incident management. The following excerpt is relevant:
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 17 “Report to AFAC, Draft 3 September 2002, “Is the Fireground a Workplace under OH&S Legislation?” Maddocks, Lawyers, 140 William Street Melbourne.
Executive Summary
· The fireground (encompassing both wildfire and structural fire sites and surrounds) does constitute a workplace in both urban and rural environments under State, Territory and Commonwealth OH&S legislation.
· Broad obligations are owed by all fire service agencies to their employees, volunteers, members of the public, and anyone else who may foreseeably be involved in a fire or in matters to do with the undertaking of fire fighting.
"The lessons of Linton are that it is a combination of all systems that are likely to best achieve elimination of the risk. The general occupational health and safety principles of risk management are also applicable to wildfire management as they are in any other potentially hazardous workplace. It is in the detail, extent and balance of the application that variations may occur."1
· Fire service agencies have to do what is practicable to provide a safe place of work and systems of work to employees. What is practicable will be judged on a case by case basis and will differ in structural fires and wildfires due to the different nature of the fire and the potential for harm.
· What is clearly practicable to all fire service agencies is to perform hazard and risk assessments, the provision of appropriate training, the provision of appropriate equipment and clear planning, management and communication protocols. Developing documented systems is crucial. Enforcing safety protocols is crucial.
· There is potential for criminal prosecutions against fire service agencies, and their officers individually, which breach the provisions of OH&S Acts and regulations.”
· IRMS files must be opened for every incident. Care must be taken to ensure that the data entered is accurate. Departing personnel must sign off their individual reports which detail their times at the incident and other matters, such as entitlement to receive meal allowances. While specialised logistics personnel will be responsible for maintaining an IRMS, field supervisors have a responsibility to see that appropriate personnel information is supplied.
1 Page 607, Report of the Investigation and Inquests into a Wildfire and the Deaths of Five Firefighters at Linton on 2 December 1998
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 18 Sector Commander responsibilities Are to meet the following tasks:
· Obtain a briefing from the Incident Management Team and the Operations Officer (or Division Commander if in place). · Provide briefing on the Incident Action Plan to crews and the crew leaders, covering assignments. · Coordinate communication between their sector and superiors. · Conduct reconnaissance of their designated sector of the incident. · Coordinate operations within their sector. · Manage resources assigned to sector. · Supervise the implementation of the IAP. · Monitor progress. · Provide sector situation reports. · Liaise with adjacent sector (s). · Maintain a sector log. · Provide input to Incident Action Planning. · Mentor crew leaders. · Ensure safe work practices on the fireground. · Supervise all fireground personnel within their area of responsibility.
To meet all of these tasks the sector commander should At the control Centre Arrive prior to the nominated time for briefing Obtain a briefing from IMT Identify your supervisor – Operations Officer, Division Commander Identify your subordinates – crew leaders, crews Understand the IAP · Objectives, · Strategies, · Safety, · Medical, · Communications Ensure your crew understands Identify and liaise (if required) with other Sector Commanders Before leaving the base to head to your sector Ensure crews are briefed Identify all resources Are they here and booked on Report potential and actual IAP changes to IMT
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 19 Ensure logistical requirements are met ie PPE, food, fuel. Coordinate the dispatch and travel to the sector On arrival at the sector determine Access Current and potential fire behaviour Current weather Hazards WATCHOUT, LACES etc. Coordinate crew tasks Water supply During the shift on the sector Implement IAP Ensure Safety Maintain structure and manage crew and other resources within span of control Provide sit reps Monitor and evaluate progress Maintain log/ weather obs/ notes for sitrep Provide input for current next IAP Provide leadership, direction, motivation At the end of the shift on the sector coordinate changover Brief oncoming Sector Commander (if appropriate) Brief IMT Ensure all crews book are logged of by at Incident Control Centre Provide performance feedback to crew leaders and crews.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 20 Strategies and Tactics
Introduction Fireground supervisory roles are those of the Divisional Commanders, Sector Commanders, Task Force, StrikeTeam and Crew Leaders. They have to effectively use the people, machinery and aircraft provided to carry out the tasks which are essential for implementing the plans developed by the Incident Management Team. They have to work out how these resources are to be used (the tactics) and are responsible safety and efficiency on the fireline. This chapter is about determining the need for resources, the effective use of resources, organisation, safety and efficiency.
Sizing up the task
Sizing up the Task
• Fireline input is essential for planning; • Weather, fire behaviour, fuels & topography; • Hazards & Safety- “Watchout”, LCES; • Information & Maps; • Planning the attack.
The Fireground Supervisors are usually the first on the scene and may exercise the command, control and coordination functions until an Incident Management Team is formed. Their initial evaluation of the fire contributes to the development of the objective and the strategies in support of it. As the fire progresses, strategies are developed by the IMT but with the benefit of information provided by the field commanders in situation reports. It is important that the Division and Sector Commanders continually update their knowledge of the situation affecting their areas and report on a regular basis to the IMT. This requires them to be conscious of the weather at all times and watching for signs of any change likely to affect the fire. Fire behaviour has to be monitored through regular contact with Crew Leaders who will be closest to the fire front and in the best position to detect changes in rate of spread or flame height. In some cases it may be
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 21 necessary to dedicate persons as fire observers or look-outs, particularly where fuel loads are high in difficult terrain with limited visibility. The “Watchout” code and LACES must be reinforced at daily briefings. Field Supervisors must be familiar with maps and be able to plot their sections of the fire edge to compare their knowledge with other sources of information being used by the IMT. The tactics used must be based on the best information available to ensure that firefighters are not exposed to unacceptable risk.
Hazards and risk management
Hazards & Risk Management
• Inexperienced firefighters; • Unfamiliar country, Steep, rocky ground, Heavy fuels; • Poor visibility, Burning trees, Powerlines; • Fire below the control line. • Unburnt fuels between fire and firefighters; • Machinery and aircraft; • Stress and fatigue
Safety of their firefighters and the public must be the first concern of fireground supervisors. Because there are so many potential hazards in firefighting it becomes necessary to prioritise the risks and assess their impact in a systematic way. The experience of the crew will affect decisions about their tasks, deployment and level of supervision. Inexperienced crews will have to be reminded to watch out for overhead hazards such as burning trees and changes in fuel types and loadings. If the location of the fire is unfamiliar a cautious approach with more scouting will be needed. This is particularly relevant where there are likely to be downed power lines, near buildings. Topographical hazards such as steepness or loose rock are potential sources of injury which may limit labour intensive operations to daylight hours. Where visibility is limited by the terrain or vegetation, the location of the fire’s edge, relative to the crews, must be established to assess the risk, particularly where fire is below the firefighters or the fuels are dense. The latter are potentially lethal combinations as demonstrated in the Project Vesta video “Dead Man Zone”. Machinery operating close to crews is a hazard which may not be avoidable and will need greater diligence from the operators and good briefing of the firefighters. Thorough briefing is essential when people are working with helicopters, even more so if they feel familiar with this type of transport.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 22 Supervisors need to be aware of the effects of stress and fatigue on themselves and their crews. People are vulnerable at mid-afternoon and towards the end of a shift when their concentration span is reduced. Travelling to and from the fire is an under- estimated risk period which may require special arrangements such as allocated drivers or bussing.
Effective use of resources
Effective use of Resources
Effectiveness in firefighting is about making the best use of the available resources. In the right circumstances, a well-constructed hand line can be more effective than water bombing or a costly ‘dozer break. Whether or not the potential of a resource is realised depends on the fireground supervisor’s knowledge of and experience with the personnel or equipment being used. Off-road (4WD) tankers are the most commonly used firefighting resource. They come in three general sizes - small, medium and large. Small units are carried on utility-type vehicles and have about 500 litres capacity. They usually have a 2-person crew. This small amount of water is not much use in offensive direct attack and these units are best employed mopping up or in support of another piece of equipment such as a ‘dozer. With intermittent use, they can provide water for about 25 minutes. Having a large water tender nearby will cut down on the time wasted travelling to and from a water supply and give the maximum exposure to the fire. Medium tankers have a capacity of between 700 & 800 litres and are carried on heavy duty 4WDs such as Landcruisers with a crew of 2. Expect about 40 minutes of intermittent use in mopping up and considerably less when used in direct attack. Heavy tankers hold about 4000 litres and can supply water for about two hours of mopping up. They are mounted on 4WD trucks and drivers require a licence endorsement. Their off-road capability is limited to firm surfaces and reasonable grades. Crewing may be up to 5 persons.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 23 Examples above of tanker types: top left, light 500 litres; top right, heavy 4000 litres; Bottom, medium Landcruiser type – 800 litres.
Fireline construction with machinery
Fireline Construction with Machinery
• ‘Dozers, Excavators, • Other earthmovers • Logging machines • Mowers, Slashers • Bigger is better • Two is better • Winches • Water
In the right circumstances, using machinery to build control lines is a good tactic. It depends upon the terrain and fuel types, availability of suitable machines and the timeframe for completing the task. The lead time to get heavy machinery on site can
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 24 be many hours. The supervisor must decide whether the machine is essential or if other methods could be used. The type, capacity and condition of the machines and the skill of the operators must be evaluated. An under-powered machine in poor condition with an inexperienced operator can actually waste resources and time while not achieving anything. Some types of machines or combinations might be better suited to the terrain and fuels. Excavators are versatile machines capable of negotiating very steep slopes. In heavy fuels they can assist ‘dozers by lifting logs off the line. Two machines working together will progress at a faster rate as one “breaks out” and the other “cleans up” line. The more powerful machine should be in front. In other types of country - flat with light fuels - fast moving road graders may be suitable. In heathlands and other low fuels, mowers and slashers can be used, particularly where there are likely to be problems with erosion and earth moving is undesirable. Machines should be able to extract themselves from bogs or perches so at least one heavy duty winch per task force will be essential. Support from a tanker is required to protect machines and extinguish on-board fires.
FIRELINE PRODUCTION BY BULLDOZERS Fuel Type Rate of Production (m/h) D7 / D8 D6 D4 Light Fuel & 1000 1000 1000 Scrub Heavy Fuel & 400 250 100 Scrub
Note: these are average values only, allowing for normal problems with slope, rock, logs etc.
These are approximate times based on tables produced in Western Australia in 1985. The significant thing is that in heavy going, which will include most Tasmanian situations, the more powerful machines will accomplish between two and four times as much work as the alternatives. It is essential that fireground tactical supervisors such as sector commanders and crew leaders have a good understanding of machinery capability and the skill to determine when the machine is losing efficiency. Some types of machines such as log skidders and small ‘dozers are better suited to tasks like hauling sledge tankers.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 25 Fireline construction with handcrews The value of a hand crew for line construction is often overlooked and in contemporary, highly mechanised times, many of the skills of basic firefighting are being lost. Often it is preferable to rapidly deploy an experienced hand crew to put in a control line, rather than wait hours for a machine to be brought to the site. Many of the basic firefighting and safety skills are learned on the fireline and it can be a good training opportunity in the right circumstances. Hand crews can work in terrain which is beyond the capacity of machinery such as steep, rocky or boggy ground. Their impact on the environment is much lighter than earthmoving machines so there may be locations where a handline will be preferable. Hand crews can work close to the fire edge, using a technique known as “hot and cold trailing”. This is where they inspect every centimetre of the burnt edge, only working on the sections which are alight or smouldering, saving the need to build a continuous fireline. On the down side, even the fittest of hand crews have limits to their endurance. Their progress will be much slower than a machine and the constructed line will be more vulnerable unless progressively widened by burning out residual fuels. The logistics of keeping a hand crew supplied in remote locations can be difficult and the line built by hand will usually cost a lot more than an equivalent distance built with a machine.
Hand line tactics - “Hot & Cold Trail”
This tactic saves time and effort as it uses the parts of the fire edge which have self- extinguished and line is only built around the active edges (yellow unbroken line). This saves on the conventional approach which is to construct a line all the way around the fire (red broken line). It is essential that the crews using this tactic thoroughly check the edge to ensure that all the smouldering sections are properly corralled. Otherwise the fire will just breakaway at the next weather opportunity.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 26 This tactic suits rocky ground and uneven fuels.
LINE BUILDING TECHNIQUES Step up method
The “Step Up” method of hand line building is used in fuels such as surface litter when every person in the crew is using the same type of tool. Starting from an anchor point, the crew spaces out an even and safe distance apart and begins raking the line. Each person progresses forward, completing their section as they go. When the last in the line reaches the completed section of the person in front, they shout “Step Up!” At this signal, everyone in the crew moves forward to take the place of the person ahead of them and then proceeds to complete their section. In this method, the whole line moves forward at an even pace, without people having to pass one another.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 27 LINE BUILDING TECHNIQUES
One lick method
This method of hand line building is best applied when a variety of tools are needed for more diverse fuels or difficult terrain. Each crew member completes some work (“one lick”), best suited to the tool that they have been allocated, on their section of the line. They then progress to the next section, partially completed by the person ahead and proceed to do what they can on that piece. The whole line moves forward at a steady pace and like the “Step Up” method, no-one has to overtake the person ahead to get to new work. Last in line is called a “sweeper” who usually uses a rake or some type of “finishing-off” tool. The sweeper is also responsible for ensuring that the line has been built to the specification set by the crew leader.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 28 FIRELINE CONSTRUCTED AND HELD BY HAND CREW
200 FDR < 20 Heavy 150 eucalypt fuel FDR 21-60 > 10 t/ha 100
Metres per hour FDR 61-100 50 2 4 6 8 No. of personnel in crew
This picture illustrates production rates of hand crews under a range of weather conditions in similar fuel types. Again, it has been taken from the West Australian “Red Book” tables from 1985. The amount of line constructed and held levels out at about 200m per hour in moderate fire weather conditions. This is halved in extreme fire weather. The optimum crew number is about 6.
Pumps and hose lines The “wet line” or progressive hose lay is a tactic which deserves greater use than it gets today, particularly when there is a good source of water nearby. This method is particularly suited to remote or difficult areas as all the equipment can be carried by hand crews. The advantages include: minimal environmental disturbance; enhanced success with higher intensity fires (because of the knockdown potential of water under pressure); fires can be contained and extinguished simultaneously; secondary lines can be established with small diameter hose to mop up persistent hot spots and it is the only effective method of extinguishing ground fires, particularly peat. A disadvantage is the labour intensity required to set up a hose line and the difficulty in making rapid changes to the established line. Lines can be set up in areas without permanent water, using portable dams and ferrying water by tanker or aircraft from the nearest source. A hose lay can be more effective than a mechanically constructed fireline because embers are not buried under earth or windrows of pushed material and mopping up is easier and quicker. The length of line can be unlimited if relay pumping is used to boost pressure up steep slopes and gravity will feed lines on downhill grades.
38 mm main line Hose strangler
Lightweight, high performance pump One way valve
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05Three way 29 valve To make the best use of a “wet line”, fireground supervisors need to be familiar with all of the plumbing hardware and techniques, such as in-line relay pumping, staged relay pumping, gravity-fed lines use of portable tanks and temporary dams, in-line foam injection and aspirated nozzles. Using relays, there is no limit to the length of line which can be established or the slopes which can be overcome to get water to the fire edge. Portable dams can be fed by tankers or aircraft and temporary dams can be built with a sheet of plastic in a hole in the ground.
500 litre flexible bladder tank
Hose pack - 120 m 38mm or 150 m 25mm Relay staging dam
Aspirating Nozzle “Bubblecup”
Makeshift dam using plastic sheet
The equipment shown below allows foam to be inducted into the main (or secondary) lines after water has left the pump. This is useful because it means that the concentrate pails need not be close to the water source, avoiding potential contamination. An adjustable flow control allows concentrations to 1% by 0.1% increments. The floating collar dam is self-supporting, comes in its own bag and can be airlifted to remote sites or carried by two people. The pressure relief valve should be inserted into lines off high pressure pumps so that water is released if the line is shut-off or kinked.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 30 Aspirating nozzle
7,500 litre Floating Collar Tank NEW! NEW!
Pressure Relief Valve
In-line 38mm adjustable foam inductor
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 31 Aircraft in Firefighting
Aircraft in Firefighting
Introduction Aircraft are an important firefighting resource. In a large incident, aircraft will be managed by a specialist unit, attached to the Operations section of an Incident Management Team. Fireground supervisors need to understand the functions, capabilities and limitations of aircraft used in firefighting. In Tasmania, the helicopter is most commonly used but fixed wing aeroplanes also have a role because of their availability, economy and endurance (fuel consumption). The main tasks of aircraft are: detection, reconnaissance, mapping, transportation, aerial burning out and water bombing.
Operational constraints The helicopters available in Tasmania are all small machines with limited lifting capacity. Consequently their use as water “bombers” is severely constrained since they can drop only about 500 litres at a time. To be successful, these operations must be in short or open fuel types, backed up by forces on the ground. It is essential that the turnaround time from the water source does not exceed about five minutes. It is often better to deliver water to portable dams or in bladders, where it can be applied more effectively by hand crews using small pumps. Aircraft provide excellent vantage points to assess operations and plan strategies as well as deliver resources to remote or difficult sites.
When deciding about the viability of aerial water deliver / bombing, the dimensions of the potential water source must meet the minimum specifications above, as well as being within 5 minutes flying time from the site. The approach and departure path must be free of tall obstructions within the minimum clearance angle.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 32 Requirements for water pick-up: Approach & departure angle 40°
20m x 20m min Water depth 2m. clear pick-up
Safety People working with aircraft must be aware of the safety requirements and preferably will have received training. This will be less of a problem where the aircraft base is under the management of a specialist team, however people in the field need to be aware of the hazards associated with water bombing and the need to move away from the drop zone while the aircraft is overhead. It is important that an experienced person coordinates water bombing and water delivery. Coloured smoke flares can be useful in guiding an aircraft to a precise site, when it is nearby. Otherwise, use GPS coordinates (if available) or guide the aircraft using the clock face principle. This assumes that the aircraft’s nose is always at 12 o’clock. The pilot is then directed to the site as follows: “The drop zone is 3 kilometres at 9 o’ clock.” The aircraft responds by making a turn left towards the drop zone. Avoid using compass directions and other confusing terminology, e.g. “You are about a kilometre to the left of me!”
Safety around aircraft requires a heightened sense of awareness of the danger posed by moving propellers and rotors, which may be invisible at speed. Helicopters should only be approached and departed within the pilot’s field of view, which is the front, from 10 o’clock through 12 o’clock to 2 o’ clock. Everything outside this is a “no- go” area for passengers. The overhead rotors are dangerous at low speed, due to sagging and on sloping ground. Approach and departure is in the bowing position from the lower side. All loose objects must be removed or secured. Safety helmets must be carried, unless secured by a chin strap. Tools and long objects are carried horizontally to the ground and stowed according to the pilot’s instructions. Doors are opened and closed carefully and gently, nothing must be forced. Pilots will generally give a briefing to passengers which will cover the safety issues. This must be given full attention, irrespective of familiarity with aerial operations.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 33 Because of the dust, it is advisable to wear goggles. Engine noise makes ordinary speech virtually impossible and simple signs must be used. Avoid hasty actions - do everything at a considered pace and watch for instructions. Crews being transported to and from helipads should be marshalled and escorted by an experienced heli-pad supervisor. Crews being transported to remote sites or exiting from a hovering position will require special training and briefing from the pilot.
HELICOPTER DANGER AREA HELICOPTER SAFETY
sOutside of Pilots field of Vision FWait for pilot’s OK DANGER AREA PILOT’S FApproach and depart to the front FIELD
OF sTail rotor hard to see VIEW sHot exhaust gasses from turbine FRemain in Pilots Field of View when helicopter is operating
HELICOPTER SAFETY HELICOPTER LANDING SITE SLOPING GROUND
4m * 4m Wind Direction Landing Area
20m 20m
Approach & Depart 0 150 from downhill
20m
Obstacle free take-off path Wind Direction
0 400 Max. Obstacle free40 approachMax. path 20m
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 34 General Instruction in relation to use of aircraft in support of incident management.
AIRCRAFT ASSIGNMENT and MANAGEMENT · Aircraft will be assigned to incidents on the basis of statewide priorities. Authority for the deployment of aircraft to support incidents rests with the fire duty officers of the agencies (TFS, FT, Parks). All Requests for air support must be made through the respective fire management units (FMU). · Aircraft mobilised for Initial Attack or reconnaissance will initially be assigned for one operational hour. Any extension of that assignment shall be at the discretion of the respective FMU aircraft co-ordinator following discussion with the Incident Controller. · If the aircraft is to remain assigned to the incident, the IC shall nominate an officer to be a co-ordinator and contact point for Air Ops, this will be an interim arrangement until a properly staffed Air Ops unit is established, if required.
AUTHORITY · Only authorised personnel may travel on aircraft. · The carriage of passengers may be authorised by a District Officer/Manager or in the case of a major incident by the IMT through the Operations Officer or Air Operations Manager. · Blanket authority may be given in writing through an IAP for the insertion/extraction of firefighters.
SAFETY · Pilots are at all times in charge of safety of all personnel in and around the aircraft. · All personnel operating in or around helicopters must be briefed on helicopter safety by the pilot or another approved person. · All firefighters must be made aware of any air operations, e.g. water bombing or aerial ignition being conducted near their location. Prior to any water bombing, the pilot must receive confirmation of the target from the ground. · All personnel must report any visible hazards which may compromise safe air operations, e.g. power lines, other aircraft. All passengers are to be listed on a manifest, a copy of which is to be left with a responsible person on the ground. · Where aircraft are unable to access flight following by Air Services Australia, a responsible person will be assigned the responsibility. · Where more than one aircraft is deployed at a fire, pilots are to confer and establish a “Fire-Common Traffic Advisory Frequency”. (132.55; 135.55; 126.35; 128.9)
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 35 · In the event of an emergency, the pilot will give instruction on how to prepare for that emergency.
AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS · Pilots must refuse any task for which they are untrained or unauthorised, for which the aircraft is unsuitable or if performed breech legislation or accepted procedures. · Pilots should advise Air Ops personnel of any limitations or restrictions applicable to the aircraft or the environment in which they are operating. · The responsible air operations manager should consult regularly with pilots in regard to flight and duty times to ensure optimum use of the aircraft can be maintained. · Pilots must not be pressured into performing tasks with which they are uncomfortable.
TASKING · The Operations Officer has ultimate responsibility for the tasking and control of aircraft. The responsibility may be delegated to an Air Operations Manager or Aircraft Officer. · Tasking of and communication with aircraft should be in accordance with the IAP · Aircrews shall be part of daily general briefings as well as task specific briefings. · Any aerial operations must be continually monitored for their effectiveness. · Hot refuelling of aircraft may only be conducted by authorised personnel with the approval of the Operations Officer. · A log of all aircraft activity must be maintained.
This instruction should be read in conjunction with agency training information, standard operating procedure and any aircraft specific handbooks or safety information.
October 2001
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 36 Conducting Briefings and De-briefings
Introduction A briefing is not a meeting or a discussion. The difference is the degree and type of interaction with the audience. In briefing the aim is to give the audience some essential information to enable them to do a task or achieve some other outcome. Of necessity, the information is relevant and concise and discussion is limited to questions of clarification rather than debating issues, which have already been determined. Briefings are to share information. Discussions and meetings involve the development of more information and a decision on where the group is heading. This involves a lot more interaction and can take more time than a briefing. The task is to prepare and present the information in a format, which will be readily understood by audience and to do so in an environment free from distractions. Effective briefing ensures that work proceeds smoothly.
The Communication Model
The communication model
?
Stage 1 : You make your statement: You are sending a message to the audience. The aim is to pass information so that people do what you want them to do. Think about the presentation and the presenter, ensuring simplicity and clear messages.
Stage2 : Interference: This can be anything that distracts the audience from receiving the message or distracts the presenter making their statement. Interference can include: • interruptive questioning; • wandering discussions; • noise; • lack of preparation;
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 37 • lack of knowledge on the part of the briefing office:. • complicating the message - long words, jargon: • inappropriate use of humour, telling jokes;
A major consideration when planning a briefing must be to minimise the potential for distractions. Any distraction can result in the breaking down of communication.
Stage 3 : Assessing audience comprehension: This is achieved through feedback to the presenter. Feedback can be spontaneous questions from the audience or visible reactions demonstrated through body language – uncertainty, puzzlement, indignation etc. If feedback is not generated spontaneously, it must be extracted by the presenter asking the audience for a response through “comprehension questions”. These will be designed to test the audience. This is the stage where you ensure that the message you sent out is the message that they received.
Format A briefing should follow a standard, logical sequence which will ensure that all the vital information is included.
The current situation is outlined followed by a prediction about what is likely to happen, based on the latest weather forecast, fire behaviour, fuels and topography and the effects of suppression. The objective for the operational period is outlined. The plan of attack (strategy) and the tasking of personnel and equipment (tactics) are explained. This is followed by the logistics, describing how the operational period is to be supported with facilities, supplies and services. The command structure explains how the operation will be run; who is in charge and the various subordinate positions. It is important to cover the protocol for reporting up and down the line, in relation to the operational period. If it is a complex incident, crew leaders must report to sector commanders who, in turn will report to the Division Commander, if that position has been filled or otherwise, direct to the Operations Officer. Finally, the communications plan is explained - channels to be used, reporting schedules and the provision for “all points bulletins” and emergency calls.
Organisation A standard checklist for organising a briefing will ensure that nothing has been overlooked. · Decide on a time: this will be pre- determined to some extent by operational needs such as change over. · Decide where the briefing is to be held: this is an important decision. It must be readily accessible to the personnel going onto the shift, large enough to accommodate the numbers comfortably and be free from distractions such as noise. · Nominate the participants to attend: this will ensure that the audience is appropriate and numbers are known in advance. It is counter productive to have the briefing room overflowing with people who do not need to be present. Likewise, it could be disastrous if people who should attend, don’t.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 38 · Prepare the venue: set up visual aids and arrange seating so that everyone can see and hear what is going on. Notes, maps and resource lists should be available for all the participants - another good reason for knowing who is going to attend. · Finally: ensure that the participants are notified of the time and the venue.
Conducting the briefing Ensure that all the participants are present. Latecomers will be a distraction. Get everyone to be seated - a briefing is too important to have people wandering around getting cups of coffee. These actions will require a degree of assertiveness and it is important that someone appears to be in charge.
Clear, concise delivery is what is required. Use plain, simple language and ensure that specialist terminology is understood by all present. This is another good reason for selecting the audience - so that you know in advance the level at which the delivery must be pitched. Also, remember, “the speed of the convoy is set by the slowest ship”, to borrow a naval analogy.
Comprehension of pictures is many times that of the spoken word. In an operational briefing it is essential that people get a “helicopter view” of the situation. Someone is bound to start asking questions. It is a good idea to state at the outset that questions are to be deferred until the completion of the briefing. Provide paper and pens and encourage people to make a note of their questions as the briefing proceeds. If questions are allowed during the briefing they become a distraction and there is a good chance that people will digress into minor logistical matters.
At the end of the briefing, encourage questions to ensure that all the participants understand what is to happen. Get them to repeat specific, important instructions or complex tactical arrangements. The important points about briefing and debriefing are: both have to be structured to be effective and therefore a degree of planning is involved. A briefing should be a disciplined , formal process because there are implications for Duty of Care. Following a standard sequence will ensure that all aspects of the operation are covered. Feedback is an essential part of the two-way communication process. Questions can be used to determine comprehension and essential information should be quoted back to the briefing officer to ensure that the message is clear.
Debriefing Debriefing is an important learning process. The experience gained at every incident can contribute to improvements in running future operations. It is important that the debrief is acknowledged by all participants as an opportunity to improve and consolidate on good outcomes. It must not become a witch hunt or an excuse to lay blame for mistakes.
The sooner it can be held after an event, the better as recollections will be more reliable. There must be a specific group of people who attend, not just those who will or want to turn up. The level of the debrief will affect the outcomes. In the case of personnel who went to NSW several debriefs were held on return to Tasmania including: - the first group of IMT personnel; - the second group of IMT personnel;
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 39 - the administration and support people; - the volunteer fire crew; - the remote area fire team personnel.
Constructive debriefing
• Learning from experience is important • A successful debrief must be positive • It needs to occur soon after the event • It must be structured • Outcomes must be recorded
While a relaxed atmosphere is useful, nevertheless it must be a structured process to ensure that all aspects are accounted for. Structure is provided through an agenda, which will help to maintain the positive approach and avoid the pitfalls of recrimination. It will be a pointless exercise unless there is faithful recording of the outcomes including recommendations for the future.
The debriefing agenda A standard debriefing agenda will ensure that the important aspects of the operation are checked off and nothing has been overlooked. It begins with a review of the plan which had to be implemented. Questions to be addressed include the adequacy of the plan details, safety issues, resources and ease of implementation. Equipment issues are discussed and any deficiencies noted. Equally important is the need to identify equipment which proved invaluable or particular situations where specialised equipment was needed. Logistics and issues have the potential to overtake more fundamental management problems and should be dealt with systematically, using checklists. Problems with communications need to be identified so that solutions can be found before the next event. Poorly performing systems or procedures can impact on the safety. Identifying things that went wrong and analysing the circumstances will lead to recommendations for future improvements. Similarly, aspects of the operation that were better than previous experiences need to be identified to see if the contributing factors can be transferred into other areas of poor performance. Recommendations must be documented so that they can be acted upon.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 40 The debriefing agenda • The briefing - was it accurate? • The plan - could it be implemented? • Performance of equipment • Logistics - were all needs met and on time? • Communications - performance • Things that went wrong • Things that worked well • Recommendations
The important points about briefing and debriefing are: · both have to be structured to be effective and therefore a degree of planning is involved; · a debriefing should be more relaxed but must follow an agenda to ensure that all aspects are covered; · debriefings should be positive and not an opportunity for recrimination; · it is important that the outcomes are formally recorded.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 41 Safety Entrapment situation Entrapment situations must be avoided. Training and a focus on safety should lead to the point where firecrews are not put into the situation where the fire may entrap and then burnover them. The factors that can lead to potential entrapment situations are: · Being on relatively quiet sectors or on small fires · Being in areas of higher fine fuel loads ie litter, grass and light scrub · An unexpected but predictable weather change ie the wind direction or windspeed · Being uphill of a burning fire · Being off the edge of a burning fire
When these factors come together a potential entrapment situation can occur. If this does occur it often leads to the fire burning over the top of firecrews who have taken refuge. Sometimes the refuge will protect them, at other times such as Linton in central Victoria, it will not.
Frontal wind changes A front represents the transition between a warm and a cold air mass and is accompanied by a wind change. When warm air replaces cold air, we have a warm front and when cold air replaces warm air we have a cold front. Thus the weather map gives us a very good idea of the general wind flow and where the major zones of weather exist. The most common major change in southern Australia is the passage of a cold front. A cold front is the boundary between a cooler air mass (normally from the southwest) displacing warmer air. The cold front is shown on a weather map as a series of filled triangles on a heavy line.
The weather is controlled by the passage of “lows” and “highs”. A high pressure system over Tasmania accompanied by settled calm weather being gradually replaced from the west by a trough of low pressure, or a frontal system, bringing unsettled conditions. As a high covering Tasmania moves to the east, the light winds give way to strengthening north westerly winds. As the trough (or cold front) moves, a new wind direction, usually from the south west moves over the state. The winds preceding the cold front may rise to gale force in exposed localities. Precipitation (rain or snow) is likely to accompany the front. A cooler southerly flow will spread over Tasmania ahead of the next high.
In south-eastern Australia, the typical weather changes associated with the passage of a summer cold front are: • strengthening gusty north to north-westerly winds; • increasing atmospheric instability observed “thunderstorm” clouds; • a wind change to the southwest, often with severe squalls; • after the wind changes the wind speed will moderate; • after the wind changes and moderates the weather will gradually clear.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 42 Cold fronts are significant to the fires behaviour because the strong, gusty, hot, dry N to NW winds before the front arrives will promote fast moving intense fires, potential new fires are started by lightning, storm activity may produce strong, erratic local winds and the wind change to the W to SW can turn the North Eastern flank into the head fire. The effect of a wind change is to increase the fire danger to fire fighters. Many major fires in south-eastern Australia have been affected in this way by a cold front, ie. the Ash Wednesday fires in 1983 and the Linton fire in 1998.
2300 ESE 11.1 25.3
0500 N 7.5 19.8 1100 NNE 35.2 26.2 1700 NNE 22.3 33.5 2300 N 14.8 29.2
0500 N 18.5 24.6 1100 N 38.9 29.1 1700 N 42.6 34.8 2300 S 20.4 25.4
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 43 0500 N 12.9 23.7 1100 S 9.3 21.6 1700 S 14.8 19.6 2300 S 14.8 18.9
0500 SE 14.8 16.4 1100 SE 18.5 17.9
http://www.bom.gov.au/info/ftweather/page_40b.shtml
Hydration The human body controls its temperature by circulating blood and by sweating. When the combination of a hot environment and strenuous exercise combines with an excessive loss of body fluids (dehydration), the capacity to cool the body through sweating is diminished and the body commences a progressive deterioration through over-heating which, if untreated can lead to heatstroke and death. The first stage experienced of heat stress is where the firefighter may become weak, dizzy and nauseous. The person is moderately dehydrated at this stage. During heat stress the firefighter may experience muscle cramps, thirst and headache.
If detected early, this condition responds quickly to the appropriate action which is to: · remove to a cool place; · rest; · loosen clothing assist air circulation by fanning; · replace lost fluids with cool drinks; · sponge body with cold water; and · avoid further exertion. If these steps do not result in a rapid improvement medical advice must be sought. Heat stress can develop into heat stroke.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 44 Heat stroke is where the person is severely dehydrated and their body starts shutting down the arms and legs in an effort to keep the vital organs (heart, lungs, brain etc.) functional. The person will not be sweating as they do not have enough water in the body to cool down with. They are likely to collapse.
Fit firefighters are more likely to avoid the early onset of heat stress, but everyone reacts differently. The crew leader is responsible for the recognition of the early warning signs in the crew. ALL people have a responsibility for looking after themselves and others. Constant rehydration is very important during firefighting. Upto a litre of water an hour may need to be drunk just to replace the fluids lost by sweating.
Dehydration can be caused by a number of factors including: · Sweating as part of the normal body reaction to cool down; · Alcohol because it is a diuretic and the body requires water to break it down; · Caffiene because it is a diuretic; · High sugar drinks as the body needs water to break the sugar down; · Sports drinks as a higher electrolyte balance reduces the amount of available water in the body; · Poor fitness as you will then work harder to get the same job done; · Tight clothing which reduces evaporation; and · Dry air as you breathe out water vapour but don’t breathe it in. This is a big problem in air conditioned vehicles and offices where dehydration occurs because the humidity is low not because of working hard or a high temperature.
Fireground Supervisors manual Version 1 as at 11:25 AM 11/01/05 45