BF - (2003) Bush Fireﬁghter Manual

THE NEW SOUTH WALES GOVERNMENT A NSW Rural Fire Service (RFS) Publication For use by members of the NSW Rural Fire Service

Suggested distribution: All BF, BFG and BFS trainees - one copy All Firecoms and bases - one copy

Prepared by NSW Rural Fire Service 3/175-179 James Ruse Drive Rosehill, NSW, 2142 Tel: (02) 9684 4411 Fax: (02) 9638 6716

The consultative process for the development of this Manual consisted of: • A “needs analysis” examining NSW Rural Fire Service and kindred organisation accidents, operations, Service Standards, and standard operating procedures; relevant national training packages, and existing national and interstate training materials. • A “wants analysis” consisting of conducting focus groups of members from a wide variety of areas across the state (participation invited through requests for expressions of interest in Service Circulars) and examining formal and informal feedback. • A period of review, trial and comment on the 10 draft chapters of the Manual extending from 1 July 2002 until 30 June 2003, with inclusion of relevant feedback and comment. • Final referral of the manual to NSW Rural Fire Service, Learning and Development Systems section, for endorsement and production.

Dedication This Manual is dedicated to the memory of the late Eric Hughes who produced the original Bush Fire Personnel (BP) training modules in the early 1980s. Eric established a competency based training system for bush firefighters in NSW more than a decade before it was introduced generally for vocational training throughout the nation. The BP modules were adopted, in one form or another, by virtually every Australian firefighting organisation, and strong echoes of their content remain in current national fire training material and in this Manual. There is no doubt that the programs initiated by Eric have saved the lives of firefighters and members of the public, and have helped to minimise the losses from fires. Copyright © 2003 - New South Wales Government (NSW Rural Fire Service)

Note The use of significant amounts of text in chapters 1 to 4 from national fire modules produced by the Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC) is acknowledged - reproduced with permission. The use of text and graphics from the Queensland Fire and Rescue Service / Rural Fire Service in chapter 6 is acknowledged - reproduced with permission.

BF (2003) - Bush Firefighter Manual 1st October Versions 1.1 2004 ISBN 0 9750611 9 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contents

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Fireﬁghting

1 Introduction 1 2 Basic Principles of Firefighter Safety 2 3 Basic Principles of Fire 4 4 Firefighting Agents 14 5 First Attack Firefighting Equipment 16 Summary 24 Self-Check Questions 26 Activities 27

CHAPTER 2 Bush Fire Behaviour and Hazards

1 Introduction 28 2 Factors Affecting Bush Fire Behaviour 28 3 Bush Fire Development 38 4 Typical Examples of Bush Fire Behaviour 43 5 Bush Fire Hazards and Precautions 48 Summary 71 Self-Check Questions 73 Activities 74

CHAPTER 3 Bush Fireﬁghting Equipment

1 Introduction 75 2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 75 3 Hand Tools 89 4 Knapsacks 94 5 Ropes, Lines and Knots 96 6 Ladders 98 7 Hoses and Small Gear 99 8 Water Supplies and Equipment 113 9 Pumps and Pumping Operations 120 Summary 132 Self-Check Questions 135 Activities 136 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4 Bush Fireﬁghting Techniques

1 Introduction 137 2 Responding to a Fire 137 3 Protecting People from Bush Fires 141 4 Bush Fire Suppression Techniques 142 5 Use of Fireﬁghting Agents 150 6 Control Lines 156 7 Mopping Up and Patrol 159 8 Working as Part of a Team 161 9 Fireground Safety 162 10 Working with Tankers 169 11 Working with Machinery 171 12 Working with Aircraft 172 13 Backburning 176 Summary 181 Self-Check Questions 185 Activities 186

CHAPTER 5 Hazard Reduction

1 Introduction 187 2 Principles of Hazard Reduction 187 3 Hazard Reduction and the Law 197 4 Bush Fire Precautions and the Law 199 5 Participating in a Prescribed Burn 201 Summary 208 Self-Check Questions 210 Activities 211

CHAPTER 6 Immediate Emergency Care

1 Introduction 212 2 Casualty Assistance 212 3 Hygiene Precautions 219 4 Caring for Casualties 226 5 Moving a Casualty 240 6 Critical Incident Stress 243 7 First Aid Equipment and Recovery 245 Summary 248 Self-Check Questions 250 Activities 250 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 7 Bush Fireﬁghting Team Work

1 Introduction 252 2 A Typical Fireﬁghting Operation 253 3 Principles of Team Work 260 4 Crew Resource Management (CRM) 266 5 The Incident Control System (ICS) 275 6 Fireground SOPs 279 Summary 281 Self-Check Questions 285 Activities 286

CHAPTER 8 Radio Communications

1 Introduction 287 2 Communication Systems 287 3 Communications Phraseology 312 4 Communications Procedures 326 Summary 344 Self-Check Questions 347 Activities 348

CHAPTER 9 Rural Fire Brigades

1 Introduction 349 2 The Brigade and the Community 350 3 The Rural Fireﬁghting Organisation 357 4 The People in the Brigade 367 5 Brigade Equipment 372 6 Training and Certiﬁcation 376 7 Non-Fire/Incident Activities 383 8 Legal Issues 389 Summary 394 Self-Check Questions 397 Activities 398

continued TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 10 Local Familiarisation

1 Introduction 399 2 Brigade Safety Induction 400 3 Brigade Constitution and Members 401 4 Brigade Facilities 402 5 Brigade Equipment and Maintenance 403 6 Brigade Area Familiarisation 405 7 Brigade Information 406 8 Brigade Training 406 9 Brigade Procedures 407 10 The Local RFS District 408 11 Other Bush Fireﬁghting Organisations 409 Summary 411 Self-Check Questions 412 Activities 413

Answers to Self-Check Questions 414

Extinguisher Colour and Pictogram chart 415

Summary of Changes in Version 1.1 416

Acknowledgments 417 1

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Fireﬁghting

1 Introduction

Welcome to the RFS

Welcome to the NSW Rural Fire Service, one of the largest and most respected Fire Services in the world. Whether you have become a member of the Service to help protect your own rural property, to provide a service to your community, to learn new skills or be part of a vibrant organisation, we trust that your association with the Service will be rewarding and, above all, safe.

You will be using a ‘Workbook’ during your initial training. It summarises the key points of learning, includes the activities you should complete during your training, and explains how you will be assessed to ensure you are competent in all you need to know and do. There are different Workbooks, depending on whether you are doing the standard BF course, the shorter Bush Firefighter Grassland (BFG) course, or the Bush Fire Support (BFS) course for people who are not firefighters but may be providing support (e.g. communications or catering) near a bush fire.

You will find the relevant Workbook is much shorter than this Manual because it focuses only on what is needed for your specific, initial training. We hope you won’t put this Manual away after that training is finished, however, as it will help greatly with your ongoing learning after you become qualified. You should refer back to it regularly as you grow in firefighting knowledge and skill. 2 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

2 Basic Principles of Fireﬁghter Safety

You may have heard of the “three R’s” of basic education – Reading, wRiting and aRithmetic. In firefighter safety there are also “three R’s” – Responsibility, Reporting and Risk assessment. Let’s look at these in more detail:

• “Responsibility” means that you take appropriate care for the safety of yourself and others around you. Everyone else should have done likewise, but you should not blindly assume that they have.

• “Reporting” means that you freely and openly exchange information with others. If you see something that is not right, you speak up. If others are concerned about something, you listen.

• “Risk assessment” means that you think through the consequences of something before you do it. You identify the hazards involved and take action to eliminate or control them.

Safety during firefighting has some important differences to safety in most workplaces. In most workplaces you can usually control the safety of the place itself to a large extent. For example, hazards can often be fenced off or even entirely eliminated. During firefighting you usually don’t have much control over the safety of the place in which you are working. You have to rely much more on being a safe person. This involves four aspects:

• Fitness – You should not fight fires if you suffer from a serious chronic disease, are ill, recovering from a serious injury, fatigued, medicated, intoxicated, stoned or severely stressed. Apart from the risk of injury to yourself, you can become a hazard to your fellow firefighters.

• Procedures – The fireground is no place for people to do their own thing. You need to work in ways that are safe for you and your fellow firefighters, and not get at cross-purposes with them. RFS standard operating procedures (SOPs) are designed to do that. They are not mere bureaucratic rules, but the result of the (often painful) experience of firefighters before you. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 3

• Training – Firefighting is challenging. Under the stress of a fire, you need to be able to perform satisfactorily. You can’t do that with half-baked skills. It’s not enough to just “know what you are doing”. You have to be able to perform tasks almost without thinking about them. If you can’t, you won’t have the “spare brain capacity” available to also look out for hazards.

• Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment – Firefighting is a tough activity. Even normal firefighting activities expose you to wear and tear. You will be issued with personal protective equipment (PPE) for firefighting. Look after it, keep it readily available and use it. Know its limitations. It will protect you against a fire, but only up to a point.

Obviously the way these things apply to you as a basic firefighter will be different to the way they apply to a more senior officer of the Service. Here is what is expected of you:

1. That you identify hazards and risks, and advise others about them.

2. That you use appropriate procedures to control those hazards.

3. That you review the effectiveness of those control procedures.

4. That you participate in applying good health and safety practices in your brigade.

Throughout this Manual you will see hazards and control procedures (or precautions) identified. These may be in relation to the fire itself, the equipment you use to fight the fire, the strategies and tactics you use, operating with others, and dealing with emergencies and casualties. In effect, this whole Manual is a “Safety Manual for Bush Firefighting” 4 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

3 Basic Principles of Fire

(a) Introduction

The first step to identifying and controlling the hazards of fire is to understand fire itself. This section describes briefly the fire triangle and its three components: oxygen, heat and fuel, and the fourth component, which forms the fire tetrahedron – the chemical chain reaction. The section also describes how heat is transferred and the methods that can be used to attack a fire.

(b) What is Fire ?

Fire is a chemical reaction. The most common chemical reaction is the one between oxygen in the air and flammable vapours released by the fuel. In fire suppression it is important to know the components that must be present to bring about the chemical reaction of fire.

The components necessary for a fire to burn, or continue to burn, are illustrated in the fire triangle as:

• Oxygen.

• Heat.

• Fuel.

The three components of the fire triangle are shown in the figure below:

HEAT

OXYGEN FUELFUEL

Figure 1: Fire triangle. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 5

Combustion is a process of oxidation. Oxidation is the combination of oxygen with a substance. At varying temperatures, most substances will combine with oxygen in the air (oxidise). When a substance is oxidising at such a rate that heat and light are being released, it is described as being ‘alight’ or ‘on fire’.

(d) The Fire Triangle

As discussed previously, a fire needs the components of fuel, heat and oxygen for its continued existence. Given fuel and oxygen, a certain amount of energy, as heat, needs to be applied before combustion will occur. When it does occur, it releases much more energy than has already been applied. The net result is excess energy which can:

• Contribute to the heating of air.

• Be radiated from flames or burning fuel.

• Be conducted as heat to other fuel particles.

OXYGEN

This is found in the air we breathe. It is a colourless, odourless gas, which makes up about one fifth of the volume of the atmosphere. Oxygen is necessary for fuel to burn. Heat plus oxygen causes a chemical reaction to occur in fuel, which produces more heat and gases and turns the remainder of the fuel into ash. In the process, oxygen is consumed and needs to be replaced by fresh oxygen moving from elsewhere for the fire to continue burning. This is why fanning a campfire makes it burn more intensely. 6 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

HEAT Every fuel has a particular temperature at which it begins to burn (its ignition temperature). Fire will send a certain amount of heat energy into adjacent unburnt fuel. Initially, most of the heat energy is used to evaporate fuel moisture and other volatile liquids. This is why flammabil- ity is less if fuel moisture content is high. Once the fuel has dried out, it will quickly reach ignition temperature if the heat is still arriving. When combustion occurs, the now burning fuel adds to the chain reaction that drives the fire. Heat can be transferred to adjacent fuels by:

• Radiation.

• Convection.

• Conduction.

Each of these methods of heat transfer will be discussed later in this chapter.

FUEL

A fuel is anything that will burn under suitable conditions. Fuels in general are classified as: • Class A – Involving common solid combustibles, like wood, grass, paper, plastic and rubber. • Class B – Involving flammable liquids like petrol, kerosene, thinners, diesel fuel and oil. • Class C – Involving flammable gases like LPG, natural gas and acetylene. • Class D – Involving combustible metals like magnesium swarf. • While there is no official “Class E” fire, it is sometimes used unofficially to refer to fires involving any fuel combined with live electrical power. • Class F – Involving fires in preheated fats or oils, such as a fire in a deep fat fryer. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 7

Note:

Wildfire (bush fire) fuels are a type of class A fuel, and can be grouped according to:

• Type – Some fuels are more flammable than others due to the volatile oils or compounds within them. (e.g. eucalypts)

• Size – Large fuel particles take longer to burn than small particles.

• Quantity – More fuel may mean more heat being generated and faster combustion.

• Arrangement – If fuel pieces are densely packed, they may not dry out or oxygen may not be able to penetrate easily; if widely separated, the heat transfer may not be sufficient to bring pieces of fuel to ignition temperature.

• Moisture content – If there is too much moisture, then the fuel may not reach ignition temperature.

(e) The Fire Tetrahedron

In a fire, a fourth component is also present during combustion – the chemical chain reaction. In the combustion process, a chemical chain reaction occurs between the fuel and oxygen and is promoted by heat. This reaction is essential to sustaining a fire. If this process is inhibited or interrupted, the combustion reaction is suppressed and the fire is extinguished.

Thus the fire tetrahedron (a four sided triangular pyramid figure) shows that fire requires the interaction of four separate components:

• Oxygen.

• Heat.

• Fuel.

• Chemical chain reaction.

The relationship between these four components is illustrated through the fire tetrahedron. 8 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

Oxidising Agent

Fuel H e l a e t Fu Heat Chemical chain reaction

Chemical chain reaction

Figure 2: Fire Tetrahedron.

Some types of firefighting agents are capable of directly interrupting the chemical chain reaction. Although not commonly used in bush firefighting, you will sometimes find them in extinguishers fitted to bush fire vehicles. Such extinguishers are usually provided to deal with small flammable liquid or electrical fires, such as might even occur on the firefighting vehicle itself.

(f) Heat Transfer

As already mentioned, a fire’s heat can be transferred to adjoining fuel in three ways. They are radiation, convection, and conduction.

RADIATION

Any hot object loses heat by giving out infra-red radiation. This is a form of heat energy which travels in all directions from its source (the fire) to nearby objects. It is the direct heat you feel from a fire. Radiant heat does not need a medium to travel through. It can travel through a vacuum. For example, the sun’s energy travels through space, which is a vacuum, and warms the earth. When this radiation hits an object, it is absorbed and heats the object.

Burning fuel and flames radiate large amounts of heat. The intensity of radiant heat will drop very quickly with increasing distance from its source. Radiant heat will directly act upon fuel immediately around the fire and bring it to its ignition temperature. The radiant heat comes from the flames and any smouldering fuel. In summary, the hotter a fire, the greater the amount of radiant heat, and the faster the fire will spread by radiation. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 9

Figure 3: Radiation.

CONVECTION

Convection is the movement of heat through the circulation of hot fluids or gases. At a fire, heated air moves upwards when it is hotter than the surrounding air. As air rises and moves sideways with the wind, it will carry heat with it, and then gradually lose it to the surrounding air. As a fire gains in intensity, it will heat more air which rises faster. Air must move in towards the fire at ground level to replace it. This is sometimes called an indraft wind. This process forms the convection column of rising hot air above the fire. It also includes ash, embers and the smoke plume. Volatile components of fuel continue to burn as they rise. This is the main process occurring in flames.

The stronger the convection, the further the volatile components of fuel travel as they burn, and the longer the flames. The flames from an intense fire burning in heavy ground fuels may reach and ignite the crowns of trees. Convection has several important implications for firefighters:

• A fire may supply its own oxygen by continually drawing in a supply of fresh air.

• Very large fires may create strong indraft winds that may, in turn, alter the behaviour of the fire. 10 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

The hot air rising from a fire often carries pieces of burning fuel which may then be carried forward in front of the fire and cause small fires to start well ahead of the main fire. This is called spotting.

Figure 4: Convection.

CONDUCTION

Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through a solid object from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. Different substances conduct heat at different rates. For example, metals are more effective conductors of heat than wood.

In a fire, conduction refers to the movement of heat through the fuel itself. Any large piece of burning fuel will conduct heat, but this is generally a slow and minor source of heat transfer.

Figure 5: Conduction. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 11

(g) Methods of Attacking the Fire

Understanding the fire triangle now gives you three ways to attack a fire. Each method is designed to break the fire triangle. You can:

• Cut off the oxygen supply and smother the fire.

• Reduce the temperature and cool the fire.

• Remove the fuel from the path of the fire and starve the fire.

CUTTING OFF THE OXYGEN SUPPLY

This may be the quickest and most efficient form of attack with some small fires. However, cutting off the oxygen supply of a large fire in the open is usually too difficult. Firefighters can use the following methods to cut off the oxygen supply to a small fire:

• Stamping out and beating out the flames along the edge of a control line at a grass fire.

• Shovelling soil onto a fire. In most cases this will help to put the flames out, but embers may continue to burn slowly.

• Laying foam on burning fuels.

• Using a fire extinguisher that applies a smothering substance to a fire.

• Using a fire blanket to extinguish a small cooking fire or a fire involving a person’s clothing.

H E A T

O FUEL

Figure 6: Cutting off the oxygen supply. 12 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

REDUCING THE TEMPERATURE

This is one of the most effective ways of stopping a wide range of fires. When water is added to a fire:

• It absorbs a lot of the heat energy, and removes it as the water evaporates.

• It cools the fuel below its ignition temperature.

The main purpose of using water when fighting fires is to cool the fuel to the point where combustion stops. Water must be directed initially to the base of the flames, where combustion is occurring. Adding water to unburnt fuel increases its moisture content and makes it harder for it to reach its ignition temperature.

N E G Y X T O FUEL

Figure 7: Reducing the temperature.

REMOVING THE FUEL

Removing the fuel may be an effective way of stopping a fire. For example if a fire involves leaking gas, turning of the gas supply will extinguish the fire. Additionally, it may be the best way to prevent large bush or grass fires from occurring. Dry firefighting is the term used to describe firefighting techniques that do not involve the use of water.

The following techniques are examples of dry firefighting of bush and grass fires:

• The use of hand tools to break up fuel and remove it from the heat of a low to moderate intensity fire. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 13

• The use of hand tools to remove fuels and create a narrow control line as an edge for back burning to control a moderate intensity fire.

• The use of machinery such as bulldozers to make a wide break or to clear a large area to stop a large fire, or to provide an edge for a large back burn.

• Back burning and burning out, that is removing fuels from the path of a bush fire.

N H E E G A Y T X O

Figure 8: Removing the fuel.

COMBINATION OF METHODS

Although the methods of extinguishing a fire have been dealt with separately in this section, it should be understood that, in many instances, it is a combination of methods that inevitably brings about extinguishment. For example, the main effect of water is to cool the fire. However, the production of steam has a minor secondary effect. It helps smother the fire by keeping out the oxygen. Also, where water is used to extinguish a flame front, a control line bare of fuels may also be constructed to minimise the possibility of the fire re-igniting and spreading. 14 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

4 Fireﬁghting Agents

Firefighting agents are substances that can extinguish a fire. There is no single agent that can extinguish all types of fires. Each has its own characteristics and limitations. The most common firefighting agents include:

(a) Water

Water is a cooling agent for use on Class A fires, but can be dangerous to use on any other class of fire. Water absorbs very large amounts of heat when it vaporises. It is the most common agent used for fighting bush and grass fires. It can be applied from hoses, hose-reels, knapsack sprays and water extinguishers.

Wetting agents are sometimes added to water to improve its ability to cling to and penetrate porous combustible materials. This can improve its cooling effectiveness on many fires.

(b) Class A Foam

Class A foam is an aerated mixture of water and a foam-making chemical. It is mainly used for fighting bush and grass fires and is sometimes called bush firefighting foam (BFFF). It is more effective at extinguishing such fires than plain water and can also be used to coat buildings to help protect them from an approaching bush fire.

Most RFS tankers have foam-making equipment permanently installed into their pumping system. It only takes the operation of a few valves to allow foam concentrate from a special tank or 20 litre drum to be drawn into the water being delivered into hoses from the tanker. In the RFS, foam mixtures of up to about 1% foam (1 part concentrate to 99 parts water) are used for protecting buildings and attacking fires, while the mixture may be adjusted down to as low as 0.1% to 0.25% for mopping up.

Class B foam is an aerated mixture of water and a foam-making chemical. It is mainly used for fighting Class B (flammable liquid) fires. It can also be used on Class A fires, but can be dangerous to use on any other class of fire or a fire involving live electrical equipment. Foam can be applied from special foam making nozzles and from foam fire extinguishers. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 15

Most RFS tankers have foam-making equipment permanently installed into their pumping system. It only takes the operation of a few valves to allow foam concentrate from a special tank or 20 litre drum to be drawn into the water being delivered into hoses from the tanker. In the RFS, the Class B foam normally used is Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) used at a concentration of 6%.

(d) Extinguishing Powders

These are smothering and chemical chain reaction inhibiting agents mainly for use on Class B (flammable liquid) fires. They are sometimes also referred to as “dry chemical powders” (DCP). They do not conduct electricity and can safely be applied to fires involving live electrical power. The most common type of powder is sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), but other higher performance powders are available, while others (Multi-class or Tri-class powders) are also effective against Class A fires.

Extinguishing powders have little cooling effect and the fire might re-ignite once the cloud of powder has dispersed, if there is a spark or hot spot still present. The powder residue is messy, requires clean up, and might damage or corrode some types of equipment.

Powder extinguishers are frequently carried on RFS vehicles. Most will have a small extinguisher of this type in the cabin in case of a fire in the vehicle’s engine or equipment. Tankers often carry one or more larger 9 Kg powder extinguishers to handle small flammable liquid fires.

(e) Carbon Dioxide

This is a smothering gas that occurs naturally in small quantities in the atmosphere. It is used mainly for extinguishing small electrical and Class B (flammable liquid) fires. It is not as powerful a firefighting agent as the extinguishing powders, but it has the advantage of not leaving any mess or residue. In large quantities in a confined space it can cause asphyxi- ation.

Carbon dioxide (or CO2 for short) extinguishers are sometimes carried on RFS tankers, especially those that regularly deal with vehicle or electrical fires. As with extinguishing powders, the fire might re-ignite once the cloud of CO2 has dispersed. It also makes a loud roaring noise when applied from an extinguisher and the discharge is intensely cold, so you should avoid directing it onto a person’s skin. 16 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

(f) Vapourising Liquids

These are smothering and chemical chain reaction inhibiting agents mainly for use on Class B (flammable liquid) and electrical fires. They were quite common until it was discovered that most of them caused depletion of the earth’s ozone layer. Some industries are still allowed use of them, notably on aircraft in flight.

Newer, ozone friendlier vapourising liquids, such as NAF P-III can be found in some extinguishers, but are not common. You might find similar agents sometimes used as fire protection in diesel railway locomotives. They are not in use within the RFS.

(g) Wet Chemicals

These are smothering agents for extinguishing Class F fires in deep fat fryers or similar situations. They are corrosive liquids that react with the surface of the burning fat to produce a soapy layer that smothers the fire. You might typically see wet chemical extinguishers installed in the kitchens of fast food outlets. They are not in use in the RFS.

(h) Other Agents

Other firefighting agents may include dry earth or sand, special chemicals and powders. Though not strictly a firefighting agent, using a fire blanket is another way of smothering small fires. If using a fire blanket for this purpose, be sure to hold it so that your hands are protected from the fire as you approach. To eliminate the risk of contact with any flames, you should also always hold and apply the blanket so that it is draped over the near side of the fire first.

5 First Attack Fireﬁghting Equipment

In this section we will cover first-attack firefighting. This will serve three purposes:

• It will introduce you to the use of first-attack firefighting equipment.

• It will give you an example of how you should identify the hazards of any activity and take action to eliminate or control them.

• It will reinforce your knowledge of how fire behaves and how it is extinguished. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 17

First attack firefighting is safely dealing with a fire that has just commenced to burn. It commonly involves the use of a hose-reel, fire extinguisher or other light firefighting equipment that is immediately to hand. First attack fire training is frequently provided to people in their workplace. Examples might include extinguishing:

• A small fire in farm machinery before it spreads.

• A small fire in an electrical appliance.

• A small fire in its very early stages in a house or shed.

• A small grass or stubble fire that has just started.

(a) First Attack Fireﬁghting Equipment

“First attack” firefighting equipment can be found in many buildings and similar equipment is carried on most RFS vehicles. It includes hose- reels, fire blankets and extinguishers.

HOSE REELS

A hose reel usually consists of a 20 mm diameter plastic hose, wound on a reel and connected to a supply of water. The water stream will usually throw to a distance of about 6 metres and the nozzle often provides for a jet or spray pattern to be selected. You will see two types:

• Those mounted in buildings are usually about 30 metres long, and have a nozzle similar to that on a typical garden hose. They are connected to the building’s water supply and are often designed so that you can’t remove the nozzle from its holder without first opening the main water valve.

• Those mounted on firefighting vehicles are usually much longer and have a more sophisticated nozzle. They use water supply from the vehicles tank and pump system, or an external supply to the pump. They can only operate while there is water available and the pump is operating. ( Note: Some tankers may have larger 25mm diameter hose-reels).

A hose reel can be used to extinguish a Class A fire (common solid combustibles), but can be dangerous to use on any other class of fire or live electrical equipment. It can be operated by one person, but help is often needed to run out the hose around any corners to get to a fire. 18 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

To operate a hose reel, you need to ensure the water supply to the hose is on, advance the hose to within a safe striking distance of the fire, and open the nozzle valve.

Hose Reel

Figure 9: A typical hose reel on an RFS tanker.

A fire blanket consists of a piece of fire resistant fabric that can be used to smother a small fire or wrap around a person whose clothing is alight. Fire blankets are often installed in kitchen areas where small cooking fires may occur.

When using a fire blanket make sure you hold it with your hands protected from the fire by the blanket. Place the bottom of the blanket on the near side of the fire. Do not throw the bottom of the blanket onto the far side of the fire as flames can then run up the blanket to your hands.

Note: that the woollen blankets carried on RFS vehicles are primarily for protection of crew members in the case of a fire overrun, rather than for firefighting.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Fire extinguishers are cylinders containing a firefighting agent which can be discharged on to a fire when needed. Most extinguishers are “portable” (i.e. can carried by hand) and are mounted on brackets at a convenient height on walls or in vehicles. Larger types are sometimes mounted on a wheeled trolley and called “mobile” extinguishers. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 19

The most common way in which an extinguisher is operated is by pulling out a safety pin on the head of the extinguisher and then squeezing the operating handle while directing the stream of agent at the base of the fire. The acronym PASS is sometimes used to describe the operation of this type of extinguisher. It stands for:

P - Pull out the safety pin.

A - Aim at the base of the fire.

S - Squeeze the operating handle.

S - Sweep the stream of firefighting agent back and forth across the base of the fire.

Some older types of extinguishers operate in different ways. If you might have to operate these, have your trainer explain their operation to you or read the instructions on the label.

Extinguishers are marked according to the firefighting agent they contain. In the past in Australia, extinguishers were colour coded according to the agent contained inside. From 1997, the international colour code (red for all extinguishers) was adopted, with only a band around the top half of the extinguisher being colour coded.

The table that follows shows the types of extinguishers, their band colour code, the types of fire on which they can be used, and other comments.

Refer to the extinguisher chart on page 415.

Type of Colour Code Suitable for Comments Extinguisher of band (class of fire)

Water Red A Not safe on other classes of fire

Foam Blue B, A Not safe on other classes of fire

Powder White B, (E) ‘AB (E)’ - Type powder is also suitable for use on Class A fires

Carbon Black (E), B Has a loud and cold discharge Dioxide

Vaporising Yellow (E), A,B Older types (e.g. BCF) have been Liquid withdrawn from general use

Wet Oatmeal F Can also be used on Class Chemical A fires 20 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

Extinguishers vary in their range (“reach”) and time of discharge. A water extinguisher, for instance, has reach of 4 to 5 metres and takes about 60 seconds to empty. A carbon dioxide extinguisher, on the other hand, has a reach of only 1 to 2 metres and may discharge in only 10 to 15 seconds.

(b) First Attack Fireﬁghting Hazards and Precautions

The hazards and precautions involved in first attack firefighting include:

POSSIBLE INJURY WHILE WORKING ALONE

Hazard - It’s possible you might encounter a fire in its early stages while working alone. If you attack the fire without reporting what you are doing to anyone else first, you run the risk of no-one coming to help you if you are injured or need assistance.

Precautions – Always report the fire first; to those nearby and to the brigade. If you are not alone, have one of you report it while the other/s safely fight/s the fire.

FIRE TOO LARGE TO HANDLE

Hazard – First attack firefighting equipment has limited capabilities. It is easy for a fire to grow to a size where it can overpower your efforts and threaten your safety.

Precautions – Only use first attack equipment when the fire is small. As a rule of thumb, a fire extinguisher will usually handle a fire up to about 1 metre by 1 metre in area (even that might be too large in a confined area where fumes and heat from the fire are rapidly accumulating). If you are experienced in firefighting you might be able to extinguish a larger fire in some cases. Don’t open doors that are hot, or show other signs that an intense fire might be behind them.

FIRE INVOLVES DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES

Hazard – A fire might involve dangerous substances, like explosives, sealed containers of flammable liquid or gas that might explode; toxic, reactive or radioactive materials. All of these are too risky to attack using first attack equipment. Flammable liquid spill fires may run downhill and be intense. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 21

Precautions – Check to see what the fire involves before attacking it. If the fire or its immediate surroundings contains dangerous substances, get well away from it and do not use first-attack equipment. Do not get downhill of a flammable liquid spill fire. Keep a safe distance from any fire. Use the maximum discharge range of your equipment until it is safe to approach closer.

DANGEROUS FIRE PRODUCTS Hazard – The smoke, heat and gases produced by a fire are dangerous, particularly in a confined space. You could be overcome or become disoriented and unable to find your way out safely.

Precautions – Approach the fire from upwind. If indoors, always make sure you have a clear escape route available behind you. Evaluate the smoke, heat and gases being produced by the fire. If you are even slightly affected by them, it’s too risky to use first attack equipment - back off! Keep a safe distance from any fire. Use the maximum discharge range of your equipment until it is safe to approach closer.

INCORRECT EQUIPMENT SELECTED

Hazard – Some firefighting agents are dangerous to use on the wrong class of fire.

Precautions – Check to see what the fire involves before attacking it. Check that your equipment uses an agent that is safe for the type of fire involved.

EQUIPMENT FAULTY OR DEPLETED

Hazard – First attack firefighting equipment might malfunction. Extinguishers might be depleted (i.e. already have been discharged).

Precautions – Maintain your equipment properly. Check that your equipment works just before you commit yourself to firefighting by operating it briefly off to the side of the fire. This will also help you judge the range of discharge of the extinguisher. Once an extinguisher has been used ( even momentarily ), lay it on its side to indicate it has been operated, and have it serviced and recharged before placing it back in service. 22 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

Based on the above analysis of hazards and precautions, the following procedures are specified for the use of first attack firefighting equipment:

WARN ANYONE IN DANGER

• Tell anyone in immediate danger about the fire and that they should get out of the area.

REPORT THE FIRE

• Report the fire, or make sure it has been reported, to the brigade (i.e. by calling ‘000’ or by radio).

DECIDE WHETHER TO ATTACK THE FIRE

Decide whether or not to attack the fire based on the four “Ss” for safety:

• Your support – Never fight a fire alone. Always have someone backing you up and/or who can get help for you.

• The fire’s size – Unless you are very experienced, a fire bigger than about one metre by one metre is too large for first attack fire fighting.

• The fire’s surroundings – A fire that involves or threatens containers of flammable, reactive, sealed or compressed material, or hazardous chemicals, may suddenly explode or give off toxic fumes. They are too dangerous for first attack firefighting.

• The fire’s smoke, fumes and heat – If they are affecting you, it is too dangerous for first attack firefighting.

If the fire is too dangerous to be attacked, evacuate the area and (if in a building) close any doors behind you when you and other occupants are clear.

IF SAFE, SELECT THE CORRECT FIREFIGHTING AGENT AND EQUIPMENT

• If the fire is safe to attack, then the type of material burning will determine the most appropriate agent and equipment to use.

• Use the information in the following table as a guide to selecting the agent and type of firefighting equipment. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 23

Class Type of material Extinguishing method Fire equipment of fire on fire recommended recommended

A Common solids Cooling Hose-reel Water extinguisher AB(E) Powder

B Flammable and Smothering Foam, Powder, Carbon combustible liquids Reaction Inhibition Dioxide or Vaporising Liquid extinguisher

C Flammable Gases Starving (Shut off gas supply)

D Combustible metals Special Smothering Special agents

(E) Fires involving Smothering or Reaction Vaporising Liquid, Carbon electricity (not an Inhibition, using a NON- Dioxide or Dry Powder official fire class) conducting agent extinguisher

F Hot fats and oils Special Smothering Wet chemical fire extinguisher or a Fire Blanket

SAFELY APPROACH AND ATTACK THE FIRE

• Attack the fire from upwind if it is out of doors or in a breezy area.

• Attack the fire from uphill if it involves spilt flammable liquids.

• Don’t open a door that is hot or shows signs of fire behind it.

• Always have a safe escape route available to you.

• Check your equipment before committing yourself to firefighting.

• Keep low and stay clear of smoke, fumes and heat.

• Knock down the fire from a distance, using the maximum effective range of your equipment.

• Lay used extinguishers on their side to indicate they are discharged.

• If the fire is not being safely extinguished, evacuate the area and close doors behind you when you and other occupants are clear. 24 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

AFTER THE FIRE

• Disturb the fire area as little as possible. This allows any investigators to determine the cause of the fire more easily.

• Keep out of smoke and fire affected areas, even if the fire appears out.

• Do not re-occupy the area until it is confirmed to be safe.

• Arrange for any firefighting equipment used to be serviced and recharged.

SUMMARY

• The “three R’s” of firefighter safety are responsibility, reporting and risk assessment. Safety during firefighting largely depends on being a safe person. Aspects of being a safe person include fitness, procedures, training and personal protective clothing and equipment. • As a firefighter you will be expected to identify hazards and risks, advise others about them, use appropriate procedures to control those hazards, review the effectiveness of those control procedures, and participate in applying good health and safety practices in your brigade. • A fire is a chemical reaction that requires a fuel, oxygen, heat and an uninhibited chain reaction to occur. Heat can be transferred by radiation, conduction and convection. Fires are classified according to the type of fuel that is burning. • Wildfire (bush fire) fuels are a type of class A fuel, and can be grouped according to type, size, quantity, arrangement and moisture content. • Methods of attacking a fire include to cut off the oxygen supply and smother the fire, to reduce the temperature and cool the fire, and to remove the fuel from the path of the fire and starve it. • Firefighting agents include water, Class A foam, Class B foam, extinguishing powders, carbon dioxide, vaporising liquids, wet chemicals and other agents. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 25

• First attack firefighting equipment includes hose-reels, fire blankets and fire extinguishers. • Hazards associated with first attack firefighting include possible injury while working alone, fire too large to handle, fire involving dangerous substances, dangerous fire products, incorrect equipment selected, and faulty or depleted equipment. • First attack firefighting procedures include to warn anyone in danger, report the fire, decide whether to attack the fire, select the correct firefighting equipment, safely approach and attack the fire, and take appropriate actions after the fire is out. • In deciding whether or not to attack a fire you should consider your support, and the fire’s size, surroundings and the smoke, fumes and heat it is producing. If the fire is too dangerous to be attacked, you should evacuate the area and close any doors behind you when you and other occupants are clear. 26 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. The three R’s of firefighter safety are responsibility, reporting and risk assessment.

2. The four aspects of being a safe person include your fitness, procedures, training and personal protective clothing and equipment.

3. A factor present in the tetrahedron of combustion, but not the triangle of combustion is the presence of sufficient heat to sustain combustion.

4. A Class D fire is one that involves pre-heated fats or oils as a fuel.

5. Large sized bush fire fuel particles or components take longer to burn.

6. Heat transfer by radiation does not involve the heating of air.

7. Water can be dangerous to use on a fire involving live electricity.

8. The acronym ‘PASS’ can be used to describe the method of operation of the most common type of fire extinguisher.

9. A fire extinguisher colour coded red with a white band would be safe to use on a fire involving live electricity.

10. Unless you are very experienced, a fire bigger than about one metre by one metre is too large for first attack firefighting. INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 27

ACTIVITIES

1. Look at typical materials and objects around you at home, at work or at the fire station/shed. What type of fuel do they involve? If they were on fire, what class of fire would they be? What would be the best method to use to extinguish them?

2. Look at the fire extinguishers carried by your brigade. What type are they? Where are they stowed and how are they released from their holder? How are they operated? On which class/es of fires should they be used and not used?

3. Imagine that a fire has occurred among particular materials or objects at your fire station/shed. What would be your actions? How would you decide if it was safe to attack? What are the “fire’s” surroundings like? What would be your escape route?

4. Find out what type of fire extinguishers are not carried by your brigade, but might be installed in workplaces and around other structures or vehicles in your brigade’s area.

5. Under supervision of a trainer, participate in exercises using fire extinguishers, hose-reels and/or blankets on simulated or actual training fires. Evaluate your own performance. What can you do next time to improve that performance? 28

CHAPTER 2 Bush Fire Behaviour and Hazards

1 Introduction

Chapter 1 covered fire behaviour in general. This Chapter will cover the behaviour of bush and grass fires in particular; or “wildfires” as they are called at a national and international level. There are three reasons for doing this:

• It will enable you to understand the behaviour of fire, so that you can better anticipate fire hazards and take precautions to safeguard yourself and others against them.

• It will enable you to understand the behaviour of fire, so that you can more effectively protect people and property from it.

• It will ensure that you understand and use the same terminology that is used by other firefighters, so that you do not misunder- stand orders and/or work at cross purposes to others.

2 Factors Affecting Bush Fire Behaviour

(a) Bush Fire Factors

Fires are dynamic by nature. Their movement and behaviour can be described in terms of flame height, rate of spread (how quickly the fire is moving through the fuels), spotting behaviour and overall intensity. Fire behaviour depends on three main factors, namely fuel, weather and topography. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 29

(b) Fuel

Fuel may be rated as one of the most important factors influencing the way fire behaves and travels. You need to know about fuel to understand fire behaviour. Fuel varies in its:

• Type.

• Size and quantity.

• Arrangement.

• Moisture content.

TYPES OF FUEL

In Australia, common fuel components include:

• Grass (usually after it is partly or fully cured; that is,

dried out after it dies).

• Litter (e.g. leaf litter) lying on the ground.

• Small herbs and shrubs.

• Decomposing humus and duff (fine ground litter).

• Shrubs (heathlands or as an under-storey layer).

• Trees (eucalypts, wattles, she-oaks, pine trees).

• Material remaining after logging (including sawdust).

Most of these fuels will ignite and burn readily given the right conditions. They will burn with different degrees of intensity. Grass fires, for example, may spread more rapidly than a fire in a tall, dense forest which generally burns slower but more intensely. Eucalypt fuels, in particular bark, are well known for causing spotting.

FUEL SIZE AND QUANTITY

Fuel is normally classified as fine or heavy (coarse). Fine fuels (less than 6mm in diameter) such as leaves, twigs and grasses burn readily and cause spotting as the burning embers are carried through the air, starting new fires ahead of the main fire. Coarse or heavy fuels (greater than 6mm in diameter) such as sticks, branches and logs tend to ignite less readily and burn more slowly. 30 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

It is mainly fine fuels that drive the forward spread of a fire, while the heavy fuels are consumed in the smouldering zone behind the main fire front. The fine fuel is ignited first, and then this heats the heavy fuel, enabling it to burn. The proportion of fine fuel and heavy fuel affects the rate of spread and intensity of the fire. The volume of fuel affects fire behaviour. Generally, the more fine fuel there is, the greater the rate of spread, and the greater the intensity of the fire.

ARRANGEMENT OF FUEL

Depending on the size of the individual fuel particles, the way pieces of fuel are arranged in relation to one another affects how they burn. Well-separated pieces of fuel are harder to ignite than more closely grouped collections of the same material. This is because radiant heat diminishes rapidly the further it travels.

Fuels that are tightly packed together or compacted, such as peat, smoulder slowly because of the lack of oxygen and generally higher moisture content.

Fine, loosely stacked materials burn quickly and fiercely. A continuous “ladder” of fine fuel from the ground surface to the crown of the vegetation encourages crown fire development.

MOISTURE CONTENT

Fire behaviour is affected by how damp fuels are, that is their moisture content. The fuel moisture content will vary depending on factors such as weather conditions, vegetation type, the moisture content of the soil and whether the fuel pieces are living or dead vegetation. Fuel that is dry and fine will burn better than heavy fuels that are wet. Some grasses for instance, will not burn readily until fully dried out (cured).

All dead fuels take up or give off moisture according to:

• The daily temperature and humidity cycles. Dead fine fuels change their moisture content rapidly in response to these cycles, while heavy fuels vary slowly and rarely reach extremes of wetness or dryness.

• The time since last rainfall and the amount of rain received. Over a number of days, the effects of recent rainfall will disappear. This happens more rapidly in fine fuels than in heavy fuels.

• The dryness of the soil. Dry soil will dry out fuels in contact with it, and wet soil will moisten such fuels. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 31

As there is normally more moisture in heavy fuel, it takes more heat to dry the fuel and cause ignition. For this reason, most heavy fuels burn much slower than finer fuels. The dryness (or moisture content) of fuels affects:

• Ease of ignition.

• Probability of spotting.

• Rate of combustion.

• Rate of fire spread.

• The amount of heat radiated from the flames.

The drier the fuel, the greater are these factors for the type of fuel that is burning.

MEASURING FUEL MOISTURE CONTENT

Several techniques can be used to measure the moisture content of fuels. Fuel moisture content is sometimes estimated by taking into account weather conditions, temperature, relative humidity and the current seasonal dryness. Visual assessment of grass and crop lands can also be used.

The most common technique used, however, involves drying fuel samples in an oven and determining the moisture content by measuring the weight difference before drying and after drying.

Weather is the second major factor that impacts on the spread of fire. The four key elements of weather are:

• Air temperature.

• Relative humidity.

• Wind (speed and direction).

• Atmospheric stability. 32 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

AIR TEMPERATURE

The sun warms solid objects, such as fuels, and the surface of the land. This has the effect of raising the temperature of the fuels and the air. A change in the temperature, and the resulting change in relative humidity, will change the fuel moisture content and subsequently the ease of ignition. Therefore higher temperatures normally mean fuels that are warmer, drier and more easily ignited.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

All air contains a certain amount of water in an invisible gaseous form called water vapour. Relative humidity is a measure of the water vapour content of the air as a percentage of its water vapour holding capacity at the same temperature.

In the absence of rain, the amount of moisture in dead finer fuels, for example leaves, litter and grass, varies according to the level of humidity in the air. On humid days, fine dead fuels absorb moisture from the air and burn more slowly or may not burn at all. On dry days with low humidity levels, the air will draw moisture out of these fuels and they will ignite more easily, and burn faster and more fiercely. FIRE INTENSITY

DAY NIGHT

0600hrs 1800hrs 0600hrs

Figure 10: Fire intensity increases as the temperature rises and relative humidity falls during the day. It is reduced as humidity increases and temperature drops at night. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 33

WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION

Wind speed is an important factor in determining the intensity of a fire, the speed at which it travels and how it is controlled. Wind supplies oxygen for the burning process, removes ash and smoke from the area and has the effect of increasing the rate of burning. The stronger the wind, the more oxygen is supplied to the fire and the more smoke is removed.

Wind slants the flames over the fuel ahead of the fire and causes the flames to be closer to the ground. This increases the heating effect of flame and radiation on the unburnt fuels ahead. The effect of this is to spread the fire more quickly from one piece of fuel to another.

Wind also bends the convection column through taller vegetation ahead of the fire, causing it to dry out rapidly. This may allow the subsequent ignition of this vegetation.

The wind may also lift burning materials, such as bark and other embers, and carry them ahead of the main fire to start new fires. These are called spot ﬁres.

Figure 11: Effects of wind.

Wind direction refers to the direction the wind is coming from. Sudden changes in wind direction can cause shifts in the fire front. These shifts can be particularly dangerous if they occur unexpectedly. Firefighters require information regarding any potential changes in wind direction to help them attack a fire and to ensure crew safety in the event of the fire changing direction. A knowledge of local wind patterns is helpful to firefighters. 34 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

A dangerous aspect of wind change is that it can alter the direction of the fire without warning. This can cause long and relatively quiet fire flanks to suddenly become active fire fronts.

LEVEL OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Atmospheric stability refers to the vertical movement of air masses which occurs when hot air rises and is replaced by cooler air. Atmospheric stability is important because vertical air motion can affect local wind patterns. Atmospheric stability also determines, to a large extent, cloud development and in particular the possibility of thunderstorm development. In stable atmospheric conditions:

• The vertical movement of air is limited.

• Stratus type clouds (layered) are often present.

• Smoke columns drift apart after limited rise.

• There are fog layers.

• The winds are generally light and predictable.

Fire behaviour will be predictable in these circumstances.

In unstable atmospheric conditions, fire behaviour is erratic. Convection columns will develop rapidly and intense spotting may occur with little warning. In turn, the airflow into the fire at low levels is increased, and this has marked effect on fire intensity. In unstable atmospheric conditions:

• Vertical movement of air occurs easily.

• Cumulus (cotton wool) type clouds show noticeable vertical growth.

• Smoke columns can rise to great heights.

• Winds are gusty and unpredictable.

• Lightning strikes may occur from thunderstorms.

• Strong winds may occur from thunderstorms and rain clouds*.

• Whirlwinds (“willy-willies”) may occur.

Fire behaviour can be unpredictable under these conditions. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 35

Note: that an unstable atmosphere can also be indicated by clear, blue sky, conditions. The Haines Index is a convenient measure of atmospheric stability and moisture. It is a figure from 2 to 6. Up to three points are allocated for the level of instability and up to three points for the level of dryness. A Haines Index of 5 or 6 can indicate very unstable and/or dry air and usually means fire behaviour will be unpredictable and “flukey”. A map of the state is regularly provided to the Service by the Bureau of Meteorology, showing the Haines Index for various areas.

* Strong outflow winds may occur from thunderstorms and rain clouds in an unstable atmosphere. These are called “downbursts”. Small downbursts are called “microbursts”. While they last for only 10 to 30 minutes, they can be quite strong and affect fire behaviour with little warning. A “wet” microburst originates from storm clouds, but a “dry” microburst can originate from fairly ordinary looking clouds. In a dry microburst, falling rain causes a strong downdraft of air. As this rain falls it reaches a dry layer of air and evaporates. This cools the air and makes it descend even faster. The only sign of a dry microburst, before the wind hits, might be “virga”. That is, rain that falls, but does not reach the ground. It will be visible as wisps of rain below the affected cloud.

(d) Topography

Topography describes the lay of the land, that is the shape of the terrain. The topography will affect the direction and speed at which a fire will travel. The effects can be quite complex, as the topography will at the same time modify the local wind speed and direction.

SLOPE

If a fire is travelling upslope, there will be a shorter distance for radiant heat to travel from the flames to unburnt fuel. Upslope fuels will be preheated to their ignition temperature more quickly. Slope can then affect the speed of a fire. A rule of thumb that may be used is, for every 10 degrees of upslope, double the rate of spread. For every 10 degrees of downslope, halve the rate of spread. A 20-degree upslope gives a four-fold increase. 36 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

Figure 12: Effect of uphill slope.

Figure 13: Fires burn slower downhill. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 37

ASPECT

Aspect is the direction that a feature or slope faces. This will influence the amount of solar radiation that is received. Therefore, northerly and westerly aspects will be warmer and drier than southerly and easterly aspects. This will also influence the nature of the vegetation growing on different aspects. For example, northern and western aspects will generally have drier and more flammable vegetation than southern and eastern aspects where vegetation will tend to be lush and less flammable.

Therefore, fires on northern and western aspects will generally have greater levels of intensity than fires on southern and eastern aspects.

WIND

The way that wind interacts with terrain can be quite complex. Exposed faces of hills and ridges will have increased wind speeds, while their leeside may be almost calm. Under some circumstances, the leeside can have dangerous turbulent winds blowing in the reverse direction. Valleys may have similar conditions.

Figure 14: Lee slope turbulence. 38 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

3 Bush Fire Development

(a) Introduction

Fires can be generally described in terms of the fuel in which they are burning. This section briefly examines the characteristics of the different types of fire, and defines important parts of a fire’s perimeter.

(b) Types of Fire

SURFACE FIRE

This type of fire travels just above ground surface in vegetation such as grass, low shrubs and forest litter. It has the following characteristics:

• It is by far the most common type of fire.

• It burns in fuels lying on the ground.

• It consumes only litter and low vegetation, such as grass.

• It does not extend into the crowns of trees.

GROUND FIRE

This type of fire burns the organic material in the soil layer, as happens in a peat fire, and often also the surface litter and small vegetation. It has the following characteristics:

• It occurs only in a few parts of Australia.

• It smoulders with no flame and little smoke. This can be a problem because they can burn unnoticed and may later ignite surface fires.

CROWN FIRE

This is a fire which burns in the crowns of trees ahead of, and above, an intense fire in the undergrowth. Radiant heat and direct flame contact resulting from the surface fire ignites the tree tops. Strong winds carry the fire along the upper storey vegetation. It has the following characteristics:

• It is a fast-travelling fire that is most destructive and usually consumes all in its path. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 39

• Crown fires are followed shortly afterwards by an intense surface fire.

• Often crown fires are accompanied by short or long distance spotting. Spotting distances of 2.5 kilometres are not uncommon.

• Falling material from a crown fire can start further surface fires below.

• Crown fires are exposed to higher wind speeds in the open air and because of this can move faster than surface fires.

Ground fire Surface fire Crown fire

Figure 15: Types of fire.

BUILDINGS AND BUSH FIRES

Bush fires can involve buildings by three ways:

• Through exposure to radiation generated by a fire near the building.

• Through fire spreading through combustible material around the building.

• By burning embers penetrating the building or igniting nearby combustibles.

The most common and serious method of buildings becoming involved in fire is ember attack. Embers can enter openings in the building such as vents or broken windows and ignite combustibles inside. They can also be caught in the corners of roofs, beams, fence posts or any fixtures, fittings or furnishings around the house. 40 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

A spot fire is a new fire which has been ignited ahead of a main fire by embers or a burning object often called a fire brand. This occurs when hot, convected air from a fire lifts the embers and drops them in front of the main fire.

Factors that impact on spot fires are:

• Atmospheric instability, which determines how vigorous the convection column is and how easily it can carry embers aloft.

• Fuel moisture content.

• Breaks in a forest canopy which cause downdrafts.

• The nature of the fuels being burnt - eucalypt stringy bark is most prone to causing mass spotting. Stringy bark eucalypts are commonly associated with mass, short-distance spotting (up to one or two kilometres), whereas candle barked eucalypts may be associated with very long-distance spotting.

Some problems arising from spot fires are:

• The effective rate of spread of a main fire front may accelerate rapidly if spot fires start ahead of it.

• In a wind of varying direction, the spread of spot fires will be unpredictable.

• Turbulence on lee slopes and elsewhere may drive spot fires back towards the main front and may cut off firefighters.

If fire brands start to fall in the area around you and many spot fires begin to occur in the area, the situation is critical. You must evacuate from the area immediately. Do not attempt to suppress multiple spot fires unless you have sufficient resources and a large, safe refuge is available. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 41

(d) Parts of a Bush Fire

The shape of a fire may be defined by its perimeter – the edge of the burnt area. Within this there may be burning areas, smouldering areas and blackened areas, as well as pockets of unburnt fuel. There will also be a point of origin that may or may not be identifiable without detailed investigation. Components of the perimeter, as illustrated, include:

• Point of origin.

• Rear or heel.

• Head of a fire.

• Flanks or sides.

• Fingers.

• Spot fires.

Rear or Heel

Point of origin Flanks/sides

Finger

Unburnt pocket or island

Head Spot Fire Flanks/sides

Finger

Finger Spot Fire

Figure 16: Parts of a wildfire. 42 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

POINT OF ORIGIN

This is the area where the fire started. The likely point of origin should, if possible, be left undisturbed and secured for later fire cause determination.

HEAD OF A FIRE

The head of a fire is where the fire is making its greatest progress (usually downwind or upslope) measured by its forward rate of spread. The head is also called the fire front. Flames are tallest and intensity of the fire is greatest at this point. The head of the fire is influenced by wind direction, fuel factors and topography and will change accordingly.

FLANKS OR SIDES

Both sides of the fire between the head and the rear are called the flanks. They are roughly parallel to the main direction of spread. The intensity of the fire at the flanks is less than at the head. Often they are described by their geographic location (for example, the eastern flank of a fire) or by their orientation as viewed from the rear of the fire (for example, the left or right flank).

A dangerous aspect of wind is that it can change the direction of the fire without warning. This can cause long and relatively quiet flanks to suddenly become active fire fronts.

FINGERS

These are long and narrow slivers of the advancing fire which extend beyond the head or flanks, and are caused by varying wind direction or variations in fuel.

REAR OR HEEL

This is the section of the perimeter opposite to, and usually upwind, or downslope from, the head of a fire. It is the least intense part of the fire’s perimeter with the lowest flame height and slowest rate of spread. It may be described as the back of the fire. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 43

4 Typical Examples of Bush Fire Behaviour

(a) Introduction

Bush fires in different fuels can behave quite differently. In this section we will cover some typical examples, showing how the general principles of bush fire behaviour can apply in different ways.

(b) Sclerophyll Forest Fires

Sclerophyll forests cover much of the coastal and mountainous areas of the state and extend well into the interior in many places. The most obvious species in these forests are eucalypt trees. The forest may be dry or wet, the latter being more common in higher rainfall areas and sheltered valleys. A fire in a sclerophyll forest is what most Australians probably visualise when they hear the words “bush fire”.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 17: Fire in a sclerophyll forest.

The main fuel in sclerophyll forests is the leaf litter that continually falls to the ground, dries out, accumulates and gradually decomposes. It is this leaf litter that provides most of the fine fuel for any surface fire. The leaves of eucalypt trees contain flammable oils. If fire conditions are 44 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS severe enough, the surface fire will spread to the leaves in the trees, forming a crown fire. In a severe fire, the heavier fuels such as branches, logs and tree trunks can become involved in fire, particularly if they are already dead and dried out. Under severe conditions, burning embers and brands will be produced by the fire, which can be carried forward by convection currents and the wind and start spot fires well ahead of the main fire.

Here are some typical figures to give you a ‘feel’ for how fires of this type might behave:

• A typical dry sclerophyll forest fire burning in moderate fuels under low to moderate fire danger conditions will typically have flame heights of about 2 to 3 metres, travel at about a few hundred metres per hour, and be unlikely to spot.

• Under high fire danger conditions, the same fire might have 7 or 8 metre flame heights, move at around a kilometre per hour, and spot up to about two kilometres ahead.

• Under extreme conditions, the fire would be crowning, moving at a couple of kilometres an hour, and spot up to 6 kilometres ahead.

Fire is a natural part of the environment in a sclerophyll forest. Not only are many of the species fire resistant, but some actually depend on fire to trigger new growth and to germinate seeds. How severe and how often fires occur (the “fire regime”) will determine the mix of vegetation that will develop in such a forest. There is debate over just what fire regime is “natural”.

Grasslands occur in virtually all cleared areas and across a significant part of the interior of the state. Some are natural, some consist of improved pasture and others consist of crops such as wheat. Most are “annual grasses”. That is they grow, develop, die and dry out over a yearly cycle. During their growth phase they may be quite green and resistant to fire, but as they dry out and become “cured” they transform into a highly combustible fine fuel. In pasture, the fuel load is often dependent on how much the grass has been grazed. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 45

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 18: Grass fire.

Grass fires are mainly made up of burning fine fuels and therefore have a very short “residence time”. That is, the fuel burns out very quickly. Persistent fires may occur in patches of scrub, trees, fence posts, stumps and in areas with lots of cow pats. Grass fires are less prone to spotting than forest fires, but some grass, such as Phalaris, will sometimes have seed heads that can catch alight, be blown ahead of the fire and cause spot fires.

For the same conditions, fires in grasslands travel much faster than fires in open forests.

• On average, in fully cured pasture, under low to moderate fire danger conditions, a grass fire will typically have flame heights of up to a few metres, and travel at a couple of kilometres per hour.

• Under high fire danger conditions, the same fire might have 3 or 5 metre flame heights, and move at several kilometres per hour.

• Under very high to extreme conditions, the fire may have flame heights exceeding 5 metres, and move at well over 10 kilometres an hour.

Wide fire breaks (e.g. 10 metres wide) can stop fast spreading grassfires most of the time. However, if there are any trees near the upwind side of the fire break, they can often become involved in fire and generate spot fires on the other side of the break. 46 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(d) Scrub Fires

The word “scrub” can mean a wide variety of things. Generally scrub fires involve either one of three situations: scrub within a sclerophyll forest, thick scrub with few or no trees (e.g. coastal heath), and more open scrub (e.g. mallee) typical of the drier western areas of the state. A problem common to all is that the scrub reduces visibility, making it more difficult for firefighters to see hazards around them.

The absence of fire in a sclerophyll forest over several years often leads to the development of a scrubby understorey. This significantly increases the fire fuel load and is arranged so as to allow much faster burning. Fires in scrubby forest are less predictable than in open forest and may travel up to three times faster under the same conditions.

Photo by Robert Tito

Figure 19: Fire in coastal scrub.

Scrub in coastal areas can also have unpredictable fire behaviour. The arrangement of the fuel may vary considerably within a short distance. In one spot the fuel may be widely separated and fire behaviour may be mild. Close by, however, may be a patch where the fuel is more closely arranged and is just the right arrangement for sudden and severe combustion.

The more open scrub in western areas might sometimes be too widely separated to support a spreading fire. Under more severe weather conditions, however, the larger flames encountered will allow fire to travel readily through the same scrub. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 47

(e) Pine Plantation Fires

There are large stands of pine plantation forest in many areas in the state. Pine trees are not fire resistant and even moderate fires can kill them, especially up to the age of about 10 to 12 years.

Photo supplied by State Forests NSW

Figure 20: Pine plantation. Stands of plantation trees are generally all of the same age, and the fire characteristics will vary as they grow. For example:

• Young trees will be surrounded by grass and any fire will basically be a grass fire.

• Pine trees have branches that extend almost from the ground to the top of the tree. From 3 to 6 years old, even moderate fires may crown.

• From 7 to 10 years old the pine canopy closes over and the surface grass may be replaced by a mat of pine needles. The dead needles are most combustible when they turn “red”.

• From 11 to 20 years, harvesting may take place and grass may reappear as the forest is thinned.

Pine slash may be on the ground after forest crews clear low hanging branches. Fires in pine needle “duff” may smoulder deeply, and fires can smoulder through root systems underground. 48 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(f) Severe Fires

Severe fires can occur after a period of hot, dry weather that lowers the fuel moisture content. A spate of windy weather and/or atmospheric instability can then result in any fires easily getting out of control.

In these conditions fire behaviour will be extreme. There may be extensive spotting and ragged fire fronts. Thick smoke may reduce your ability to see what the fire is doing and there may be sudden flare-ups as the fire hits areas of heavy fuel, steep slopes or strong wind gusts.

Firefighting under such conditions can be difficult and confusing. Communications systems may sometimes become overloaded. People can be excited and afraid. If firefighting units do not work to procedures they can easily get at cross-purposes with each other. Safely protecting your community during such conditions might be one of your biggest challenges as a firefighter.

5 Bush Fire Hazards and Precautions

(a) Introduction

In this section we will cover hazards that are typical to bush firefighting and the precautions you need to take against them. You will find many of these precautions being mentioned again in this Manual when it covers the firefighting situations in which they would normally be applied.

It might come as a surprise to you to know that most deaths and injuries to firefighters are not directly related to a fire. In a recent 10 year period there were 15 volunteer firefighter deaths in the state. These included:

• 5 due to heart attacks.

• 3 due to falling trees.

• 3 due to fire overruns.

• 2 due to vehicle accidents.

• 2 due to other medical conditions.

In addition, there were about 200 injuries each year serious enough to warrant a compensation claim. Again, only a minority of these were directly related to fires. The most common were sprains, strains, BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 49 fractures, dislocations, cuts and bruises; usually caused by trips, slips and falls.

(b) Heart Attacks

Hazards – Firefighting is demanding and strenuous work. It can require physical activity over a long time with moments of extreme exertion, in hot and hazardous conditions. It can ask a lot of a fit person. It can be too much for a person who already has a high risk of heart attack. Nearly all who have died of heart attacks while firefighting had pre-existing heart conditions known to them, but not to others in their brigade.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 21: Firefighting can be strenuous.

Precautions – If you have a heart condition or have high heart disease risk factors (e.g. a family history of heart disease and high blood pressure and cholesterol levels), consult with your Doctor. There are many other activities that need to be done at fires apart from being at the sharp end of activity. Use a common sense approach and volunteer for activities that are safely within your range of fitness.

Some members believe that heart attack victims should not be counted as “real” firefighter fatalities. Remember that, regardless of the cause, if you die in the course of duty you are still just as dead! Think also of the effect it will have on others around you. Apart from the distress that any death within a brigade causes, you might become incapacitated at a critical moment and endanger others. 50 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

For some activities (e.g. the use of compressed air breathing apparatus) regular medical examinations are required. These have been specifically designed to ensure the activities involved do not pose a threat to a person’s health.

Hazards – Apart from heart disease there are other medical conditions that might place you at unusual risk during some firefighting activities. In particular, any chronic condition that might result in a sudden loss of consciousness, that affects your mobility, dexterity or perception, or which can be made worse by unexpected exertion, excitement, heat or smoke.

Apart from these chronic conditions, temporary illness and injury can affect anyone. For example, over-exertion while you are suffering an infection like the flu can sometimes result in a (possibly fatal) heart condition. An injury such as a sprain or fracture can also be made worse if you over-exert yourself before it has properly healed.

Precautions – If you have a chronic condition, consult with your Doctor. Again, there are many other activities that need to be done at fires apart from being at the sharp end of activity. Use a common sense approach and volunteer for activities that are safely within your range of fitness.

If you are recovering from an illness or injury, check with your Doctor about how soon you should resume such activities as firefighting. Don’t assume that because you are OK to go back to work you are OK to go firefighting, especially if you do sedentary work.

(d) Falling Trees and Branches

Hazards – Trees and branches fall all of the time. It is a natural part of their life cycle. During fires it is very common for branches and trees to fall as a result of fire damage, or simply because vegetation that was holding dead branches aloft has now been burnt away. Falling branches and trees are deadly hazards. It is unusual to be struck by one without being killed or severely injured.

Some “falling tree” accidents have occurred during tree falling operations with chain saws, but the most common have involved a tree falling onto the occupied cabin of a brigade vehicle that just happened to be parked nearby. A particularly dangerous time is during mopping up as you are often fatigued and less alert for such hazards. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 51

For some activities (e.g. the use of compressed air breathing apparatus) regular medical examinations are required. These have been specifical

Figure 22: Fire damaged trees can fall with little warning.

Precautions – Treat fire or storm damaged trees as if they were a minefield. Actively look out for falling tree and branch hazards. Look up for them and think about where it is safe to position. Avoid positioning in any potential “drop” areas. Wear your helmet at incidents (except when in a vehicle cabin), especially during mopping up operations. Chain saw operators are often better at looking out for tree and branch hazards as they are more used to assessing how trees are likely to fall. Seek their advice and learn how to spot the hazards from them.

A similar hazard, especially in hilly areas is from rolling logs and rocks. Fire damage might remove vegetation that previously prevented them from rolling or falling. Don’t position or traverse areas where such hazards exist on the slope above you. If you are extinguishing or mopping up fires in logs, chock them if safely possible, don’t get below them and don’t disturb them such that they could roll down on to people.

(e) Fire Overruns

Hazards – A fire overrun is when firefighters are trapped on foot, or while in a vehicle, by a bush fire. It past cases the firefighters involved often had less than one minute’s warning of it occurring, although the conditions leading up to it may have developed over quite a long time.

While personal protective clothing (PPE) and vehicle protective devices will often help, it is not possible to make them such that they can withstand a close exposure to a severe fire overrun. Your safety largely depends on avoiding fire overrun situations in the first place. 52 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

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Figure 23: Burnt out tanker.

Fire overruns typically occur when people are operating on a slope above a fire, and/or there is a change in wind direction. Often the attention of firefighters is focussed on something else at the time, which delays them from realising the danger they are in.

Note that most fire overruns do not occur at big, severe fires, but at small incidents or in “quiet” sectors of larger incidents. Few seem to occur during actual firefighting. Most happen while entering, transiting or exiting an area, or while “going to have a look” at a fire.

CSIRO bush fire researchers have coined the phrase, “The Dead Man Zone” to describe any area within about 5 minutes of possible overrun from a fire. If you’re operating in this area you need to be able to see, or be warned immediately about, any change in fire behaviour, have a refuge available close by, and go to it straight away if your safety is threatened.

Precautions – Before any firefighting or related activity, the risk of fire overrun needs to be assessed. Always wear your issued personal protective clothing when operating in the vicinity of a fire. Never light a back burn, or conduct burning out, without specific orders from your supervising officer and confirming that the affected area is clear of people.

Before any bush firefighting or related activity, your Crew Leader should appoint someone to act as lookout for the crew against any threat from the fire, warn the crew of any danger, and ensure that suitable BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 53 safety refuge/s are close by. The RFS uses the LACES checklist, (Lookout – Awareness – Communications – Escape Route/s – Safety Refuge/s).

As a firefighter, you should always stay aware of what the fire is doing and have an “out” planned and agreed with others in the crew, in case things go wrong. You should always know where your safety refuge is located and how to get to it. If you are on foot in the open a safety refuge needs to be clear of significant vegetation to a distance of about 4 times the expected height of the flames (or a place of equal safety) and should be no more than about 30 seconds jogging time away.

Your tanker should always keep enough reserve of water to use for self-protection (e.g. 1000 litres in the case of large Cat 1 tankers) and you should be familiar and well practiced in the use of your fire overrun emergency procedures.

(f) Vehicle Accidents

Hazards – As a firefighter you will typically be a passenger and perhaps sometimes a driver on a firefighting vehicle. You might also be driving your own private vehicle to or from your fire station/shed or the incident. Vehicle accidents typically occur when surface conditions are wet and slippery, when speeding and/or when the driver is fatigued. Accidents are more common during “on road” than “off road” driving.

(positional only) on final hi-res scan need to erase district name, brigade name, logo and NSW Rural Fire Service markings on crashed vehicle.

Figure 24: Crashed tanker. 54 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

Some severe vehicle accidents have involved “modifications” made to vehicles. Typically the water tank or other large items of equipment have been relocated without considering the effect on axle loading and the controllability of the vehicle. Some serious accidents have involved crew members riding on the backs of vehicle or trailers, or not wearing seatbelts.

Precautions – Remember that when you are driving your private vehicle, including to a fire, you are required to obey all road rules and drive safely for the conditions. Drivers of emergency vehicles using lights and sirens have some exemptions from road rules, but are still expected to operate safely at all times.

Drivers of fire tankers, especially those who are mostly familiar with driving heavy road vehicles or their own car, should remember that the tyres used on fire tankers are a compromise between the needs of “on road” and “off road” conditions. They will not grip a surface as well as purpose designed road tyres, especially in wet conditions. Never carry out unauthorised modifications to vehicles.

Always wear seatbelts. The “you’re safer without a seatbelt” story is a dangerous myth. It is also the law that they be worn, and drivers should refuse to move the vehicle until all the crew are “belted up”. Apart from during actual firefighting from the crew operating area of a tanker during a grass fire, you should always travel within the cabin of the vehicle. Don’t wear helmets while travelling within a vehicle as their weight can make you more vulnerable to a whiplash injury.

(g) Trafﬁc

Hazards – Bush and grass fires may occur along the edges of busy roads. Fire vehicles may need to operate close to passing traffic, sometimes in smoky conditions. The risk exists of a vehicle hitting a firefighter, colliding with a firefighting vehicle or equipment. These risks are usually greater in built up areas, along major highways and for brigades who regularly respond to vehicle fires and accidents. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 55

Photo by Dean Sewell

Figure 25: Roadside operations.

Several tankers may also be used in a moving “attack formation” while fighting running grass fires, and a risk of collision may exist, particularly in smoke.

Precautions – Keep off the road as much as possible. Check for, and avoid traffic before entering and while on any road. Don’t enter a roadway when visibility is poor (e.g. due to smoke). Help set up vehicles, lights, signs, cone markers and/or personnel to warn, slow, stop or divert traffic as instructed by your Crew Leader. Make sure you are wearing your protective clothing (which incorporates high visibility day colours and night time reflective material).

While attacking a running grassland fire, vehicles should stay in a constant “attack formation” relative to each other, in sight of each other, and sufficiently clear of each other. Vehicles leaving the attack formation (e.g. to refill with water), should look out for other vehicles, advise their intentions on the radio, pull away from the fireline into a safe area, and not back track until well clear. Vehicles joining the attack formation should generally approach, and join from behind the others, along the already extinguished fireline. 56 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(h) Extreme Temperatures

Hazards – Bush firefighting is often conducted during hot and sometimes humid, conditions. In addition you are subject to the heat radiated from the fire, and the heat your body is producing, especially when you are working strenuously. These can lead to heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Heat stroke is a very serious condition and is potentially fatal.

Photo by David Miller

Figure 26: Firefighters in hot conditions.

RFS activities are also conducted during quite cold conditions. Night-time temperatures can drop significantly, even during summer; and most brigades respond to incidents of various types throughout winter. Cold temperatures combined with moisture from hoses, rain, sleet, dew, snow or sweat, can create a risk of hypothermia, especially during windy conditions.

Precautions – Work at a comfortable pace. Wear appropriate protective clothing (e.g. do not wear a structural fire coat over your bush fire jacket). Drink plenty of water. Don’t rely on your thirst as an indicator, drink more water than you think you need. Do not drink alcoholic, caffeine-rich or sugary soft drinks. Share the workload and take regular breaks. Don’t expose yourself to the heat of the fire or the sun unnecessarily.

Recognise the symptoms of heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Heat exhaustion’s symptoms may include: cramps, clammy skin, feeling BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 57 faint, light-headedness, dizziness, headaches and nausea. Heat stroke’s symptoms may include high body temperature; red, hot, possibly dry skin, weakness or collapse, deliriousness, rapid pulse and breathing rate, and seizures.

Where heat exhaustion or heat stroke is evident, you should: remove the affected person from further exposure to heat sources, loosen the person’s clothing to allow for the evaporation of perspiration, and provide an adequate intake of fluids (small sips of water or weak cordial) at regular intervals if conscious. If heat stroke is suspected, it is a life threatening emergency. You must get medical help at once.

Wear appropriate warm clothing when working in cold conditions and try to keep dry. Signs of hypothermia can include shivering, apathy, confusion, disorientation, exhaustion, slow pulse rate and collapse. The treatment is to get the victim sheltered, gently re-warm them and get medical help.

(i) Trips, Slips and Falls

Hazards – Bush firefighting often involves clambering on and off firefighting vehicles, setting up equipment in unfamiliar locations, and operating over rough and/or steep ground. These activities are often done under urgent conditions and sometimes in poor light and/or smoke. Occasionally you may need to work at heights or use ladders. Trips, slips and falls can occur readily if precautions are not taken.

Precautions – Avoid running or leaping from one point to another on the fireground. Pace yourself and do not allow the urgency of a situation to blind you to hazards. Wear your issued boots and ensure they are done up so as to provide strong but comfortable ankle and foot support.

Set up equipment such that it is less likely to be a trip hazard. Face towards the steps when getting on or off a fire vehicle and use the hand rails provided. Pass equipment down from a tanker rather than climbing down with it. Always properly fold/extend/lock and position ladders before use, and tie off and/or foot ladders while in use. If working at heights, use railings or safety equipment to prevent you from falling. 58 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(j) Electrical Hazards

Hazards – Damaged or broken power lines, and power lines arcing when blown in contact with each other in the wind can start fires. Wooden power poles and cross-arms can become involved in fire. Fallen power lines can energise any conductive thing they contact. Metal fences, for example, can become electrified. Actual contact with power lines is not needed to receive a shock. The ground around fallen wires will be electrified for some distance. High voltage power transmission lines can arc violently to the ground if a significant fire is burning underneath them.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 27: High voltage lines over fireground.

Vehicle accidents might involve a collision with power poles, or electrical apparatus such as transformer boxes, traffic light control boxes, lighting stanchions and telephone boxes. A vehicle involved in such an accident might be electrified and hazardous to approach.

One of the greatest electrical hazards to firefighters is contacting overhead lines while carrying, setting up or using ladders, or even just coming into close proximity of such wires in such cases. Most buildings have overhead electrical wires running into the eaves at the front. Carrying a ladder vertically under such wires can easily result in electrocution.

Precautions – Look out for and keep clear of power lines. Assume any fallen wires are live until power supply authorities have confirmed otherwise. Do not approach within 8 metres of a fallen power line. Warn others of fallen power lines, or vehicles or items that might have become electrified. Look out for electrical wires and hazards when BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 59 carrying and setting up ladders, and when working aloft. Don’t set up ladders close to where powerlines feed into a building.

Do not use water on electrical fires. (Later you will be shown some circumstances where it is safe to use water, with certain precautions, on some types of electrical fires under strict supervision. These precautions, for example, can enable water to be applied safely onto a house involved in fire from well clear on the outside; or onto a fire involving the tops of electrical poles.) Do not position or apply water on any significant fire within 25 metres of any point under high voltage power transmission lines.

(k) Bush Fire Smoke

Hazards – Exposure to heavy smoke can be a hazard to firefighters. Smoke irritates eyes and lungs and, in serious cases, can lead to lung collapse. Heavy bush fire smoke may also contain harmful gases, especially if hazardous substances become involved in the fire (e.g. fumes from materials dumped in the bush or in buildings that become involved). Smoke can also increase your level of fatigue and restrict your visibility, making you less able to see and avoid other hazards.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth Figure 28: A firefighter uses eye wash to treat the effects of smoke irritation.

Precautions – Avoid unnecessary exposure to smoke, use your smoke mask and goggles to protect your eyes, mouth, breathing passages and lungs. Take extra care for other hazards when conditions are smokey. 60 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(l) Burning Buildings and Vehicles

Hazards – Burning buildings and vehicles involve some hazards that are different from those of a bush fire. Fires in buildings and vehicles involve a range of natural and synthetic materials, most of which give off dense smoke and dangerous gases when burnt. In the confined space of a building or vehicle, these will quickly build up to deadly levels.

Nearly 70% of the heat of a fire is given off as hot convection currents. At a bush fire this heat can escape upwards, but at a fire inside a structure it is often trapped inside. This can lead to a very rapid development of a fire. It can go from a small flame to totally involving a room in under two minutes. Sometimes, if a building is fairly well closed up, the development of the fire can be limited by the shortage of air. If you were to open a door on such a fire, thus restoring a good air supply, an explosive increase in fire intensity called a backdraught can occur.

Once well involved in fire for several minutes, many building materials will weaken and fail. The roof and walls may collapse, inwards or outwards. Live power lines feeding into the building may break and fall to the ground. Power cables within a building may be exposed as their insulation is burnt away. In addition, many buildings may contain hazardous materials like gas cylinders, flammable liquids, corrosives, poisons and other chemicals.

Vehicles on fire involve additional hazards such as fuel tanks and sealed components (e.g. shock absorbers, tyres and tail shafts) that might explode. Some vehicle incidents will involve electrical hazards and many might involve hazardous materials in the luggage or cargo. Vehicles might also roll or tip over during a fire.

Photo by Dean Sewell

Figure 29: Protecting property from a bush fire. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 61

Precautions - Keep well clear of any smoke or gases given off by a structure fire. If you are in a building or vehicle that becomes involved in fire, you need to get out before conditions become dangerous. That might be a matter of only two minutes or less.

Unless you are equipped with compressed air breathing apparatus (CABA) and trained in its use and interior firefighting techniques, do not enter, or open up, a building to fight a fire. Keep well clear of the structure itself, potential wall collapse areas, and potential power line collapse areas.

Fight any fires involving a building or vehicle from a safe distance, in clear air. Always assume some hazardous materials might be involved. Look out for, remain well clear of, and report any hazardous materials, or cylinders, drums or bottles that might contain hazardous materials, and any part of the fire that burns with an odd intensity, flame colour, smoke colour or odour. Look out for any electrical hazards (e.g. downed power lines or vehicle collision with light poles or electrical equipment) and keep clear of any areas where a vehicle might suddenly roll or tip.

(m) Fatigue

Hazards – Firefighting is often long and arduous. Fatigue is a problem in a number of ways: it can lead to physical or psychological exhaustion, it can make you less able to make clear decisions and see and avoid hazards, and it can lead to you falling asleep at a dangerous time or place.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 30: Fatigued firefighters. 62 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

Precautions – Stop, revive, survive! Pace yourself, make good use of your rest breaks, keep well hydrated (drink plenty of water), get adequate meals, avoid alcohol or using stimulants (like caffeine) and, when you have been relieved from firefighting, leave immediately and get some rest.

(n) Cuts, scratches, burns and bruises

Hazards – Injuries of this type are associated with working with hand tools, clambering through fences and thorny vegetation, catching fingers in nip points (like the spokes of a hose reel) and contact with hot embers, exhaust pipes (e.g. on pumps), ash or other hot substances. Other variations include being poked in the face by tree branch ends, and stepping into hotspots where the fire is burning below the surface of the ground. Tetanus is a serious disease that can be contracted from cuts or scratches in some cases.

Precautions – Always wear your protective clothing while operating on the fireground, including gloves and goggles when needed. Keep a safe distance from others using hand tools. Ensure people are clear before you use hand tools. Carry hand tools safely (so you will not hit the blade if you should fall). Avoid working when fatigued and keep a look out for hazards. Having current vaccination against tetanus is recommended. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 63

(o) Exposure to sunlight

Hazards – Bush firefighting is an outdoor activity conducted predominantly during the summer. Exposure to sunlight over several hours can lead to severe sunburn. It might also contribute to the long term development of skin cancers. Glare may lead to eye strain and not seeing other hazards.

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Figure 31: Firefighter applying sunscreen - during a rest break.

Precautions – Slip, slop slap! Wear your protective clothing and use SPF15+ sunscreen on exposed parts of your body. Re-apply sunscreen every two hours when needed. Wear sunglasses when appropriate.

(p) Poor Hygiene

Hazards – Consuming contaminated food or water can make you sick. Firefighting is an activity that can make you fairly grubby. Washing and toilet facilities may be very basic at times. Eating food with contaminated hands can lead to disease. Eating food that has been kept in warm, unhygienic conditions can lead to food poisoning.

Precautions – Ensure your drinking water is clean. Don’t drink water from fire tankers or hoses; it may be contaminated with firefighting chemicals. Wear protective gloves while working. Wash your hands before eating and after going to the toilet. Don’t eat food that has been made or kept under unhygienic conditions. Be especially cautious about foods that can easily deteriorate in warm conditions, such as meat and cheese. 64 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(q) Critical Incident Stress

Hazards – Firefighting might involve seeing horrific sights, like a person that has been badly injured or burned, or that is in distress. For most people, the sight of injured animals is also upsetting. It is a completely normal human response for you to feel bad about such events. Sometimes the stress of such events might lead to feeling ill or faint; or to bad dreams, anxiety, anger, drug or alcohol problems, sleeplessness or other personal problems. This can sometimes persist well after the event.

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Figure 32: Some fires may involve tragic losses.

Precautions – Expect that you will feel bad about critical incidents, and know that it is OK to feel that way. The Service provides Critical Incident Support Services (CISS) for all members involved in a critical incident. These services can help you deal with any critical incidents much better and are available on request (if not provided automatically) from your Fire Control Officer. If any problems persist following a critical incident, further professional assistance can also be provided. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 65

(r) Hazardous Materials

Hazards – You might occasionally run across hazardous materials during bush or grass firefighting. Hazardous materials include explosives, flammable liquids and gases, other compressed gases, reactive materials, oxidising substances, poisons, biological hazards, radioactive materials, corrosives, dusts, and materials stored at very high or low temperatures or pressures.

Typical examples might include farm chemicals, flammable liquid containers and/or gas cylinders, herbicides, pesticides, grain dust (which can be explosive in some circumstances) and waste materials. These might be in bulk facilities, in farm sheds, and in and around houses. They might not always be in marked containers. Sometimes such materials might be dumped in an area susceptible to grass or bush fires. In some areas the production of illicit drugs might introduce additional hazards. The production of some drugs involves the use of chemicals that can explode or catch fire if mishandled. Drug production facilities and drug plantations will obviously not be marked. There may be “security” systems including fences, bars, locks, booby traps, dogs and armed occupants.

Photo by Dean Sewell

Figure 33: Dangerous goods may be present at a bush fire. 66 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

Chemicals used in firefighting, such as wetting agents, retardants and foam concentrates can also involve health hazards. Many fire stations/sheds will also have stocks of cleaning chemicals.

Precautions - Become familiar with where such materials may exist in your area through pre-incident planning. Always expect that any incident might involve hazardous materials. Be suspicious of any package, item, leak or fire with an unusual odour, appearance or behaviour. Approach from, and remain, upwind and well clear of fires as far as possible. Your Crew Leader will call for specialised assistance (e.g. NSW Fire Brigade hazmat teams) if the presence of hazardous materials is suspected. Safely “decontaminate” and wash equipment after use.

When handling chemicals, follow the precautions specified by the supplier. Material safety data sheets (MSDS) for chemicals used within the Service include such precautions. They have been supplied to all Fire Control Officers for issue to each brigade. The precautions typically involve the use of protective gloves and eye goggles as a minimum.

(s) Manual Handling

Hazards – The most common form of injury in Australian industry is back injury due to inappropriate manual handling; although its occurrence among volunteer firefighters is relatively low. Firefighting sometimes involves the need to handle heavy items such as portable pumps, and to stow and retrieve awkward items, such as hoses and chain saws, from lockers on tankers. If such actions are not done correctly, it might lead to injury or make an existing injury worse.

You might have to retrieve items stored up on vehicle roof lockers and pass them down to fellow firefighters. In addition, you may often have to operate under stressful conditions where there is pressure to complete tasks quickly. Unless you have well-ingrained, good manual handling habits, you might slip back into “bad habits” that could lead to injury.

Precautions – As far as possible, the stowage of equipment on your vehicle/s should be designed so that relatively heavy and/or frequently used items are stored in positions where they are the easiest to access.

The three basics rules of manual handling are to not exceed your personal carrying capacity, use your legs not your back for lifting, and to avoid twisting while lifting. As you cover each task during your training, the precautions needed as regards any manual handling (e.g. how to lift and carry hoses) should be followed. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 67

Figure 34: Firefighters carrying a portable pump.

Heavy items should not be lifted by one person alone. Such items will normally be placarded (e.g. “two-person lift”). Good lifting technique requires some practice before it becomes an automatic habit. Whenever lifting an item, think through how you will do it first, so as to use your legs, avoid using your back and to avoid twisting.

When carrying out “locker drill”, especially for items that are stored on the roof of a tanker, note and practice the correct way to pass them down to others at ground level safely. Don’t carry items up or down while you are using vehicle access steps. Get in the habit of moving items correctly all the time. That way, under the stress of an incident you will do it correctly and not injure yourself.

Manual handling injuries can also be related to a person’s level of fitness. A poorly conditioned person, for example, or someone with an existing injury or weakness from an old injury or illness may be more prone to injury. In you fall into any such categories, you should speak with your Doctor or a physiotherapist about the matter, and advise your brigade if you need to avoid certain activities. 68 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(t) Hearing Loss

Hazards – Some equipment (e.g. chain saws and some types of pumps) used at fires or other incidents may have a high noise level. Exposure to high noise levels over time will lead to hearing loss.

Precautions – Know which equipment requires the use of hearing protection when in use. Wear the specified hearing protection, such as ear plugs and/or ear muffs when exposed to equipment with a high noise level.

(u) Bites and Stings

Hazards – Bites or stings from ants, bees, wasps, spiders or (to a lesser extent) ticks, snakes, lizards and larger animals are a common injury to firefighters working in the bush. Leeches may also be a problem in some areas.

Precautions – Watch out for insect nests and trails, and other animals. In particular, check where you stand or sit, before stopping in one spot. Wear your protective clothing and keep an eye out for spiders or insects that may drop onto other people. Consider buttoning up the cuffs of your protective pants if that will help and will not lead to heat stress. After being in areas where they occur, check yourself for leeches and/or ticks. Seek immediate medical attention if you receive any significant bite or sting.

(v) Violence

Hazards – Most people are happy to see firefighters, but that is not always so. Some people may regard firefighters as unwelcome guests, an intrusion into their privacy, a threat to criminal activity they are trying to conceal, or as representatives of a society they hate. Sometimes people may be upset that you are not taking action they believe you should, or not doing it quickly enough. Sometimes you might just happen to be a convenient target when someone is already cranky.

Precautions – Be aware of places in your brigade area where people with negative attitudes to firefighters might exist. Be aware of the mood of people at the scene of an incident. Avoid doing or saying anything that could provoke a violent confrontation. Wear your protective clothing and equipment. In the case of criminal activity, civil disorder or persons armed with weapons, keep a safe distance until the situation has been stabilised by the Police. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 69

(w) Poor Communications

Hazards – If some information or orders are not received or not properly understood, you might start to work at cross-purposes to other firefighters or not become aware of a developing hazard. Poor communications might be due to technical problems with radios, but more commonly it is because of misunderstandings about verbal communication.

Precautions – Maintain regular contact with other firefighters around you. When you are given an order (either face to face, or by radio), repeat back the key points so that the other person knows you have received and understood it correctly. Follow the communications procedures given in more detail later in this Manual.

(x) Poor Team Work

Hazards – Firefighting is a hazardous activity that requires a sensible and disciplined approach. Safety can often depend on working together cooperatively. Ignoring the need for effective teamwork and just “doing your own thing” might put others in great danger.

Precautions – Stay together and work together as a team. Don’t do things on your own initiative without checking whether they could endanger or get at cross purposes with others. Follow the team work principles given in more detail in a later section of this Manual.

(y) Poor Decision Making

Hazards – Most of the key decisions will be made by your Crew Leader and other officers in the chain of command. Their ability to make good decisions (i.e. that keep you safe) is affected by the quality of information they have about what is going on, and how much attention they can focus on what is happening. If they have to spend most of their time coaching and correcting what you are doing, they will have less time to watch out for hazards and look after the entire crew.

Precautions – Assist officers in decision making by providing them with relevant and timely information about what is happening, especially about anything that could be a hazard. Develop and maintain your own level of competence. Follow the crew resource management (CRM) principles given in more detail in a later section of this Manual. 70 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

(z) Other Hazards

The above are by no means the only hazards associated with fire fighting. For example each piece of equipment has its own hazards, and needs appropriate precautions to be applied when in use. Later in this Manual, different pieces of equipment, their hazards and precautions will be described.

Every activity has its own hazards. It is essential, before you engage in any firefighting or related activity, that you think about what hazards are likely to be involved and what precautions you need to take. This is called “risk assessment”. It will be explained in more detail in a later chapter. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 71

SUMMARY

• An understanding of fire behaviour is needed to avoid fire hazards, protect people and property from fire and not get at cross-purposes with other firefighters. • Factors affecting bush fire behaviour include fuel, weather and topography. • Bush fire fuels vary as regards their type, size and quantity, arrangement and moisture content. Types of fuel include leaf litter, herbs and shrubs, humus and duff, trees and logging waste. It is fine fuels (i.e. less than 6 mm in diameter) that drive most of the forward spread of a fire. Tightly arranged fuels are more difficult to ignite. Widely dispersed fuels will not carry fire easily. Fine, loosely stacked fuels can burn quickly and fiercely. The lower the moisture content of the fuel the more combustible it becomes. • The key elements of weather include temperature, relative humidity, wind and atmospheric stability. A higher temperature and lower humidity will mean drier, more combustible fuels. Wind speed can determine the speed of fire travel. Wind direction can determine the main path taken by a fire. An unstable atmosphere can increase the unpredictability of a fire. • Topography refers to slope and aspect, and may affect how wind behaves across terrain. Fires travel twice as fast for every 10 degree increase in slope. Northern and western aspects get more sun and the fuel is likely to be drier. Terrain can modify how wind behaves. • Fires may be burning in surface, ground (e.g. peat) or crown fuels. Under some conditions burning embers and brands may be carried ahead of the fire by the wind and cause spot fires. • The parts of a bush fire include the point of origin, the rear or heel, the head of the fire, the flanks or sides, fingers and spot fires. • Fires in sclerophylll forests burn mostly in the leaf litter, but under severe conditions will also involve the crowns of trees. • Grass fires occur in cured (dead, dry) grass. They are much faster moving than fires in forests. 72 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

SUMMARY

• Scrub fires spread faster than forest fires and may have unpredictable changes in behaviour. • Pine trees can be destroyed by moderate fires. Pine plantation fires vary in characteristics according to the age of the trees. • Severe fires can occur after periods of hot, dry weather and can be difficult to control. • The main causes of firefighter fatalities in the RFS are heart attacks, falling trees, fire overruns and vehicle accidents. • Bush firefighters need to be familiar with the hazards and precautions relating to heart attacks, other medical conditions, falling trees and branches, fire overruns, vehicle accidents, traffic, extreme temperatures, trips, slips and falls, electricity, smoke, buildings or vehicles on fire, fatigue, cuts, scratches, burns and bruises, sunlight, poor hygiene, critical incident stress, hazardous materials, manual handling, hearing loss, bites and stings, violence, poor communications, poor team work and poor decision making. Before undertaking any activity you should carry out a risk assessment. BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 73

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. It is fine fuels that mainly drive the forward spread of the fire, whereas heavy fuels are consumed in the smouldering zone behind the main fire front.

2. The drier the fuel the lower the intensity of the fire.

3. A higher temperature and a lower relative humidity will decrease the moisture content of a fuel.

4. A Haines Index of 6 indicates an unstable atmosphere and may lead to “flukey” fire behaviour.

5. A fire travelling up a 20 degree slope would move four times as fast as a fire in the same conditions on level ground.

6. A ground fire typically involves grass and scrub.

7. The head of the fire is where the fire started.

8. For the same conditions, fires in scrub can move faster and less predictably than fires in open sclerophyll forest.

9. If you have a heart condition or high heart disease risk factors it is wise to consult with your Doctor about your participation in strenuous firefighting activities.

10. Fire overruns are the main cause of fatalities to bush firefighters. 74 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS

ACTIVITIES

1. Visit parts of your brigade area with a trainer or officer. Discuss the sort of fuel, topography and typical weather patterns that occur and their likely effect on fire behaviour?

2. Read articles about fire overrun accidents in the Firefighter Safety Digest. How did fire behaviour, and an appreciation of that behaviour, figure in the accident?

3. If you are over 40, suffer from a chronic illness or have high heart disease risk factors, discuss how your activities within the RFS might relate to them next time you visit your Doctor.

4. Visit areas of bushland (especially if they have been fire damaged). Have an experienced officer and/or chain saw operator point out how to recognise and avoid falling tree and branch hazards.

5. During your day to day activities, deliberately look for things that could be a hazard during firefighting. For example: thick bush, cured grass, north-west aspects, sloping terrain, power lines, damaged trees, busy roads, and hazardous materials, equipment and tasks. Consider how you would keep yourself safe from each. 75

CHAPTER 3 Bush Fireﬁghting Equipment

1 Introduction

This Chapter will describe the features, and cover the safe use and care, of equipment typically used for bush firefighting. In particular:

• Personal protective equipment (PPE).

• Hand tools, knapsacks, ropes and ladders.

• Hoses and small gear.

• Water supplies and equipment.

• Pumps and pumping.

2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

You are required to be issued with a set of firefighter’s personal protective equipment, to use it and to care for it correctly. Bush fire fighter personal protective equipment consists of:

• Two piece firefighter protective clothing or overalls.

• Firefighter’s helmet.

• Firefighter’s boots.

• Firefighter’s gloves, goggles, disposable respirator and water bottle.

• Firefighter’s emergency protective hood. 76 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

In addition, you might also see other personal protective equipment in use, namely:

• Black wool jacket.

• Offensive structural firefighter’s protective equipment.

• Hazmat (hazardous materials) protective equipment.

Warning

Your PPE is “fire resistant”, but no PPE is “fire proof”. That is, it won’t self-sustain a flame, but it can be damaged if an external flame or hot ember is continuously applied to it. If you are exposed to a fire overrun, your PPE will protect you past a point that you would not normally be able to survive without injury. But remember that a bush fire can easily produce a fire intensity that can destroy both you and your PPE, or for that matter any PPE that is possible to make. It may well give you the vital few extra seconds of protection you need to get to a place of safety, but it is not an indestructible “suit of armour”.

(a) Bush Fireﬁghter’s Protective Clothing

Your bush firefighter protective clothing consists of a two-piece set of trousers and jacket, or single piece overalls. They are designed for both bush firefighting and defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside the building). They are manufactured to meet (International Standard) ISO 15384 and (Australian Standard) AS 4824 (Int) 2001.

The garments are designed to allow your body heat to escape readily and minimise heat stress. They do this by having a loose fit, underarm vents, and loose cuffs on the sleeves and ankles, so that air can circulate freely. They should be worn with the press-studs down the front of the overalls or jacket Figure 35: Bush firefighter fastened up. in protective clothing. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 77

The garments are designed to protect you against normal levels of exposure to radiant heat from a fire, normal wear and tear associated with firefighting, and survivable fire entrapment conditions. They do this by being made from a heavy cotton fabric, reinforced at key points (e.g. the knees) and treated with Proban flame retardant. The retardant is designed to prevent the material from self-sustaining a flame. This treatment will last the life of the garment, provided it is cared for correctly. The garments are designed to be worn over your own normal natural fibre clothing (e.g. wool or cotton). Do not wear undergarments or socks of non-fire resistant synthetic material.

In case of a fire entrapment, the collar can be raised and closed at the front, the cuffs on the sleeves and ankles can be closed up with press studs, and a drawstring around the bottom of the two piece jacket can be tightened by overlapping the drawstrings and re-affixing them to the front Velcro patches. The retro-reflective tape markings on the garment are also flame resistant and have an extra layer of fabric underneath them for additional insulation against conducted heat.

The garments feature several pockets for gloves, goggles, disposable respirator, entrapment hood and other accessories. The trousers of the two piece set can be fitted with a webbing belt for carrying a water bottle. The bright yellow fabric and retro-reflective tape markings make the garments highly visible during both the day and night, to the extent that additional high visibility clothing is not required if working near traffic.

The garments can be washed in any conventional washing machine on a cold or warm wash cycle. Only synthetic detergents should be used (e.g. Cold Power, OMO, Dynamo, Bio-zet, Spree, Castle, Drive, FAB, Radiant or Surf). Do not wash them in soap based powders (e.g. Lux, Velvet or Advance) or in hypochlorite based bleaches (e.g. Domestos or White King) as this may affect the fire retardant qualities of the garments. Garments should be hung out to dry naturally.

Firefighting garments often become quite dirty and should normally be washed separately from other clothes. If excessively stained or soiled, pre-soaking for up to 2 hours might be useful. Garments may be dry-cleaned. If a garment has been contaminated with a hazardous substance they may require safe decontamination or disposal. Your Fire Control Officer will arrange for this if needed. 78 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

(b) Bush Fireﬁghter’s Helmet

Your issued bush firefighter’s helmet is designed for both bush fire fighting and defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside the building). They are manufactured to meet (Australian Standard) AS 1801 Type 3.

Figure 36: Bush firefighter’s helmet.

The helmet is designed to protect you against falling objects, radiant heat from a fire and hot embers. It is fitted with a fire resistant neck flap, an adjustable head-band and a neck strap. You should ensure the head band and neck strap are adjusted to your size, so that they fit firmly, but not tightly. The height of the head band can also be adjusted, but do not reduce the clearance between the head-band and the helmet shell as this can reduce both its protective effect against impact and the circulation of cooling air.

Helmets have an indefinite shelf life, provided they are properly maintained. They need only be condemned if they are split, cracked, discoloured, distorted or weathered. Parts, such as the neck strap and head band, can be replaced separately if needed.

Do not modify the helmet in any way, drill holes in it, paint it or affix non-standard markings to it. Do not store it in direct sunlight or leave it BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 79 exposed to the weather. Do not use solvents or harsh cleaners to clean the helmet: Use only warm water and household detergent.

Helmets should be inspected regularly. Inspection should include checking the harness for ease of operation, cracks, breakages and correct adjustment. Check the harness is attached properly to the helmet shell, and for any splits, cracks, discolouration, distortion or weathering of the shell of any other components. Wash or replace the headband and neck strap. Check markings are still properly affixed.

You will be issued with a badge and retro-reflective tape to be fitted to your helmet. (In some cases they will come supplied already fitted). Apart from making your helmet more visible at night, these markings also identify the various ranks in the Service. You should be familiar with the following colour code:

F RAL IRE F U S RAL IRE R E U S R R E V R W . V I W C . S I

. C E S

N N

Firefighter Deputy Captain

AL FIRE AL FIRE R S R S U E U E R R R R V V W W . I . I

C C S S

. .

E E

N N

Senior Deputy Captain Captain

Figure 37: Bush firefighter’s and brigade officer’s helmet colour code. 80 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Your bush firefighter’s boots are to be worn during either bush fire fighting or defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside the building). They are manufactured to meet (Australian Standard) AS 4821 (Int):2001 firefighter’s footwear type 1.

Figure 38: Bush firefighter’s boots. The boots are designed to help protect you against conducted heat from burning material, smouldering ash or hot water, radiant heat from the fire, and sharp objects. They will also provide ankle support to help prevent ankle injury when working on uneven ground. The boots should always be worn with clean socks made from a natural fibre such as wool or cotton.

Most bush firefighter’s boots have a traditional lace-up design, but a version is also available with adjustable laces and a zip fastener to allow for quicker donning. These are more commonly used by firefighters who are more likely to need to respond quickly to structure or vehicle fires. The boots need to have a secure and comfortable fit to provide best protection. New boots will take some time to wear in and the laces may need to be adjusted as this occurs. Any pattern of lacing that is functional and comfortable is acceptable.

Boots should be cleaned after use with a damp cloth, after removing any debris with a brush. Wet boots should be allowed to dry naturally at room temperature. Do not use artificial drying as this may cause the leather to shrink, harden and crack. The leather uppers should be treated with a leather preservative. Boots should be stored in a clean, dry place out of direct sunlight. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 81

You should regularly check your boots for any deterioration to the leather, laces or soles; and replace them if needed. In particular, you should check for any separation between the sole and the upper, excessive scratches or tears to the leather, and any cracks, excessive wear or damage to the sole. Check the stitching and seams for breaks, separation and splitting.

Check the zipper (if fitted) for ease of operation and attachment. New zippers can be lubricated with soap or wax. Boots should be regularly cleaned. Replace any defective parts and return the boots to the manufacturer for any major repairs.

(d) Bush Fireﬁghter’s Gloves

Your bush firefighter’s gloves are for use during either bush firefighting or defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside the building). They are manufactured to meet (International Standard) ISO 15383 type 1 and (Australian / New Zealand Standard) AS / NZS 2161.6 (Int):2001.

Figure 39: Bush firefighter’s gloves.

The gloves are designed to help protect your hands against conducted heat, radiant heat, sharp objects and similar hazards. Painful injuries to hands and fingers occur commonly to bush firefighters unless gloves are worn. Always carry a pair of gloves with you and wear them while using hand tools and while working near the fire. They should be worn such that they overlap with the sleeves of your firefighting jacket or overalls. Gloves are available in a range of sizes. You should select a pair that provide a comfortable fit and allow time for them to wear in. 82 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Gloves should be regularly checked for tears, cuts, holes, loose or open seams, abrasion damage or excessive wear. You should also check for substances that might have impregnated the gloves, discolouration, charring or other deterioration. Replace the gloves, if needed. Gloves should only be repaired by the manufacturer or supplier, or other authorised person. They should be stored in a cool, dry area, out of direct sunlight and away from sharp objects.

Check the gloves regularly for cleanliness. If needed, and at least once every six months, gloves should be washed in warm water. Gloves should be cleaned as soon as possible if they have been contaminated or exposed to tar, fuels, oils, or resins. If they have been contaminated by hazardous materials they should be decontaminated or disposed of in a safe manner.

To clean gloves, remove any debris by brushing. Scrub them with a medium bristle brush for about three minutes then rinse them thoroughly in clean water. Gloves should be dried in a shaded, cool place, and should not be wrung dry. Gloves can be machine washed, but only in a front loading machine with a tumbling action at a temperature between 50 to 60 degrees Celsius. Do not use chlorine bleach or chlorinated detergents to clean gloves.

(e) Bush Fireﬁghter’s Goggles

Your bush firefighter’s goggles are for use during either bush fire fighting or defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside the building). They are manufactured to meet (Australian Standard) AS 1337:1992 and other specifications set by the NSW Rural Fire Service.

Figure 40: Bush firefighter’s goggles. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 83

The goggles are designed to help protect your eyes against bush, embers, dust, smoke and similar hazards. Always carry goggles with you in a pocket of your protective clothing or on your helmet. Don and wear them while working near the fire or other similar hazards. Make sure the headband is adjusted to give a snug fit. Generally goggles are donned before your helmet is put on.

Goggles should be regularly checked for scratches, chips, cracking or other damage. Replace the lens if needed. Check the open cell foam for any damage and replace it, if needed. Check the headband is attached securely and properly adjusted. Goggles should be stored in a cool, dry area, out of direct sunlight and away from sharp objects. Do not store them such that their shape will become distorted.

Check your goggles regularly for cleanliness. Wash goggles, when needed, with mild soap and water and rinse with clean water. Air dry or pat dry with tissues. Do not use ammonia, abrasive or alkaline cleaners. If using a lens cleaner, use only those recommended by the manufacturer.

(f) Disposable Respirator

Your disposable respirator is for use during bush firefighting, when needed. It is specifically designed to filter out smoke sized particles and is constructed of fire resistant materials.

You should carry your disposable respirator in a pocket of your protective clothing and don it whenever working in smoky conditions. Current versions of the respirator are designed to withstand distortion when stored in your pocket. Check your respirator regularly and replace it if it has become contaminated or damaged.

(g) Fireﬁghter’s Flash Hood

Your firefighter’s flash hood is for use if in danger from bush fire overrun. It is also worn by firefighters trained in offensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from inside a building using breathing apparatus). They are manufactured to meet (International Standard) ISO 11613.

Your flash hood should be carried in a pocket of your protective clothing. If in danger from fire overrun or entrapment, remove the flash hood from your pocket. Don your respirator and goggles (if not already donned). Raise the protective collar of your protective clothing. Don the 84 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT flash hood over your goggles, respirator, head, face and collar. Check the hood is closed around your goggles, but does not impede your vision. Finally, don your helmet. Do not wear the flash hood on your head or around your neck during normal bush firefighting as it will cause unnecessary heat stress.

Figure 41: Firefighter’s flash hood.

Regularly check that your flash hood is available and free from damage such as burns, charring, tears, holes, abrading, fraying or loss of shape. Replace it, if needed.

Regularly check that your flash hood is clean, and dry. Hoods should be washed in regular detergent in warm water. Do not use chlorine bleach or detergents containing chlorine bleach. Shape and lay flat in a cool shaded location to dry. Do not wring or squeeze the hood dry. Hoods may be dry-cleaned. Store the hood in a cool, dry place, out of direct sunlight.

(h) Water Bottle

Firefighting is demanding work, often carried out during hot conditions. Without water you can become less effective, dehydrated and even dangerously ill. Drink water often during breaks while firefighting. Always carry a water bottle when bush firefighting, and fill it only with fresh, clean water. Cordial or other additives can slow down the rate at which you can absorb the water, and plain water can also be used for first-aid purposes. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 85

Water bottles are designed to be carried in pouches that can be attached to a webbing belt that fits onto your two piece firefighter’s trousers. Your appliance should have a generous supply of drinking water on it to replenish your water bottle when needed. Water carried on the appliance for firefighting is unsuitable for drinking as it may be contaminated with wetting agents or other additives.

(i) Black Wool Jacket

In some areas, firefighters may be issued with a black wool jacket. These have a yellow shoulder cape and high visibility, retro-reflective taping and back marking. They can be used during defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside of a building) and operations in cold weather conditions. They are not to be used during offensive interior structural firefighting.

The jacket features a zip front with a flap that closes over the zipper with Velcro. A high collar can also be raised and closed over at the front. Pockets are provided on the front of the jacket, plus a water proof pocket inside the liner. When not in use, the jacket should be stored in a clean, dry place.

Figure 42: Black wool jacket. 86 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

If you have been issued with a black wool jacket, regularly check it for any fraying, contamination, deterioration or other damage. Minor repairs to change the length of cuffs, stitch small holes or frays, or repair closure fittings are acceptable. Otherwise, have it repaired by an authorised person to the original manufacturer’s standard or replaced, if needed. If the jacket gets wet, hang dry it in a cool shaded place. Dry clean only.

(j) Other (non-bush ﬁreﬁghting) PPE

You might see other forms of personal protective equipment in use by firefighters engaged in offensive structural firefighting or handling hazardous materials (hazmat) incidents. A brief description of each is given below:

OFFENSIVE STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING PPE

About two thirds of the heat of a fire in the open air escapes as hot convection currents. In a building fire, however, this hot convected air can become trapped within the structure. The result is a much hotter firefighting environment for firefighters, although the fire can usually be extinguished fairly quickly. PPE for offensive structural firefighting (i.e. fighting fires inside structures) is more resistant to such heat. It is bulkier and holds in body heat much more than bush firefighting PPE, but usually does not have to be worn for as long a time.

It consists of firefighting over-trousers (worn over the standard bush firefighting trousers), an offensive firefighter’s jacket (with an outer shell and an inner insulating layer, worn over a normal natural fibre under- garment), structural firefighter’s boots, structural firefighter’s helmet, structural firefighter’s gloves, flash hood and compressed air breathing apparatus (CABA). It is used by rural firefighters in larger villages who have special training and certification in offensive structural firefighting.

The multi-layer jacket and single layer trousers are made from a synthetic, fire resistant material called aramid. While some natural fibres can have similar fire resistance, aramid has an additional advantage: If damaged by severe heat it will not fall apart as easily when flexed (e.g. by a person moving while wearing it) and it might therefore continue to provide protection for just a few seconds longer in the same conditions.

The boots are similar to bush firefighter’s boots but incorporate a quick donning zipper. The helmet is much heavier than that used for bush firefighting and incorporates a close fitting aramid ear and neck protector and a clear, retractable visor. The weight of the helmet is such that it is BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 87 not recommended for long duration bush firefighting. The gloves are similar to bush firefighter’s gloves but have an inner liner. The breathing apparatus set consists of an air cylinder, backpack and harness and facemask. The set usually has a working duration of around 30 minutes and operators have to work under strict safety procedures. The flash hood is worn around the breathing apparatus facemask and is donned before putting on the helmet.

Figure 43: Bush firefighter in offensive structural firefighting PPE.

HAZMAT PPE

Some emergencies can involve hazardous materials, such as various chemicals. By law, only firefighters from the NSW Fire Brigades can handle hazmat incidents in NSW. However, RFS personnel might be first on the scene, and may keep people away from it and take other safe actions to contain the incident until specialised NSW Fire Brigade hazmat crews arrive.

RFS firefighters are authorised to handle small incidents involving common flammable liquid or gas fuels (e.g. petrol, diesel, kerosene, natural gas and LP gas) that do no normally require the use of hazmat PPE. In some areas there might also be special arrangements for selected RFS personnel to provide support (e.g. water supply) to NSW Fire Brigades during hazmat operations. 88 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Hazmat firefighters usually use airtight suits made of chemical-resistant material. The suits are usually designed to be decontaminated and re-used, but disposable suits are sometimes used. Decontamination (“decon”) facilities have to be set up to support hazmat operations. Decon is carried out very meticulously as firefighters might otherwise accumulate minute, but dangerous, “doses” of hazardous chemicals over several incidents, even just in the process of getting out of the PPE.

Photo supplied by NSW Fire Brigade

Figure 44: NSW Fire Brigades’ firefighters in hazmat PPE. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 89

3 Hand Tools

Some simple common handtools can be extremely effective in fire fighting operations. The most common handtools used in bush fire fighting are the axe, the rakehoe (combined heavy rake and hoe) and various types of slashers. The pulaski handtool (combined axe and hoe) may also be used in specific types of vegetation.

(a) Axe

The axe is used for many activities other than fire suppression. Many axes are abused and may become unsuitable for cutting tree trunks or branches. Once an axe has been used for breaking up stumps, it should be correctly re-sharpened to make sure it is ready to be used for fire suppression activities such as:

• Felling small trees.

• Removing branches.

• Cleaning bark from trees.

• Splitting logs.

All axes must have secure handles because an axe head flying off a handle can cause serious injury. Axe head covers should be used to protect the axe head when not in use, and to protect firefighters from injury.

Figure 45: An Axe. 90 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

HOW TO SHARPEN AN AXE

It is difficult to sharpen an axe safely in the field. The cutting edge can be maintained by using a pocket axe stone, but if an axe requires extensive sharpening, the axe head needs to be firmly secured in a vice or a ‘G’ clamp.

A. Just Right B. Too thin C. New

Figure 46: Sharpening an Axe.

(b) Rakehoe (McLeod tool)

The rakehoe is equipped with:

• One pronged edge for raking.

• One sharpened edge for cutting, chipping and scraping down to mineral earth.

Figure 47: Rakehoe. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 91

The rakehoe is used for:

• Raking and scraping away surface fuels to create control lines.

• Raking litter and vegetation into the burnt area.

• Scraping bark from tree trunks.

• Raking out hot coals from logs and stumps.

HOW TO SHARPEN A RAKEHOE

The cutting edge of a rakehoe must be sharp. A working angle for the cutting edge of a rakehoe is 30 degrees. As with axes, a blade sharpened at too fine an angle can be easily damaged and the tool rendered useless. You should sharpen a rakehoe with a file.

angle too about fine will blunt 30 very quickly

Figure 48: Sharpening a Rakehoe. 92 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

There are two types of slashing tools, brush hooks and fern hooks. These are used for:

• The initial clearing of scrub by a crew cutting a fire break or control line.

• Clearing a large area for the safe siting of a tanker and crew.

• Clearing a helicopter landing zone.

Brush Hook

Fern Hook

Figure 49: Slashing Tools.

HOW TO SHARPEN A SLASHING TOOL

Slashing tools should be sharpened with a file. When you sharpen a slashing tool, follow the angle ground by the manufacturer, and make sure the angle is slightly less than the machine-ground edge.

30º

Figure 50: Sharpening angle for a slashing tool. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 93

(d) Pulaski Tool

The Pulaski tool is a combination of a hoe and an axe. It is used mainly:

• In rocky terrain where there is a lot of tussock type grass.

• For splitting open and raking out logs or stumps.

Figure 51: Pulaski tool.

The chipping edge is sharpened like a rakehoe, while the cutting edge is sharpened like an axe. Pulaski Tools are not on general issue in the RFS, but may be used in some brigades and in some interstate agencies

(e) Sharpening all hand tools

When you sharpen any hand tool, you must:

• Where possible, secure blades in a vice, for easier and safer sharpening.

• Use a file or sharpening stone. A power grinder may be faster, but you can easily soften the steel in the tool as a result of the heat generated by grinding. Power grinding is only acceptable if you repeatedly cool the cutting edge with water, or preferably, soluble oil.

• Angle strokes away from the cutting edge.

• Never use a file without the correct handle.

Note: Wooden handles fitted to hand tools are easier on the hands if lightly smoothed with sandpaper and oiled with linseed oil. 94 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

(f) Carrying Hand Tools

When carrying hand tools, you must:

• Carry them close to your body and parallel to the ground.

• Not carry them over your shoulder. If you swing a tool around, it may strike another person, or if you fall, it may cause you serious injury.

• Carry tools on the downhill side when walking on steep side slopes. This way, if your feet slip out from under you, you will fall onto the hill and not on top of the tool.

• Make sure that all sharp edges are covered whenever the tools are stowed or carried. This is not only a safety precaution but is good firefighting practice as blunt tools can be ineffective.

4 Knapsacks

(a) Description

A knapsack is a portable spray pump containing about 16 litres of water and fitted with shoulder straps for carrying on the back. It has a hand operated force pump which can be used to deliver water either in the form of a jet or a spray. Most modern knapsacks have containers made of polythene. This makes them lighter than the older types made from galvanised iron. On the fireground, you can use a knapsack to:

• Make a direct attack on a low intensity flank fire.

• Support a hand tool crew who are constructing a control line close to the fire edge.

• Assist in mopping-up operations.

(b) How to use a knapsack

The hand piece has a nozzle that can be adjusted to give:

• Either a straight jet for long distance work, or

• A fantail spray for close work. The fantail method uses water more economically and effectively when a firefighter is working close to a fire. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 95

Hose Filler Cap

Tank Pump x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Nozzle

Shoulder Straps Figure 52: Knapsack.

Knapsacks need to be kept clean. The pump plungers on knapsacks need to be lubricated on a regular basis and the valves and other components need to be cleaned if they are to work properly. Procedures for the maintenance of knapsacks are given in NSW RFS Equipment Standard Operating Procedures and/or the NSW RFS SP/5 Equipment Officer’s (EQO) Manual. Your brigade Equipment Officer should be able to show you a copy. 96 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

5 Ropes, Lines and Knots

Ropes and lines may be used in fire suppression for a range of activities including:

• Lifting or lowering equipment.

• Attaching a line to a suction hose and strainer.

• Securing a line to an object.

The strands of a rope may be of fibre or wire and the diameters and lengths of ropes and lines will vary. The following information provides you with a brief overview of two types of knots that you may need to use in suppression activities.

(a) Clove Hitch

This type of knot can be used for securing a line to a suction strainer.

This knot consists of two half hitches, one of which is reversed. By passing over one another, the parts of the line bind and form a secure hitch that can be easily untied but will not slip under a steady, direct strain. This hitch may slip if exposed to a sideways strain.

1. 2.

Figure 53: Clove Hitch. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 97

(b) Round Turn and Two Half Hitches

This knot can be used to lift or lower an object, particularly a round object such as a log.

This knot is formed by making a round turn on a ring or other round object and making two locking half-hitches on the standing part of the line. It has the advantage that whenever strain is placed on it, it will never jam yet, after the weight is removed, it is easy to untie.

Figure 54: Round turn and two half inches. 98 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

6 Ladders

Many bush fire tankers carry a ladder. Usually it is a 4.5 metre (combination folding) access ladder, but vehicles with a village firefighting role may also carry a rescue (long extension) ladder. The latter is covered in more detail in the Village Firefighter (VF) course. An access ladder can be used as an extension ladder, a stepladder or a trestle ladder, depending on which way it is unfolded and set up.

When carrying and positioning a ladder make sure it does not strike persons or objects and is kept well clear of overhead power lines. When setting up the ladder, ensure it is locked into the desired configuration (extension, step or trestle) before using it.

When in use as an extension ladder, it should be placed on firm level ground, leaning against a well supported object, with the foot of the ladder about one quarter the distance out of the height being scaled. Unless firmly tied in position, a ladder must be footed (securely held) by another firefighter whenever in use. When climbing a ladder grip the rungs, rather than the strings (sides of the ladder), with the hands and feet moving together in a smooth rhythmic climbing motion.

Figure 55: Combination folding access ladder. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 99

7 Hoses and Small Gear

Fire services within Australia use different types of hoses and small gear in their firefighting activities. This section examines the following firefighting equipment and their uses on the fireground:

HOSES

• Couplings.

• Adaptors.

• Breechings.

• Branches and nozzles, and the different types of water streams they produce.

(a) Hoses

The three main types of fire hose you may use on the fireground are:

• Suction hose (wire reinforced).

• Hose reel hose (flexible).

• Delivery hose (“layflat”).

Be aware that you should be able to identify the types of hose your agency uses at an incident.

SUCTION HOSE

A suction hose conveys water to a pump when taking water from a tank, dam or river (a process called draughting). Draughting is the action required to pump water when a pump is situated in a position higher than the water supply.

A suction hose is reinforced to withstand external pressure so that it will maintain its shape and not collapse when the pump is draughting water. When working with a suction hose, you must be careful not to puncture it. A hole in the hose or leaking coupling seals will make it useless as it will not be able to maintain sufficient vacuum to obtain a lift, that is draw up the water.

A suction strainer is connected to the end of the suction hose to prevent solid objects from entering the pump. 100 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Rubber and Canvas Layers Rubber Lining

Inner Wire Spiral Outer Cover Outer Wire Spiral

Not to scale

Figure 56: Suction Hose and strainers.

HOSE REEL HOSE

This is a lightweight, flexible hose usually stored on the revolving drum of a “live” reel (a hose reel able to supply water without fully unrolling the hose). It is reinforced to withstand internal pressure (sometimes very high) and covered with an abrasion resistant outer layer. Hose on a “live” reel is permanently connected to the appliance’s pump. Common parts of a hose reel include:

• Hose.

• Nozzle.

• Reel.

• Inlet pipe.

• Connection fitting.

• Stop valve.

• Hose guide (where required). BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 101

Hose reel hose is usually either 19mm (sometimes called 20mm) and 25mm in diameter. You can use it at an incident:

• When it is necessary to take a line of hose quickly to a fire using the available water supply on the appliance.

• For the rapid deployment and delivery of water.

• When rapid retrieval of hose is important.

Figure 57: Hose reel hose.

DELIVERY HOSE

Delivery hose is used for conveying water from pumps or hydrants to where the water is needed. It is designed to withstand internal pressure. This hose is also used as a supply line; that is, from the hydrant to the pump. Two types of delivery hose often used in rural firefighting are:

• Unlined – percolating, this hose is constructed so that, when charged (full of water) it continually emits droplets of water. This offers resistance to burning and scorching when the hose is in contact with heated materials and embers.

• Lined – non-percolating. It does not absorb water. An internal lining of rubber or plastic prevents water seepage. 102 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

HOSE SIZE

In bush fire suppression, three broad categories of hose size are used: small, medium and large.

• Small hose line (e.g. 25mm diameter) - A light-weight hose line that can be used to attack a small fire, and/or to attach to the end of a hose-reel to extend its reach.

• Medium hose line (e.g. 38mm diameter) - Due to its size and weight, this line is fast to deploy on the fireground. It allows you to deliver a medium volume of water. This line is excellent for fighting more intense bush fires.

• Large hose line (e.g. 65mm diameter) - Due to its larger size and weight, a large hose line is slower to deploy on the fire ground. The larger diameter of the hose allows for a greater volume and flow of water, enabling it to be supplied efficiently over longer distances. Because of its weight, it would be quite unusual to use a large hose for fire attack on a bush fire.

HOSE CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Hose requires specific care and maintenance to ensure long life. General care of hoses includes:

• Avoiding running them over hot, sharp or abrasive objects.

• Not subjecting them to sudden increases in pressure.

• Not dropping them or putting strain on their couplings.

• Flushing them (e.g. to remove foam) and cleaning them after use.

• Storing them in a clean, dry condition, out of direct sunlight.

Procedures for the maintenance of hoses are given in NSW RFS Equipment Standard Operating Procedures and/or the NSW RFS SP/5 Equipment Officer’s (EQO) Manual. Your brigade Equipment Officer should be able to show you a copy of these. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 103

(b) Couplings

Couplings are fittings used for connecting two lengths of hose together, or a piece of equipment to a length of hose. Some of the most common types of couplings used in Australia are:

• Storz (hermaphrodite).

• Screw or threaded.

• British Instantaneous.

• External lug hermaphrodite.

STORZ (HERMAPHRODITE)

“Storz” (pronounced “storts”) is a proprietary name coupling used on delivery and suction hoses in both the NSW Fire Brigades and NSW Rural Fire Service. Identical hermaphrodite (both male and female) couplings are fitted to each end of a hose. The coupling is connected by inserting the two lugs of each coupling into the mating part of the other, then turning each half coupling about half a turn in opposite directions.

The coupling washers on delivery hose may have either a flat or grooved face. However, those used on suction hose must have a grooved face so that they can seal tightly when suction is applied within the hose. It is important that the sealing washers on storz couplings are regularly checked and kept clean.

SCREW OR THREADED COUPLINGS

Various types of screw or threaded couplings are in use on all types of hose lines, including delivery and suction, in many interstate fire services. Screw threaded couplings used to be the standard type in NSW, and many building hydrants still have screw threaded outlets. A Storz to thread adaptor is needed to enable hoses to be connected to such hydrants.

Hoses to be connected need to be positioned so that the male coupling of one hose can be connected to the female coupling of the next hose. It is important to keep the threads clean, and any washers must be in a serviceable condition. 104 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

BRITISH INSTANTANEOUS (BI) COUPLINGS

This is a very quick connecting coupling used in fire services in the UK (hence the name) and by federal fire services in Australia (e.g. military and airport fire services). These fire services will generally always be carrying adaptors to allowing interconnection with hoses used by other fire services operating in their vicinity.

BI couplings are connected by pushing the opposite parts together until they click home. Two lugs on the outside of the female coupling are pulled outwards to release the coupling. Some outlets and fittings may only have a single, winged lug, which is operated by twisting it. BI couplings can only be used on delivery hose, as they cannot form an effective seal for suction work.

EXTERNAL LUG HERMAPHRODITE

These couplings are similar in concept to Storz but the lugs are external to the coupling face for easy cleaning in dusty or muddy conditions. They are commonly used in rural firefighting operations in some other states.

External lug Hermaphrodite Storz couplings

British Instantaneous couplings

Threaded couplings

Figure 58: Hose Couplings. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 105

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF COUPLINGS

You should treat couplings with care because damage may cause air leaks. When working with these couplings, you should:

• Never drop or drag them along the ground.

• Tighten them at the joints using the correct size spanner.

• Visually inspect their seals for wear.

• Not treat them with lubricants.

These are fittings used to couple different sized hoses, hoses of the same size with different threads, different types of couplings, or to connect the male to male, or female to female parts of the same type of coupling.

Figure 59: Hose Adaptor. 106 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

(d) Breechings

Breechings are devices used for:

• Dividing one line of hose into two (dividing breeching).

• Uniting two lines of hose into one (collecting breeching).

Figure 60: Typical Breeching.

DIVIDING BREECHING

A dividing breeching, as its name implies, allows you to divide one hoseline into two. Its purpose is to reduce loss of pressure due to friction by “twinning” the supply hose line, or to allow streams of water to be delivered to separate parts of the fire. Some texts might call them a “wye”.

Dividing breechings may or may not have control valves fitted to the outlet. A common use of a controllable dividing breeching (i.e. one with control valves) is to connect it to a hydrant outlet, so that a second line can be connected later on without interrupting the water supply to the first line.

COLLECTING BREECHING

A collecting breeching brings two hose lines into one. The breeching is usually used to reunite a delivery hose which has been divided (or ‘twinned’) to reduce friction. It enables the delivery of a maximum volume of water to a pump or branch. Some texts might call them a “siamese”. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 107

Collecting breechings may or may not have automatic shut-off valves on the inlets so that any unused inlet is shut off when water is supplied into the breeching.

As storz couplings are hermaphrodite (i.e. both ends are identical), an uncontrolled storz breeching can be used for either dividing or collecting purposes.

(e) Branches and Nozzles

A branch is fitted at the end of a delivery hose to allow water or other extinguishing medium travelling through the hose to form an effective firefighting jet or spray. It is used to control and direct water at a fire.

A nozzle is a fitting that is used with a branch to control the size, pattern and/or velocity of water or extinguishing medium being discharged. A separate nozzle may be fitted to the end of a branch, or the branch and nozzle may be a combined unit.

Branches and nozzles come in various types and sizes. They provide you with a range of options for delivering water at a fireground. It is important to select the branch and nozzle most suited to a particular task.

Figure 61: Standard Branch and Nozzle.

Most branches are fitted with controls to allow you to control the flow of water and the stream pattern. 108 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

TYPES OF BRANCHES AND NOZZLES

The branches and nozzles most commonly found may be divided into two main types:

• Standard branches - used to create a jet stream by increasing the velocity of the water.

• Variable control branches – that may have options such as:

- shut off control.

- water volume control.

- jet and spray selector.

- independent control of jet and spray.

- variable spray patterns from a jet to a fog pattern.

- water fog.

Some types of branches may be operated to supply a fog water curtain and a jet at the same time. Most variable branches are capable of being shut off at the branch and some have a pistol grip that makes them easier to operate. These branches operate at different pressures and the manufacturer’s specifications should be consulted.

Note: It is always preferable to select a variable control branch if the opportunity arises because you then have full control of the flow of water and the shape of the stream.

There are special types of variable control branches that operate automatically. These automatically adjust to maintain a constant pressure at the branch over a wide range of flow rates.

USING A BRANCH

When using a branch, it is essential that you hold it correctly. This will reduce fatigue, prevent accidents and ensure efficient and effective firefighting. Pumps working on too high a pressure will always make branch handling difficult. If you are unsure what to do, ask your supervising officer. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 109

(f) Water Streams

You can extinguish fire by applying water in several ways. The following techniques are described:

• jet stream.

• spray pattern.

• fog pattern.

JET STREAM

A jet stream is an unbroken stream of water projected from a nozzle. It is designed to give maximum throw. The principal purpose of a jet stream is to achieve a long reach, penetrate the flames and attack the seat of the fire.

When using a jet, you should direct the stream onto the seat of the fire and move the jet across all burning material to achieve maximum cooling. The jet can also be used to break up the burning material and to penetrate to the seat of the fire.

The advantages of a jet are:

• it has longer reach.

• it provides greater penetration.

• it is least affected by wind.

• it is less affected by radiant heat.

The disadvantages of a jet, depending on the size of branch selected, are:

• jet reaction (the rearward force generated by the stream of water) is increased with high pressure and firefighters tire quickly.

• it causes considerable damage if misused.

• it may conduct electricity.

• a lot of water may be wasted.

• it may blast hot coals across a control line. 110 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Figure 62: Jet Stream.

SPRAY PATTERN

The spray nozzle or variable control branch breaks the water stream into small droplets. These small droplets have a much larger total surface area than a jet of water. A given amount of water in a spray will absorb more heat than the same amount of water in a jet.

The absorption of heat converts water to steam and extinguishes the fire by reducing the heat, and to a lesser extent by smothering the fire.

The advantages of a spray pattern are:

• it provides a water curtain for firefighter protection.

• it accelerates the rate at which water is converted to steam, removing more heat from the surrounding fire.

• it covers a large area and is therefore more economical in its use of water. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 111

The disadvantages of a spray pattern are:

• it has a shorter reach.

• it will not effectively cool hot spots or objects unless it is applied directly onto them.

• it has less penetration capability.

Figure 63: Spray Pattern. 112 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

FOG PATTERN

A fog pattern is an extremely fine spray of particles of water forming a mist pattern.

The advantages of fog are:

• it covers a larger surface area than water spray.

• it absorbs heat rapidly within a contained area. It enhances the rate at which water is converted to steam, removing more heat from the surrounding fire than a spray pattern.

• it minimises the damage to property.

• it maximises the effective use of water.

• it provides protection to firefighters from radiant heat.

The disadvantages of fog are:

• it has a shorter reach.

• it will not cool hot objects unless it is applied directly onto them.

• it is affected by wind.

• it can impede visibility.

Figure 64: Fog Stream. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 113

(g) General Hose Care

Take care when handling hoses and hose reels. Note the following points:

• Direct high pressure water jets carefully. Firefighting pumps and hydrant water supply is at high enough a pressure to cause injury to anyone struck at close range. Take proper control of the hose outlet, ensure nobody is in the way and then turn on the water supply.

• Ensure that the ends of hose lines are either securely held, or securely tied off, before they are pressurised with water, so they cannot flail about.

• When running hose in or out, be on the lookout for couplings or fittings in the hose line. Do not close your hand around a running hose.

• Keep your hands clear of hose reels as these are of a “spoke” construction and your hand could be caught between the spokes.

8 Water Supplies and Equipment

(a) Introduction

Water is the most commonly used medium for extinguishing fires. This section provides you with broad information about reticulated and static water supplies and hydrants. It explains how to use them and how to operate ancillary equipment.

The taking of water from reticulated and static supplies is controlled by legislation. The Rural Fires Act enables firefighters to take water from any source for use during firefighting or related activities.

(b) Water Supplies

You can obtain water for firefighting primarily from two sources:

RETICULATED SUPPLIES

Reticulated water supplies consist of water mains (pipes). In most cases water is collected from rivers or dams, and fed into reservoirs. 114 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

From these reservoirs, a network of water mains delivers water under pressure to consumers for domestic and industrial purposes.

To enable water to be obtained from mains for firefighting, fittings called hydrants are attached to them at various points.

STATIC SUPPLIES

These are bodies of water, such as dams, rivers, lakes, the sea, tanks, reservoirs or swimming pools. Some may be marked with a ‘SWS’ (static water source) sign. When using water from a static supply, firefighters must draught water using firefighting pumps and suction hoses.

Draughting is the action of removing the air from the suction hose and pump casing, so creating a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure then forces water up the hose and into the pump to replace the vacuum.

In some rural areas covered by your agency, water may be drawn from a reticulated or static supply elsewhere and transported to the incident in water tankers. You should familiarise yourself with the reticulated and static water supplies available in your local area.

Hydrants are devices that allow you to connect a hose or a standpipe to a water main. A standpipe is a portable piece of equipment used to bring the outlet of a below ground hydrant to above ground level. Hydrants are situated at regular intervals along mains. You can use hydrants to:

• supply water to a fire appliance.

• supply water to a branch via a hose.

Fire agencies across Australia have access to different types of hydrants. You should familiarise yourself with the types of hydrants in your local area. Hydrants can be classified as being either above ground or below ground. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 115

ABOVE GROUND HYDRANTS

Above ground hydrants work on the principle of a screw valve being operated to control the flow of water. In some cases, you will need to use a hydrant key or spanner. The types of above-ground hydrants used vary throughout Australia. Some examples are:

• Pillar hydrant.

• ‘L’ type hydrant.

• Millcock hydrant (most common type in NSW).

BELOW GROUND HYDRANTS

These hydrants are used in conjunction with a standpipe:

• Screw valve hydrant.

• Ground ball hydrant (ball valve).

• Spring valve hydrant (most common type in NSW).

Note: In some areas, large water tanks with hydrant fittings and valves may be available. These outlets are gravity fed and are not pressurised. In some areas there might be “dry hydrants”. These consist of an outlet with a pipe running down into an open water supply like a dam. A tanker can connect to the outlet with a suction hose and draught water from the dam.

HYDRANT INDICATORS

Water supply authorities, councils and fire authorities may provide markers to indicate the locations of hydrants. These markers are designed to be seen easily by firefighters, in day or night conditions. The marking systems in use vary. In NSW, three common systems are in use in various areas:

• “HP” or “HR” markers (red lettering on a white plate) are used to indicate that a below ground hydrant is in the adjacent path or road. The plate faces the direction of the hydrant while the distance to the hydrant (in metres) and the size of the main (in millimetres) is stamped on the plate. A black horizontal line across the middle of a marker indicates the hydrant is on the opposite side of the road. These plates are often fitted to power poles and will have a secondary indicator (a green “H” marker plate) on the opposite side of the pole. 116 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

(Note: Primary marker plates indicating a hydrant supplying recycled water have a lilac background and include the letter ‘R’ before the H, HP or HR. Recycled water is not suitable for drinking, but is not considered a health risk for firefighting.)

• Blue reflectors fitted to the road surface adjacent to the hydrant location. (Note: A line of blue reflectors is also used at the side of some motorways and highways to indicate an exit for emergency vehicles off the road into adjacent property.)

• Yellow or white triangles painted on the roadway, with the “sharp end” of the triangle pointing towards the hydrant’s location.

(d) Ancillary Hydrant Equipment

When operating a hydrant, there are several pieces of equipment available to assist you. They are:

• Hydrant key.

• Hydrant bar.

• Standpipe.

HYDRANT KEY

This piece of equipment is used for:

• Lifting and removing the cover plate.

• Loosening dirt and rubble underneath a hydrant cover plate.

• Turning the hydrant on or off (e.g. screw valve type hydrants).

HYDRANT BAR

A hydrant bar is used to:

• Lift and remove the hydrant cover plate.

• Loosen dirt and rubble underneath the hydrant cover plate. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 117

STANDPIPE

A standpipe is a portable piece of equipment used to raise the outlet of a below ground hydrant to above ground level. Once you have done this, you can connect a hose to the standpipe outlet. As previously described, when you use a standpipe, be aware that:

• Because the hydrant is below ground, it may be full of dirt and debris.

• Dangerous wildlife may hide under a hydrant cover.

• Syringes may be placed in the hydrant pit.

Spindle Blank Cap Rubber Seal

Swivel Head Handles

Leather Threaded Collar Washer

Figure 65: Standpipe. 118 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

(e) Operating Hydrants

When operating a hydrant, you should:

• Flush the hydrant to remove debris before connecting a hose.

• Open the valve slowly to prevent water hammer and damage to the hose, especially if the hose is connected directly to the branch. This also prevents injury to firefighters.

• Close the valve slowly to prevent water hammer and a possible burst water main.

In addition, when operating a spring valve hydrant, which requires a standpipe, you should:

• Check there are no snakes, spiders or other insects when removing the hydrant cover plate and be alert for broken glass or syringes in the hydrant pit.

• Clear debris from around the hydrant lugs and sealing ring.

• Do not stand with any part of your body over the top of the standpipe while it is being inserted and operated.

• Before inserting the standpipe into the hydrant, ensure the lugged collar at the base of the standpipe is wound fully down, and that the standpipe plunger is fully retracted (spindle wound up inside the end of the standpipe).

• Insert the standpipe into the hydrant so that the bottom end of the standpipe mates onto the hydrant outlet.

• Turn the whole standpipe (clockwise as viewed from above) so the collar lugs engage on the hooks on the hydrant, and keep turning the standpipe until it locks firmly in place.

• Turn the standpipe outlet (in the same direction used to tighten the standpipe) until it points in the desired direction.

• Turn the standpipe spindle valve (clockwise, viewed from above) so that the plunger will depress the hydrant spring valve and allow water to flow up the standpipe.

• Open the valve sufficiently to flush the hydrant until the water flow is clean. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 119

• Turn the valve off (anti-clockwise, viewed from above) and connect the required adaptor, breeching and/or hose.

• Open the valve gradually to charge the hose-line, then open it sufficiently to allow the full flow rate, but do not turn the valve down as far as it will go as this may jam the hydrant spring valve open. After use:

• Do not disconnect the standpipe from a hydrant if water is unavailable, or the flow has failed, until the valve has been closed. This removes the danger of the valve remaining open when the supply is restored.

• Turn off the standpipe valve (turn anti-clockwise, as viewed from above).

• Relieve the pressure in the hose and/or fittings and then remove them from the standpipe.

• Remove the standpipe from the hydrant by turning the whole standpipe (anti-clockwise as viewed from above).

• Check that the hydrant is properly closed so that there are no water leaks, and that the hydrant pit is left clean of debris.

• Get help from your supervising officer if the standpipe will not shut off, or the hydrant is leaking.

(f) Checking Hydrants

Some brigades regularly check hydrants to detect any problems. A basic procedure for checking hydrants is as follows:

• Ensure hydrant marking is readily visible.

• With below ground hydrants, makes sure the lid of the hydrant box is accessible.

• Check the hydrant box, and clear debris if necessary.

Note: that some above ground hydrants are sealed (with a wire seal that breaks when the hydrant is first opened) by the water authority to deter unauthorised use of un-metered water. Your officer in charge will need to report their use for firefighting, so they can be resealed. 120 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

It is not uncommon for below ground hydrants to become covered or overgrown. If problems are discovered during checking, notify your officer-in-charge of their location and the nature of the problem.

9 Pumps and Pumping Operations

(a) Introduction

After firefighters have located a source of water for fire suppression, the water needs to be fed into a pump to enable the pressure and flow to be controlled. In this section, you will learn about the main types of pumps used in fire suppression and the broad guidelines for operating them. This should give you enough knowledge to be able to operate the smaller types of pumps used for bush firefighting. To operate some of the larger, more sophisticated, pumps used in the RFS you should complete the pumps and pumping component of the Advanced Firefighter’s (AF) course.

A pump is a machine, powered by an external source, which imparts energy to a fluid or gas. Pumps used by firefighting agencies may be divided into two broad categories:

• Centrifugal pumps.

• Priming pumps.

(b) Centrifugal Pumps

The most common types of pumps used on fire appliances in Australia are centrifugal pumps. These pumps are designed to only pump water; they cannot also pump air. For this reason, a separate priming device must be fitted in order to get the water into the pump so that it can begin pumping. Priming devices are described later in this section.

In a centrifugal pump, energy is imparted by centrifugal force. That is, the force generated by rotation of an object. This force drives outwards from the centre of rotation.

The construction of the centrifugal pump is relatively simple. It consists of two main parts, the impeller and the pump casing, and they each have a separate function. The impeller imparts a high velocity (speed) to the water. The casing contains the water and transforms this velocity energy into pressure energy. There is minimum clearance between the pump and the moving parts. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 121

IMPELLER

The impeller is a circular, metal casting mounted on a shaft which rotates. Once the pump is full of water, rotation of the impeller forces the water outwards from the centre (eye) along the vanes of the impeller by centrifugal force to the outer edge (periphery) of the pump casing at high velocity. This induces an ongoing flow through the impeller passages by creating a low pressure area at its inlet, therefore drawing more water into the pump.

Figure 66: Typical Impeller.

CASING

As described previously, the important function of the casing is to convert the kinetic energy of the water (energy resulting from the movement of water) to pressure energy when it leaves the impeller. This is done by forcing the water through an increasing diameter passage which reduces the velocity of the water and so converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.

The simplest form of such a passage in the pump casing is a “volute”. The volute reduces the velocity and turbulence of the water, and increases its pressure as it channels the water to the outlet. 122 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Volute

Impeller Outlet

Intake Eye

Vane

Figure 67: Centrifugal Pump.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Centrifugal pumps have the following characteristics which need to be understood. For a given pump:

• Pressure is at maximum and flow is at minimum when all outlets are closed.

• Pressure is at minimum and flow is at maximum when all outlets are wide open.

• Pressure drops as outlets are opened, given constant pump speed.

• Pressure and flow vary directly with pump speed, as long as the size of the delivery nozzle is maintained.

Centrifugal pumps, as mentioned previously, do not displace air. A self-priming pump is needed to exhaust air from within the pump casing and suction hose (this is called “priming the pump”), so that the centrifugal pump can draught water. Most, if not all, pumpers and tankers use centrifugal-type pumps. These pumps may be driven by a vehicle’s engine or have their own drive engine. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 123

WHY THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP IS THE MOST COMMON TYPE

Centrifugal pumps are used by agencies because of the benefits they offer during firefighting operations. Centrifugal pumps:

• Have only one moving part. This makes it very unlikely that the pump will break down when in use.

• Are simple to maintain.

• Can be run whilst the valves are closed without damage or danger. (Note: On more powerful types of pumps the water may become heated if the pump is run for a while with the valves closed.)

• On arrival at an incident, the pump can be immediately primed (filled with water so that it can be operated), and the impeller can be turning, ready to be used.

• Can be driven directly by an internal combustion engine.

Pumps can be located at the front, rear or centre of the appliance. Most pumps in the RFS are mounted on the rear of tankers.

Pumps employed by firefighting agencies vary in their:

• Size.

• Weight.

• Capacity.

• Design.

• Motor power.

• Connections.

• Controls.

• Gauges.

These variations, and the variety of priming devices used, make it impractical to attempt to cover all configurations in this Manual. Your trainer and brigade officers will familiarise you with the particular pumps you are likely to use. 124 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

There are a variety of priming pump designs. Two types of priming pumps are:

• Mechanical.

• Ejector.

MECHANICAL PUMP

A mechanical pump (positive displacement) is one in which air is pumped by displacement (movement) between a plunger or rotor, and the casing of the pump. The moving parts make an air and watertight seal with the pump casing.

A bike pump is an example of a positive displacement pump, and so is the rotary vane pump commonly used as a primer for many larger RFS centrifugal pumps.

Rotor Vanes

Rotor

Casing

Figure 68: Positive Displacement Rotary Vane Pump. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 125

EJECTOR PUMP

An ejector pump has no moving parts but operates by venturi effect. A passage or pipe is constricted at one point so that fluid or gas passing through it increases in velocity at the point of constriction. This increase in velocity energy is counter-balanced by a corresponding drop in static pressure energy, and the (static) pressure in the gas or fluid drops below atmospheric pressure. Fluid or gas entering via an inlet located at this point is therefore drawn into the main stream due to the difference in pressures. (To see this effect, place a straw into a glass of water and blow across the top of the straw – it will cause water to be drawn up the straw)

Ejector type pumps, using the exhaust discharge from the pump engine (an “exhaust ejector primer”), can displace (pump) air and act as a primer. They are used to prime some types of RFS centrifugal pumps. The venturi effect is also used for the mixing of foam concentrate with water in a foam making system and for water driven ejector pumps used to remove water from flooded buildings.

Main Stream

Pressure Drops below INLET Atmospheric Pressure

Point of Constriction

Increases in velocity

Check Valve

Passage or Pipe

Figure 69: Ejector Pump. 126 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Note: Many of the small so-called “self-priming” pumps used in fire fighting are actually normal centrifugal pumps. They are fitted with a filler cap on the top of the pump casing so they can be filled with water manually, and so be primed with sufficient water to operate, before use.

(d) Pump Output

Pressure and flow from a pump should be carefully controlled. Any changes should be gradual. The importance of this cannot be over-stated. Sudden changes in pressure and flow alter jet reaction (force) at the branch. This makes the branch difficult to hold and can place the branch operator at risk. Sudden shutting down of a valve can also cause “water hammer” which can burst hoses or water mains upstream of the valve.

(e) Pump Gauges

Most pumps have gauges to indicate inlet and outlet pressures. Inlet pressure is the positive or negative pressure of the water coming into the pump. This depends on whether the pump is operating from a reticulated (positive) or static (negative) supply. Outlet pressure is the pressure of water being delivered from the pump. These pressures are registered in bars or kilopascals (kPa).

The inlet gauge is in the form of a compound gauge that indicates the negative or positive pressure on the inlet side of the pump. The outlet pressure is measured by the delivery pressure gauge.

0 9 10 11 100 8 12 500 7 13 6 14 -50 1000 5 15 4 Pressure 16 1500 3 x 100 17 KPa 2 2000 x 100 18 1 KPa 19 -100 2500 0 20

Compound Gauge Delivery Pressure Gauge

Figure 70: Compound and Delivery Pressure Gauges. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 127

(f) Draughting from a static supply

As you have already read previously, a static water supply is a body of water, such as a dam, river, lake or tank, which can be used for firefighting. Draughting (pumping) from a static water supply will enable water to be delivered for firefighting when there is no reticulated supply available.

When draughting, the tanker should be sited close to the water surface and on solid ground. This is because the greater the height of lift from the water surface to the eye of the pump impeller, the more the capacity of the pump is reduced. The maximum practicable vertical lift obtainable under ideal conditions when pumping from a static supply is approximately eight metres.

When draughting, you should be aware that:

• Mud, weed or other foreign bodies can render pumps inoperable.

• The quantity of water needs to be sufficient for the purpose, and it must be sufficiently deep to draught.

• Tidal water sources can rise and fall. As the tide ebbs, it may expose the end of the suction hose and draughting will cease.

To set up a pump for draughting, it is necessary to:

• Couple the suction hose lengths and connect one end to the inlet of the pump.

• Attach a strainer to the free end of the suction hose and place it in the water. In addition, it may be necessary to place the strainer in a basket or attach it to a float to prevent mud, weeds or other foreign objects from entering the suction hose. The suction hose should always be supported by a rope line. (Caution: Do not bend or strain the suction hose lengths because this may damage them).

• Use coupling spanners to obtain airtight joints at the suction hose couplings.

• Do not place the suction hose over a point higher than the pump inlet (an air pocket may develop).

• Connect the delivery hose to the pump outlet.

• Prime and operate the pump in accordance with your equipment operating procedures. 128 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

(g) Pumping from a reticulated water supply

When pumping water supplied from a hydrant, use the largest size hose available between the hydrant and the pump to minimise pressure loss due to friction. The pump operator should:

• Connect the supply line from the hydrant (standpipe) to the pump inlet.

• Ensure that the hydrant or standpipe is opened slowly to avoid water hammer.

• Operate the pump according to agency procedures.

• Monitor the pump gauges to ensure that inlet pressure does not fall to zero.

• Monitor the branch operators to ensure they are receiving an appropriate water supply pressure and flow.

• Close pump and hydrant valves slowly to avoid water hammer.

(h) Pumping from a tanker

Pumping from a tanker is often the most common operation undertaken during fire suppression. It is the most simple pumping operation and involves:

• Checking that the correct valves are open, particularly the tank supply valve.

• Monitoring the rate at which water is being used from the tank.

• Adding wetting agent or foam concentrate if required.

• Operating the pump according to equipment operating procedures. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 129

(i) Hose and pump work hand signals

WATER ON WATER OFF Arm raised above the head One arm extended vertically and dropped to side, horizontally from the fist clenched. shoulder and swung across the body. INCREASE PRESSURE As for "WATER ON". For each display of the signal pump pressure is to be increased by 100kpa.

DECREASE PRESSURE MAKE UP EQUIPMENT One arm extended to the Both arms extended to side horizontally from the the side horizontally, and shoulder and dropped to held for a few seconds. the side. Each display of the signal requires pump pressure to be reduced by 100kpa.

Figure 71: Pumping Hand Signals.

(j) Water Relay

Water relay involves spacing a number of pumps at regular intervals along a route between the water source and the point where water is needed. A water relay is used when the water supply is distant from the fireground. It involves connecting lines of hose from one pump to another to where the water is required.

The three methods you can use are:

• Closed circuit relay.

• Open circuit relay.

• Tanker relay.

CLOSED CIRCUIT RELAY

Water is pumped by the first pump at the water source through hose lines connected directly to the inlet of the second or booster pump. The second pump may in turn be connected to the inlet of a third pump, and so on until water is delivered to the fireground. 130 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

U Z U S I U Z U S I 0 0 7 0 0 7

0 4 5 T 0 4 5 T

Figure 72: Closed Circuit Relay.

OPEN CIRCUIT RELAY

The first pump takes water from a source and pumps it through hose lines into some form of reservoir (e.g. a portable dam). The second pump draughts water from that reservoir through its suction hose and delivers it to another reservoir and pump, or to its final destination.

U Z U S I 0 0 0 0 7 7

0 4 5 T

Figure 73: Open Circuit Relay.

TANKER RELAY

In some fire situations, closed and open circuit pump relays are not practical because the distance between the water supply and the incident is too great. In these situations, relay tankers or water carriers are used to maintain an adequate supply of water to the fireground. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 131

(k) Hose Lay

Before delivery lines are charged with water, check that all excess hose is taken to the fire and laid out in ‘S’ bends to prevent kinking. As the hose is charged, clear any kinks that might develop. The last three to five metres to the branch should be laid out straight.

If, during operations, a length of hose is damaged, you should:

• Provide a new length of hose.

• Roll out the hose alongside the damaged length.

• Turn the water off, break the coupling and connect the new length.

• Turn water on.

• Identify the damaged length by tying an overhand knot in the hose near one coupling.

• Mark the damaged length with a tag indicating the problem and send it for repair.

U Z U S I 0 0 7

0 4 5 T

Figure 74: Hose Lay. 132 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

SUMMARY

• Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes two piece firefighter protective clothing (or overalls), helmet, boots, gloves, goggles, disposable respirator, water bottle and emergency protective hood. In some cases it might also include a cold weather firefighter's jacket or offensive structural firefighters protective equipment. • Your PPE meets various Australian and International standards. It is fire-resistant, but not fire-proof or indestructible. • You are required to be issued with appropriate PPE. You are responsible for using it and caring for it correctly. • Bush firefighting hand tools include axes, rake-hoes (McLeod Tools) and slashing tools (like the brush hook and fern hook). Some areas might also use Pulaski Tools. All hand tools need to be carried, used, and cared for correctly. • Knapsacks consist of a portable, hand-operated, spray pump fed from a back pack water container. Knapsacks need to be carried, used and cared for correctly. • Rope lines may be used to lift, lower, attach or secure equipment. The clove hitch, and the round turn and two half hitches, are two knots that you might need to use. • Three types of hoses are used in the RFS: suction hose (for draughting water), hose-reel hose (to supply water from hose-reels) and delivery or "layflat" hose (to deliver water under pressure to tankers, branches or nozzles). • Storz couplings are used to connect fire hoses in NSW, although some hydrants might still have threaded outlets. Interstate agencies may use various types of threaded and hermaphrodite couplings. Federal fire services may use British Instantaneous couplings. • Breechings are devices used to split up or unite hose lines. Dividing breechings divide a single line of hose into two or more lines. Collecting breechings unite two or more hose lines into one. Some breechings may be fitted with control valves or non-return valves. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 133

SUMMARY

• A branch is a device fitted to the end of a hose to form an effective jet or spray. A nozzle is a device fitted to the end of a branch, or forming part of a branch, which controls the size, pattern and/or velocity of the discharge. Standard branches create a jet of water. Control branches can have a variety of controls allowing the discharge to be varied and/or controlled in various ways. • Water jets have a long reach, penetrate better and are less affected by wind or radiant heat; but, have a high jet reaction force, can cause damage if misused, may conduct electricity, can waste water or blast hot coals from the fire. • Sprays can provide a protective water curtain, accelerate the removal of heat from the fire and cover a large area; but, they have a short reach and less penetration capability. • A fog pattern can cover a large surface area, absorb heat rapidly, minimise damage, use water effectively and protect firefighters from radiant heat; but, have a short reach, can be affected by wind and can impede visibility. • When using hoses you should direct water jets carefully, ensure the ends of hoses are held or tied securely, and keep your hands clear of running hoses and hose-reel spokes. • Water supplies may be reticulated or static. Reticulated supplies consist of various types of hydrants fitted to water mains. Static supplies consist of open water sources like dams, pools, lakes or tanks. • Hydrants are devices that allow water to be drawn from water mains for firefighting. In NSW the most common type of above ground hydrant is the millcock, and the most common type of below ground hydrant is the spring valve type. • Hydrant indicators may vary, and can include HP, HR and H marker plates, blue reflectors on the roadway surface, and/or yellow or white triangles painted on the road surface. • Ancillary hydrant equipment can include a hydrant key, hydrant bar and standpipe. 134 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

SUMMARY

• A standpipe is a device for raising the outlet of a below ground hydrant to above ground level. You need to ensure you follow the correct precautions and procedures when using a standpipe. • Centrifugal pumps are commonly used in fire services. They consist of a rotating impeller inside a casing. While they have many advantages in pumping water for firefighting, they need to be primed with water before they can pump. • Priming pumps are used to prime centrifugal pumps and associated equipment with water. A common type used in the RFS is the rotary vane priming pump. • When using pumps you need to be aware of the standard hand signals used, and to change pressure and flow gradually to avoid endangering the branch operator or causing water hammer. • Most pumps have an inlet pressure gauge showing the pressure of the water entering the pump and an outlet pressure gauge indicating the pressure of the water leaving the pump. The inlet pressure may be positive (if drawing water from a pressurised source, such as a hydrant) or negative (if draughting water from an open source). • Whether using water from a reticulated supply, an open water source or the tank of a firefighting vehicle, you need to observe the appropriate precautions and procedures when using a pump. Pumping directly from the water supply carried on a tanker is probably the simplest and most common form of pump operation. • Water can be relayed over a distance using several pumps. A closed circuit relay involves pumping directly into the inlet of the next pump in the relay. An open circuit relay involves pumping into a reservoir of some sort from which the next pump in the relay draughts water. • When laying hose you need to ensure excess hose is laid out in ‘S’ bends, all kinks are removed and the last few metres of hose before the branch is in a straight line. If a hose becomes damaged, it should be replaced, marked and sent for repair. BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 135

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. The sleeves, cuffs and bottom of your (two piece) bush fire jacket should always be buttoned up or tightened during firefighting.

2. You should not use hypochlorite bleach on your personal protective clothing.

3. A rake-hoe (McLeod Tool) is used for raking, scraping and chipping.

4. A brush hook is an example of a slashing tool.

5. You should never carry bush firefighting hand tools over your shoulder.

6. A knapsack spray is normally used for knocking down the main head of a fire.

7. Storz couplings are not ever fitted to suction hose.

8. A water jet has a longer reach, but not as efficient a cooling effect as a spray.

9. A standpipe is used to get water from a millcock hydrant.

10. A centrifugal pump needs to be primed with water before it can pump. 136 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

ACTIVITIES

1. Familiarise yourself with your personal protective clothing and equipment (PPE). Practice donning and adjusting it. Practice the actions needed to gain maximum protection from your PPE in the event of a possible fire overrun.

2. After instruction from your trainer, practice the safe use and care of hand tools and knapsack sprays.

3. After instruction from your trainer, practice the safe use and care of hose-reels, delivery hoses, couplings, adaptors, breechings, branches and nozzles. Participate in hose drills to practice how to deploy and operate hoses, add extra lengths of hose and replace a damaged length.

4. Under supervision and after instruction from a trainer, practice setting up a standpipe and obtaining water from a below ground hydrant and/or obtaining water from the tank of a firefighting vehicle via its pump.

5. Under supervision and after instruction from a trainer, participate in drills involving getting water supply from a hydrant and/or an open source, the use of rope lines to raise, lower or secure equipment, and relay pumping. 137

CHAPTER 4 Bush Fireﬁghting Techniques

1 Introduction

This Chapter outlines the techniques used to fight bush fires. The technique/s used will vary according to the situation. A technique that might be safe and effective in one situation, might be dangerous and ineffective in another, so it’s important to know under what circumstances each of the various techniques should be used. Regardless of the type of fire, the weather or other circumstances, however, the basic priorities of firefighting remain the same. They are:

• Overriding priority - firefighter safety.

• First priority - protect people.

• Second priority - protect property.

• Third priority - help restore normality.

Note: that “property” is used in a broad sense of the word. It can mean anything of personal, environmental, cultural or economic value. Note that protecting your own safety is always the overriding priority.

2 Responding to a ﬁre

This section outlines what you need to consider when responding to a fire. It covers:

• What procedures to follow when a call is received by your agency.

• Locating the site of an incident.

• The signs that you should watch out for en route to, and on arrival at, a fire. 138 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Note: In most brigades you respond to a fire as part of a crew. Navigating the way to the scene is done by your crew leader or an experienced crew member. However, if you are in a brigade where responding to a fire requires you to navigate by using a map (other than a local road map or street directory), your initial training may also need to include the Map Reading component of the Advanced Firefighter’s course.

(a) Responding to a Call

Usually the firefighting agencies nearest to an incident are notified immediately a call is received. Firefighters will then respond in accordance with their local procedures. Because of variations in the numbers and types of fire appliances and availability of firefighters, the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for the initial response may vary. In most cases, at least two firefighting vehicles and crews are initially sent to a call.

As a firefighter, you must be aware of the SOPs used in your Brigade so that you are clear about your role and responsibilities. You must know what action is appropriate and what is hazardous to your personal safety and that of your fellow crew members.

Your crew leader will tell you the procedures to be followed when responding to a call. Copies of these procedures should also be available at your station/shed. You should know what you are required to do.

Before responding you should decide whether or not you are fit to attend the call. You can use the I’M SAFE checklist given below as an aid:

I - Illness/injury - Am I sufficiently recovered?

M - Medication - Am I under the effects of any medication?

S - Stress - Am I under severe stress from work or personal worries?

A - Alcohol/drugs - Am I under their influence, or badly hung over?

F - Fatigue - Am I tired and not adequately rested?

E - Expertise - Am I currently competent?

If you are not fit to go, it’s OK to say “no, I can’t go”. Indeed if you are in a busy brigade and you know you are sick or can’t attend fires for some other reason it’s a good idea to let whoever normally calls you out to fires know. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 139

If you are OK to go, then while you are responding to a call, you need to:

• Wear the correct protective clothing.

• Undertake all preparatory tasks according to procedures.

• Avoid taking unnecessary risks.

• Drive according to RTA requirements.

(b) Indicators of Fire

Information about the possible location of a fire will come from a range of sources including:

• Fire tower reports.

• Aircraft.

• The public.

• Other brigade members.

En route to the fireground, the most obvious indicator of the location of the fire is smoke, which can usually be seen or smelt from some distance away. A word of caution - the appearance of smoke can be misleading. The volume of smoke does not always indicate the size of a fire. For example, different fuel types give off varying amounts of smoke when burning in the same conditions. The colour of smoke can, however, pinpoint where the head of a bush fire is burning; the greater the fire’s intensity, the darker the smoke colour.

Note: Where the fire itself cannot be seen, wind direction must be considered when tracing the source of smoke. In doing this, you will need to allow for localised variations in wind direction caused by the topography. 140 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

A soon as he/she gets the call, your crew leader will be starting to develop a plan of attack to handle the incident. While en-route to the fire, they should brief you about the known details, remind you of the hazards to look out for and precautions to take, and allocate tasks to various members of the crew. Your briefing should follow the SMEACS format. That is:

S - Situation - E.g. Known details of the incident - weather - other units attending.

M - Mission - E.g. Your objectives - the basic “job” your unit will be doing.

E - Execution - E.g. Strategies and/or tactics to be used - who is to do what at the scene.

A - Assistance/Administration/Logistics - E.g. Water supply - technical advice.

C - Command/Control/Comms. - E.g. Who to report to - what radio channels to use.

S - Safety - E.g. Hazards/precautions - ‘LACES’ checklist - Safety Officer/s - PPE check.

The SMEACS checklist is used for all types of briefings at all levels of the organisation. You may hear various adaptions of it used for briefings whenever your crew is allocated a new task at a fire.

While you do not have to know the SMEACS format as well as your crew leader and other senior officers, you should know it well enough so that you can tell if something has been missed. If some key piece of information has been omitted in a briefing, always speak up and ask about it.

Sometimes when you arrive at the scene you might find the situation is different than what was described in the call. For this reason, your crew leader might often start your en-route briefing with words like, “Unless I tell you otherwise...”. For example, he/she might say, “Unless I tell you otherwise, on arrival I want you and John to run out a hose-reel and extinguish the fire”. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 141

(d) Observations En-route and on Arrival at the Scene

On the way to a fire, you can make observations which will assist fire investigators in their work. You should note and report to your Officer-In- Charge or crew leader:

• Details of people and vehicles leaving the scene.

• Gates on access routes to the fire (whether closed, open or locked).

• The nature of the fire (one smoke column or more).

• The nature and behaviour of the fire at the time of your arrival.

(e) Protecting the Scene

The point of origin may contain evidence about the cause of the fire. During firefighting operations, it is important that this area is protected as much as possible from damage. This will be more likely if you are responding to a small fire. In these situations, cordon off the point of origin using rope and tape. This will help protect the scene for later investigation.

3 Protecting People from Bush Fires

Safely protecting people is always your first priority. At most bush fires people are not directly under threat. In some cases, however, they might be. For example, if say a picnic area, scout camp or nursing home was in the path of a bush fire, it would be a priority to safeguard them first. Fires often attract onlookers and you may need to warn people away from danger.

On bad bush fire days, houses, other buildings and their occupants may be under threat. It is up to the Police to decide whether to evacuate an area or not. Generally speaking, people are safer to stay with their homes, provided they are able-bodied and provided their house is reasonably well prepared to resist a bush fire. It is generally more dangerous for people to evacuate down smoke logged roads at the last minute. The elderly, the very young and infirm should be evacuated, but it needs to be done early; not when the fire is about to hit. 142 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

4 Bush Fire Suppression Techniques

In an earlier chapter, you were introduced to the basic principles of fire behaviour and how bush fire spread can alter dramatically depending on changes in fuel, weather and topography. In this chapter, the techniques involved in suppressing a bush fire are covered. These fall broadly into two categories:

• Offensive strategies where the fire can safely and effectively be attacked or extinguished.

• Defensive strategies where the fire is too remote or too intense to be safely or effectively attacked or extinguished.

Offensive strategies usually include:

• Direct attack.

• Parallel attack.

• Indirect attack.

Defensive strategies usually include:

• Observe and patrol.

• People/property protection.

The technique you will be asked to use will depend on the fire’s intensity and other factors.

(a) Offensive Strategy - Direct Attack

A direct attack is used mainly on low intensity bush fires that can be easily and safely reached by firefighters. Firefighters work directly on the edge of the fire. This edge then becomes the established control line.

In forest or scrub, firefighters, using handtools or mechanical equipment such as bulldozers, can clear a strip of exposed earth (called a mineral earth control line) along the fire’s perimeter. Be careful not to drag burning material across the control line. You may need to push fuel into the fire in some circumstances. Firefighters may also use water, foam and fire retardants to extinguish a fire. In grassland situations, water is commonly used to extinguish the burning edge of the fire. A mineral earth control line might not be required, or might be constructed with a plough or grader. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 143

To make a direct attack you can use:

• Water contained in knapsacks or tankers, or in hoselines from a static water source.

• Bulldozers and other machinery.

• Handtools such as axes, rakehoes (McLeod tools), slashers and chainsaws.

The advantages of a direct attack are:

• Less area is burnt.

• Fuel is removed from the immediate path of the fire, allowing the earliest possible control.

• Parts of the fire edge that may have gone out may be quickly incorporated into the fire line.

The disadvantages of a direct attack are:

• Firefighters working at the fire’s edge can be exposed to heat and smoke.

• An irregular control line has to be constructed in a short time (if the fire’s perimeter is irregular).

• Fences and natural barriers may present obstacles.

• Patrol of the constructed control line can be difficult.

Direct attack from unburnt side at most forest fires.

Direct attack from burnt side at many grass fires.

wind direction

Figure 75: Direct attack. 144 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

A head attack involves directly knocking down the head of the fire. This type of attack is used only for low intensity bush fires where you can get close enough to attack the burning edge and where you can be sure that the fire will not flare up unexpectedly.

Head attack from unburnt side at low intensity forest fires. Head attack from burnt side at many grass fires.

wind direction

Figure 76: Head attack.

By contrast, a flank attack involves approaching the fire from the flanks and working directly on them if possible. A version of flank attack is to work from the rear progressively towards the head of the fire in an attempt to ‘pinch’ it out. This technique is used when it is impractical or unsafe to approach the head of a fire front on.

wind direction

Figure 77: Flank attack on a grass fire with two tankers operating within the burnt out area. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 145

(b) Offensive Strategy - Parallel Attack

This technique is used for low to medium intensity bush fires. It involves the construction of a control line parallel to the fire, just a short distance away from the fire’s edge. The distance back from the fire will depend on:

• The intensity of the fire.

• The type of the fuel.

• Weather conditions.

• Topography.

In general, control lines are constructed as close as possible to the flanks of the fire and irregularities in the fire’s perimeter can be by-passed using this technique. You can use a range of equipment to construct control lines, for example handtools, ploughs, bulldozers and chain saws. The fuel between the main fire and the control line can be burnt out by other firefighters as the work on the control line proceeds. If this is not possible, you must patrol the control line to ensure that it is not crossed when the main fire reaches it.

wind direction

Figure 78: Parallel attack. 146 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

The advantages of a parallel attack are:

• Control line may be shorter and straighter than in direct attack.

• Crews may be less exposed to heat and smoke.

The disadvantages of a parallel attack are:

• There is an increased risk of fire escaping.

• The total fire area will be greater.

When using this technique, keep in mind the fact that the fire is constantly moving. You may start a control line 10 metres from the fire only to find that before it is complete, you are too close to the intense heat of the fire.

When using the parallel method, you must:

• Monitor the progress of the fire front and note any weather changes.

• Have a clearly defined refuge area and escape route.

This technique is used for intense and/or inaccessible bush fires. The indirect method requires the use of either a natural fire barrier or the construction of a control line some distance from the fire’s existing perimeter. The fuel between the control line and the main fire is backburned. By backburning some distance from the fire’s existing perimeter, the fire is robbed of fuel. This technique is generally used when firefighting at close range is not possible, either because of the terrain, or because the fire is too intense.

Not to scale

Control Line

wind direction

Figure 79: Indirect attack. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 147

The advantages of an indirect attack are:

• It can be used to control a more intense bush fire.

• It reduces the exposure of firefighters to the effects of bush fire.

• It allows choice of better locations for control lines.

• It allows more time for control line construction.

The disadvantages of an indirect attack are:

• The size of the fire is increased.

• The increased size gives a greater area to be controlled and patrolled and there is a greater chance of the fire breaking through the control lines

• The fuel between the fire and the control line may have to be backburned. The two fires joining may result in intense fire activity at the junction zone (where the fires meet) and an increased chance of spotting.

Note: Backburning is potentially hazardous and needs experience and knowledge. Refer to the later section on the subject.

(d) Defensive Strategy - Observe and Patrol

If a fire is of no immediate threat and/or is burning in inaccessible terrain, a strategy of “observe and patrol” typically is used. In this case, the perimeter is patrolled and the fire’s behaviour is observed. Firefighting resources may be committed to areas that could present problems when the fire reaches them.

This strategy relies on the person in charge having a good knowledge of the terrain, the weather and previous fire history, so that they can reasonably predict the movement of the fire. Changes in weather can bring about dramatic changes in fire behaviour, so the fire must be constantly checked and resources kept in a state of readiness. Some fires classified as “inactive” in an accessible area have later come out and caused damage to property.

In good conditions, specially trained remote area firefighting teams may hike in or be flown in by helicopter to deal with the fire before conditions worsen. While air attack seldom completely extinguishes a fire, it may sometimes be used to slow the progress of the fire, or delay its impact on a built up area to a time of the day when fire behaviour will not be as severe (e.g. later in the evening). 148 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

(e) Defensive Strategy - People/Property Protection

At times when fire behaviour is extreme, it will probably not be possible to safely use any of the offensive strategies. If the fire is not threatening people or property the fire will usually be observed until the conditions improve (e.g. as it gets cooler in the evening). However, if a severe fire is a threat, a defensive strategy of people/property protection will generally be used.

Your safety always remains paramount. Stay together with others in your crew and follow the instructions given by your crew leader. Work from within a safe refuge area. Do not go into the bush to tackle a severe fire. It is too dangerous. Avoid places vulnerable to fire overrun, such as slopes and ridge tops above fires and in heavily vegetated areas.

Ensure you have your kit of bush firefighter protective clothing on and appropriately adjusted. You should also test your radios and any protective devices fitted to your vehicle, and review your emergency procedures, prior to commencing firefighting activities.

Expect that conditions will be confused on extreme fire days. There may be multiple fire outbreaks, extensive fire spotting, unpredictable fire behaviour, poor visibility due to heavy smoke, ill-defined fire fronts, overloaded communications systems, and stressful and demanding situations.

Under these conditions, the number of firefighters and firefighting units may not be enough to initially control the fire, or the fire may be beyond any control efforts. Firefighting at such times may be confined to simply protecting people and property as the fire front passes, and leaving actual suppression of the main front until conditions are more favourable.

You may be asked to help evacuate the young, elderly and infirm to a safe refuge well before the fire front arrives. Alternatively, you may be asked to monitor the location of people in the area and assist able owners/occupiers to prepare their property to better survive the approaching fire front. You might also be asked to apply water or foam onto buildings as a protective measure, as the fire approaches.

During the passage of the fire’s front, you should shelter in a suitably positioned and prepared building or vehicle. After it has passed, you may then help check that everyone is safe, patrol the area and extinguish any residual fire that is threatening to involve property. On some occasions you might have to accept that there is some property that you cannot save. Concentrate on safely protecting people and what property you can, with the resources you have available. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 149

At times it may be possible to defend property during the impact of a bush fire if operating from suitable safe refuges. Such safe refuges may include streets or suitably prepared yards or buildings. Suburban street networks can provide suitable safe refuges to which to defend property from the impact of a bush fire.

Note: Properly installed household supply LPG cylinders are unlikely to rupture during a passing bush fire. You should turn the main valve off, safely keep any cylinders cool with water and leave the cylinders in an upright position.

(f) Selection of Techniques

In fighting bush fires, your officer in charge will select the technique/s to be used, based on several factors, such as:

• The rate of spread of the fire.

• The intensity of the fire (directly proportional to the height of the flames).

• Spotting activity.

• Fuel ahead of and being burnt by the fire.

• Available firefighting resources.

• Safety, including access and escape routes.

A direct attack is not normally used in forests if the actual or expected flame height is more than about 1.5 metres. In grassland, this is also true if the fire is being fought from the unburnt side. However, a safe attack on a grass fire is often possible at much higher flame heights, if (and only if) the fire is attacked from the burnt side (i.e. the fire is moving away from the firefighters). Such an attack is not usually safe in forests as the fire burns for longer in the heavier fuels and there is the risk of being seriously injured by falling trees or branches.

A parallel attack is used typically when flame heights are 1.5 to 3.0 metres in forests. An indirect attack is generally used when flames heights in forest are more than 3.0 metres, but less than 5.0 (or 10.0 metres if the fuel is not very susceptible to spotting). Above that intensity only defensive operations are usually conducted. 150 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

These are not hard and fast rules, and might be varied according to the spotting behaviour, an expected change in weather, and available resources. However, they do indicate the typical worst conditions in which you could expect a particular technique to be safe to use. Sometimes combinations of techniques may be used. For example, the lower intensity flanks of a fire might be controlled using, say, a direct attack, while a people and property are protected against the intense head of the fire, using a defensive strategy.

5 Use of Fireﬁghting Agents

This section covers the use, hazards, precautions, characteristics and limitations of the firefighting agents commonly used for bush firefighting operations.

(a) Water

Water is one of the most common and effective mediums for extinguishing a fire. It does this by wetting the fuel and reducing its temperature. The efficient use of water is a major factor in fire suppression.

Heat causes a fuel to give off vapours. The vapour burns and produces additional heat which causes more vapours to be given off as well as heating other nearby fuels. As these nearby fuels are heated, they give off vapours which can ignite and allow the fire to spread. To interrupt this process, you need to cool the fuel, not the flames.

This is a key principle in firefighting. Flames are a result of gases burning, that is the gases given off by the burning fuel. Attempting to extinguish the flames will not stop this process because the fuel will simply continue to give off more gases. To cool the fuel, you should always direct the water stream at the burning fuel and not at the flames. By doing this, you will also conserve water. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 151

Figure 80: Directing the stream.

You should also adjust your nozzle to obtain the most effective firefighting stream. It is a good tactic to initially attack a fire, where possible, with a strong stream of water and cool down one area. Then move in and turn the nozzle to a wide spray, widening the area covered. When you are able to move around the fire, use water wisely by spraying along, rather than across, the fire edge.

Incorrectly directing hose streams across fire line instead of along it is ineffective

Spray along edge and from unburnt side so that all of spray is effective

Figure 81: Spraying along the fire edge. 152 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

When working on a fireground, plan your activities carefully to avoid wasting water. You should:

• Use an appropriate hose and always select the smallest nozzle that will do the job effectively.

• Shut off the nozzle when water is no longer required.

• Use a jet stream for initial knock down, but then change to spray so that water covers the greatest possible area (or combination of a jet and a back-up spray).

• Direct water at the point where it will have the maximum effect, that is, at the base of the burning fuel and not the flames.

• Where appropriate, use additives such as foam or wetting agents to make the water more effective.

(b) Wetting Agents

These are chemicals which reduce the surface tension of water causing it to spread out and so cover a greater area. The use of a wetting agent will mean more economical use of water.

The figure below shows a leaf sprayed with water and the same leaf sprayed with a similar volume of water to which a wetting agent has been added.

Without wetting agent

With wetting agent

Figure 82: The effect of a wetting agent. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 153

Note: Some wetting agents can be corrosive. Thoroughly clean all pumps, knapsacks and sprays with clean water after using any wetting agent, and replenish with fresh water.

Do not drink from tanks that have had wetting agents added to the water inside.

Foam is a blanketing and cooling agent. It consists of a mass of bubbles, made from a mixture of water, foam concentrate and air. It is used when water alone would not be effective or appropriate in firefighting. Foams extinguish fire by:

• Shielding fuel surfaces from the radiant heat from the adjacent flames.

• Cooling the fuel and isolating it from the oxygen in the air.

CLASS A FOAM

Class A foam is used in bush fire suppression and property protection. It is especially formulated for use on Class A type fires in natural fuels, such as grass, forest litter or wood. This foam:

• Lowers the surface tension of water, allowing it to penetrate fuels more easily.

• Clings to vertical surfaces, reducing waste through run off.

• Is visible when applied, allowing firefighters to avoid under or over-application.

• Enables fires to be put out more efficiently.

This foam is produced by mixing Class A concentrate with water to form a foam solution. The solution is then aerated to form a large quantity of foam bubbles. Class A foam can be applied to a fire through a spray nozzle or a special foam-making nozzle, or it can be spread by aircraft.

Note: Class A concentrate is a powerful detergent which can remove skin oils. Drums of this concentrate should be handled carefully. The lids or caps should remain properly sealed to prevent spillage or splashing. You should wear gloves, eye protection and long sleeves when emptying containers of Class A concentrate. Your hands and face should be washed after using the foam. 154 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

When using Class A concentrate, follow your Standard Operating Procedures. The concentrate should not be allowed to enter, or be handled near, creeks or rivers. Do not drink from tanks into which Class A concentrate has been placed or which have been used to store Class A concentrate.

Note: Do not confuse Class A foams with Class B foams such as aqueous film forming foam (AFFF). AFFF is designed for use in oil or petroleum fires, and is not normally used in fighting bush fires.

USING FOAM

Most recently built RFS tankers have a foam system integrated into the pump plumbing. The pump operator only has to select a couple of valves to have foam delivered via hoses or hose-reels in the required concentration. The foam concentrate is fed to the foam system from a 20 litre container or a specially designed foam concentrate tank. RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 16 specifies that Class A foam is to be used in the following concentrations:

• 0.10% to 0.25% - for mop-up.

• 0.25% to 0.75% - for general bush firefighting.

• 1.0% - for protection of structures threatened by a bush fire.

Foam should be applied to a fire as gently as possible, ensuring uniform coverage. It can be sprayed onto buildings to help protect them from an approaching bush fire, or applied on scrub or the trunks of trees near the edge of a control line just before lighting a backburn. The maximum projection distance of the stream should be used, letting the foam do the work. Foam is also particularly effective in mopping-up work (detailed later in this Manual).

(d) Fire Retardants

A retardant is any firefighting substance applied on, or ahead of, a fire’s flame front to reduce the fire’s rate of spread or intensity, rather than to directly suppress combustion in the flaming zone. Fire retardants can be broadly categorised as short term and long term. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 155

SHORT-TERM RETARDANTSjj

Short-term retardants, the most common example of which is Class A foam, rely almost entirely on their ability to retain moisture, thereby cooling the fire and keeping fuels ahead of the fire too moist to burn. Once the water evaporates, the retardant action ends. When used as a retardant, Class A foams may be effective for 20 to 40 minutes depending on the foam concentration and weather conditions.

LONG-TERM RETARDANTS

Long-term retardants are chemicals (usually ammonium salts) which are mixed with water to form a slurry with a consistency similar to tomato sauce. The slurry not only coats the fuel, therefore acting as a physical barrier, but the chemical also retards the combustion process. Long-term retardant slurries are effective after the water has evaporated from them, and may continue to retard combustion for more than 24 hours.

Long-term retardants can be applied by tanker type equipment, but are more commonly used in aerial fire-bombing operations, particularly to slow the spread of fires in remote areas while ground crews travel to them.

Figure 83: Retardant in use. 156 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Note: RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 16 specifies that firefighting chemicals (foam, retardants, etc.) not be used in areas where run off will enter rivers, streams or other watercourses.

6 Control Lines

A control line is a man-made or natural fuel-free path. It prevents the spread of fire. When constructing control lines, the term mineral earth is sometimes used. This term refers to ground where all vegetation cover has been removed and only rocks and soil are exposed. The mineral earth should be exposed for the length and width of the control line.

The width of a control line may vary from one to ten metres, depending on the incident. Temporary control lines can also be established by laying foam or retardant. A control line can be constructed by using:

• Handtools (axes, slashers, rakehoes).

• Bulldozers.

• Other machinery such as graders and farm tractors with a blade.

Figure 84: Mineral earth break. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 157

There are two methods for constructing a control line using handtools:

• The step-up method.

• The one-lick method.

(a) The Step-Up Method

The Step-up method is normally used for constructing a control line when crew size is up to 10 or 12 firefighters. This involves firefighters in a crew working in a line on individual sections of the control line. Crew members:

• Stand approximately three metres apart (distance is dependent on fuel type and terrain).

• Clear their individual section of the fire break down to mineral earth, raking the fuel away from the fire.

When a member of the team reaches the end of a section up to where the next crew member commenced, he or she calls out, ‘Step-up’. This signal is repeated all along the line and then:

• All workers in front of the person who called, ‘Step-up’ move on to the next incomplete section.

• Workers behind the person who first called, ‘Step-up’, continue until their section is completed and then call, ‘Step-up’.

This way the group moves along at a steady rate and no-one overtakes the person in front. The last member of the crew checks that the control line is cleared to the required standard. The crew leader usually works at the head of the team, selecting the route for the control line.

Figure 85: Step-up method. 158 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

(b) One-Lick Method

In the one-lick method, each person removes a portion of the fuel by raking it away from the fire as they move along the line. This continues until the mineral earth is exposed and a control line is established. This method may suit situations where large crews (say more than 12 firefighters) must be deployed as a unit.

In both the step-up and one-lick method of control line construction, the last member of the team must be responsible for ensuring the line is completed to the necessary standard.

Figure 86: One-lick method.

Note: Control lines constructed with hand tools are often called ‘handtool lines’ or ‘rakehoe trails’.

Key points to remember when constructing a control line are:

• Make the most of natural fire breaks such as: - exposed rock shelves. - open ground. - creek beds. - animal tracks, or - old logging trails. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 159

• Keep the control line as straight as possible. This will provide firefighters with a clear view and will enable them to move along the control line easily.

• Keep the length of the control line to a minimum, avoiding sharp bends, as fires can often spot over at these points.

• Avoid heavy concentrations of fuel as the fire’s intensity will increase close to the control line.

• Cut saplings and small trees at ground level to minimise the potential for the sharp stumps to cause accidents.

• Keep the control lines clear of dead trees or stumps with rough bark as the bark can cause spotting. Rake around these if it is not possible to avoid them.

• Be sure that the fuel is removed down to mineral earth.

7 Mopping Up and Patrol

Mopping-up (or blacking-out) operations involve making sure that a contained or checked fire does not restart. Patrolling consists of monitoring the fire area until it is reasonably certain no reignition will occur.

(a) Mopping Up

When the perimeter of a bush fire is extinguished, a strip inside the perimeter must be mopped up (“blacked out”) to extinguish all smouldering material. The width of this strip will vary. Your Officer-in-Charge or crew leader will tell you how far inside the control line this work should be taken. The depth will depend on:

• The size of the ﬁre - it may be possible to mop-up the entire area of a small fire.

• Nature of the fuels - lots of heavy, smouldering fuels inside the mopped-up perimeter increase the risk of re-ignition. The mopped-up margin may need to be deeper.

• Terrain or topography - control lines on slopes with burnt ground above have a risk of smouldering material tumbling down across the line. Mopping up must be extended further upslope to reduce this risk. 160 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

• Weather conditions - the likelihood of severe weather in the near future may make a deeper mopped-up zone desirable.

A mopping-up operation involves locating and extinguishing any smouldering fuel above or below ground. This is done manually with handtools, or by wetting the fuel, or both. You should:

• Extinguish any smouldering and hot materials.

• Place any smouldering fuel found outside the control line into the burnt out area.

• Break up fuel concentrations to release the heat.

• Turn smouldering logs into a position where they will not roll into an unburnt area.

• Dig out and extinguish burning roots and stump holes.

• Extinguish any fresh outbreaks.

Apply water efficiently so as to conserve your water supply as much as possible.

Look out for, and avoid, trees or branches that are in danger of falling. The felling of burning trees or other “problem” trees should only be conducted by suitably trained and qualified personnel.

(b) Patrolling a Fire

When fire spread has been checked by the construction of a control line, its perimeter must be constantly monitored by patrolling firefighters. This needs to be done in conjunction with and following mopping-up work.

If you are required to assist in patrolling a bush fire, you must look out for:

• Burning material within the fire area which could threaten the control line (especially overhead in trees).

• Spot fires beyond the control line.

• Weak spots in the control line where further work is required.

• Trees and overhead limbs in trees which may fall and endanger you. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 161

If you are patrolling in a vehicle, follow these precautions:

• When travelling in smoke or dust, reduce speed, switch on lights and occasionally sound the horn.

• Do not block access or escape routes.

• When travelling along fire breaks, take note of the nearest turning areas and refuges, and be aware of other vehicles and firefighters on foot.

8 Working as Part of a Team

Firefighting depends on individuals working together as part of a team. As a member of a team, you must stay in contact with other people either by sight or radio. You must make sure:

• You understand your task, and how it fits in with the work of other firefighters around you.

• The person in charge knows where you are and what you are doing.

• You know where other firefighters are and what they are doing.

• You stay in contact regularly with your crew leader.

• That you have adequate drinking water.

• That you have the escape plans in the event that you may have to leave the area quickly. 162 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

9 Fireground Safety

Working on the fireground requires that you are conscious of working safely at all times. This section discusses safety under the three headings:

• Situational Awareness.

• Selection of Safe Techniques.

• Survival in Life-Threatening Situations.

(a) Situational Awareness

Situational awareness means knowing what’s going on, so you can figure out what to do. In regard to safety it means being aware of:

• What hazards to look out for in the situation.

• What is going on around you right now.

• What could happen next.

Bush firefighting hazards and precautions have already been covered in Chapter 2. Keep in mind that such hazards can come:

• From the fire (e.g. smoke, radiant heat and fire overrun).

• From your surroundings (e.g. falling branches and rolling logs).

• From within yourself (e.g. heat stress, fatigue and dehydration).

• From firefighters nearby (e.g. use of sharp hand tools and moving vehicles).

• From other firefighting activities (e.g. back-burning and water drops from aircraft).

• From activities other than firefighting itself (e.g. while on reconnaissance, or while entering, transiting or leaving the fire area).

By constantly scanning for hazards you should be able to build up a mental picture of what is going on around you. You should share this information with the other members of your crew, so that the whole crew has a clear idea of what is happening. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 163

By applying your understanding of fire behaviour you can also get a good idea of what is likely to happen next and anticipate hazards. For example, if a bush fire is burning slowly downhill, your knowledge of fire behaviour should tell you that it will pick up speed when it gets onto flat ground and accelerate rapidly when it runs up a slope. You should also consider what might happen next. For example, what would the fire do if there is a sudden wind change?

(b) Safe Techniques

The fire situation determines which firefighting techniques are safe and appropriate to use. Usually the technique selected depends on the actual or expected intensity of the fire. A rough guide to the intensity of the fire is given by its flame height. Generally speaking:

• A direct attack on a fire from unburnt ground would only be safe and effective if flames heights are about 1.5 metres or less.

• In grassland fires only, it might be safe to do a direct attack on a fire with a much higher flame height, but only if it is approached from the already burnt side (upwind).

• A parallel attack is generally appropriate when flame heights are about 1.5 to 3.0 metres.

• An indirect attack might succeed at flame heights of up to 10 metres in vegetation that does not spot readily, but only be safe and effective for flames heights up to about 5 metres in vegetation that readily causes spot fires.

While the overall firefighting techniques used will be decided by your crew leader or other more senior officer, you should always be aware of whether they are appropriate to the situation. If you see a change in fire behaviour that requires a change in tactics, you can then recognise and report it straight away.

You have a more direct role to play in the techniques you use to operate your equipment. Always use vehicles, pumps, hose-lines, water streams, hand tools and other equipment in a manner that is safe for you and for those around you. Later sections in this chapter will cover safety when working with firefighting tankers, machinery and aircraft. 164 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Always start your attack on a fire from a safe position, sometimes called a “safe anchor point”. Always have an “out” planned and available to you, in case things go wrong. For instance, always have a suitable safety refuge available nearby and know exactly under what circumstances you will stop what you are doing and go to that refuge.

Never rely on luck or the continuation of good weather to guarantee your safety. Avoid the “Dead Man Zone”; the area within about 5 minutes burning time of the fire, including the flanks and heel of the fire if a wind change suddenly occurred.

When working on the fireground, you must avoid putting yourself at risk. Conditions on the fireground can alter quickly and can lead to significant changes in the overall fire situation. If you find yourself in a position where fire is threatening your immediate location, immediately activate your “out” plan and go to a safe refuge.

RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 12 - Part A specifies the actions to be taken in the event of being threatened by a bush or grass fire as:

• In vehicles;

- Warn everyone who may be in immediate danger.

- Send an emergency radio call giving details, callsign and location.

- Ensure all firefighters are wearing full personal protective equipment (PPE), and that all PPE is correctly fastened and adjusted.

- Park vehicle in an open space or burnt ground (if possible), close all vents and windows and leave engine running.

- Ensure all crew are sheltered under blankets, if available.

- Operate protective equipment (spray bars).

- Operate emergency lights and headlights.

- After the fire has passed, assess the situation and, if the vehicle is still safe, remain with the vehicle.

- If the vehicle has become hazardous, remain together as a crew and move to a safer location, (crew members are to take blankets with them, if available, for supplementary protection). BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 165

• On foot;

- Move to bare ground or the area of least vegetation.

- Ensure all PPE is correctly worn and fastened.

- Attempt to shelter in a depression or embankment, or behind other shelter.

• In a structure;

- Turn off all electrical and gas systems.

- Fill bath and sinks with water.

- Ensure gutters are clear, then block downpipe and fill with water.

- Close all doors and windows and seal gaps with towels or similar material.

- If possible have a battery powered radio and torch in working order.

- Once the fire has passed, move outside and extinguish any hot spots, and check the house for any signs of fire, especially the roof and under the house.

Generally speaking a safe refuge is an area free of significant combustible vegetation to a horizontal distance of about four times the expected flame height. A safe distance might be less if you also have effective shelter against the radiant heat of the approaching fire.

RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 43 specifies that:

• A safety refuge needs to be available to firefighters while operating at any bush or grass fire.

• A safety refuge is an area clear of any significant combustibles to a horizontal distance (in the direction of an approaching fire) of at least four times the predicted flame height.

• All firefighting is to be anchored from (commenced from) a suitable safety refuge.

• Under conditions when a direct attack is safely possible, the already burnt out area may be regarded as a safety refuge.

• Under conditions when a parallel attack is safely possible, the area already back-burned out may be regarded as a safety refuge. 166 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

• During indirect firefighting operations:

- A safety refuge is to be available within 100 metres of where any firefighter is working, if only one escape route to a safety refuge is available.

- The distance to a safety refuge may be increased to 250 metres if two or more different escape routes to safety refuges are available.

- The escape route shall be such that a firefighter could move along it on foot to the safety refuge at a jogging pace, if needed.

- Firefighters are to be told where their safety refuge is located and how to get to it.

- A lookout is to be posted to warn firefighters of any approaching fire or spot fire.

- A means of immediately warning firefighters of any danger is to be available.

- Firefighters are to proceed to their safety refuge area if warned of danger from any approaching fire or spot fire.

• During defensive firefighting, firefighters are to operate only from within safety refuges.

• A vehicle or building should not be regarded as a safe haven from a fire unless it is located within a safety refuge area and has been properly prepared as a safe haven from fire. (Note: In a life threatening emergency, a poorly situated building or vehicle might be the only available shelter from a fire, but safety cannot be assured.)

If you do not have a safe refuge nearby, your chances of survival are less, but there may still be things you can do to protect yourself. The key is to protect yourself from radiant heat. You can:

• Shelter in a vehicle - make sure that it is not adjacent to heavy fuels.

• Shelter in caves or hollows, running streams or other large bodies of water.

• Dig or scrape out a refuge (the deeper, the better) and lay face down.

• Shield yourself with whatever is available, such as woollen blankets or heavy coats. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 167

700

T540

Figure 87: Sheltering in a vehicle away from heavy fuels (cut-away view of cabin).

Note: Remain calm. Do not run uphill away from a fire unless you know a safe refuge is nearby.

Radiated heat

Built-up earth Trench

Figure 88: Protecting yourself from an approaching fire. 168 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Note:, The following “DON’Ts” apply. Do NOT:

• Take refuge in vehicle tanks.

• Take refuge in above ground tanks.

• Run blindly from the fire.

• Attempt to run through flames unless you can see clearly behind them.

(d) The LACES checklist

The LACES checklists summarise safety actions for the fireground. For all firefighters, LACES means:

L - Lookout - Everybody looks out for everybody else.

A - Awareness - Everybody is aware of the fire’s current and anticipated behaviour, and of other fireground hazards and precautions.

C - Communications - Everybody speaks up and everybody listens, about what is happening and about their concerns at the fire.

E - Escape route/s - Everybody always has an “out” planned and agreed, just in case things go wrong.

S - Safety refuge/s - Everybody helps everybody to survive. Everybody supports the decision to get clear of a hazard.

Your crew leader will also use the LACES checklist to help protect the entire crew, by ensuring the following actions are carried out:

L - Lookout - Lookout assigned at a safe vantage point in communication with him/her.

A - Awareness - Terrain, weather, fire behaviour, the assignment and nearby activities.

C - Communications - Suitable radio contact maintained.

E - Escape route/s - Suitable escape route/s, checked and known by all the crew.

S - Safety refuge/s - Suitable, big enough, close enough and free of hazards. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 169

10 Working with Tankers

At most fires, you will be working from, or with, a firefighting tanker or similar appliance. Become familiar with your tanker. Look out for hazards, so that avoiding them becomes a habit. The diagram below shows some typical hazards present on a fire tanker.

Flammable Sharp tools liquids

ISUZU 700

T540 High pressure hose lines and spoked hose reels Beware of vehicle moving Use caution when Hot exhausts and climbing on/off flywheels on appliances motorised equipment

Figure 89: Typical hazards around appliances.

Become familiar with the correct way of getting on and off your tanker. Always use the steps and hand-holds provided. Always climb up and down facing the steps, not facing outwards from them. Do not take a nap leaning up against the wheels of a tanker or lie in the shade underneath. The tanker might be required at short notice and you could become seriously injured when it drives off.

Wind up windows when travelling to and around fires. This will stop branches or sticks entering the cabin and causing injury, and prevent embers entering the cabin when you arrive at the fire. Do not travel to or from fires except in the cabin, with your seat belt on. If using a fire trailer, do not ride on the trailer at any time.

At some grassland fires, firefighting may be conducted from the backs of moving tankers from special areas shielded from the heat of the fire. Typically a 38mm branch, angled forward, is used to knock down the fire, while another 38mm branch or a hose-reel nozzle is angled rearward and used to reinforce the attack. A follow up tanker may stop to completely extinguish any residual points of fire using hose-reels, usually operated by 170 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES firefighters working on the ground. The lead tanker may need to adjust its speed so that the follow up tanker does not get left well behind.

At large grassland fires, several tankers may be organised into a flank attack task force. A tanker starts at a safe anchor point and moves along the flank, knocking down fire as it goes. Tankers following behind back it up so that complete containment by the first unit is not needed. This enables the speed of the attack to be virtually doubled. Normally larger units are placed at the front of the task force. Some units are deployed for mopping up and others are kept in reserve to replace units when their water supply gets low. If water is scarce, the lead unit might be grader.

RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 14 specifies the techniques for grassland firefighting from moving vehicles as:

• Generally work from within the burnt out area if safely possible.

• Generally use the larger units for knock-down and the smaller units for mop-up.

• Generally work with headlights and available warning lights on.

• If smoke or flames are too intense, circle out into clean air and drop in behind the following tanker/s.

• Do not reverse when thick smoke conditions exist on the fire line.

• Drive with crew safety in mind at all times.

• Firefighters operating hoses are to remain behind heat shields at all times and not be in an area where they can fall from the tanker.

• Vehicle speed should be adjusted so that the firefighting remains safe and effective.

• When cutting fences, stagger the cuts in alternative wires to facilitate closing the gap later and mark the gap. Make the gap far enough from the fire so it remains safely accessible during firefighting operations.

• The Officer in Charge (OIC) at the fire should take up a safe vantage point and allocate and co-ordinate units so that they are used to best effect, allowing for rotation and replenishment of units.

• Except when operating on the fireground as described in this SOP, all crew are to be correctly seated in the vehicle in an enclosed crew compartment and wearing seatbelts. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 171

11 Working with Machinery

Machinery used at fires typically may include bulldozers, graders, ploughs and bobcats. They can be used for:

• A direct attack on the fire.

• Construction of a firebreak for a parallel or indirect attack.

• Digging out or exposing material burning underground.

• Construction or improvement of fire trails and refuge areas.

• Construction or improvement of helipads, assembly areas and camp areas.

• Mechanical assistance to deal with hazardous logs, trees and other obstacles.

• Earthworks to help with environmental recovery of an area after firefighting operations.

Machinery will not be used when the anticipated flame height is more than about 5 metres. Machinery is accompanied by a firefighting unit while working, to keep other units/personnel at a safe distance, and to provide communications and fire protection.

Keep at least 30 metres (or at least a distance equal to twice the height of the trees in the area) clear of operating machinery. Keep away from the downhill side of the machinery. Watch out for any sudden movements from the machinery. Attract the operator’s attention and wait to be signalled by them that it is safe, before approaching machinery. 172 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

12 Working with Aircraft

This section covers the various uses of aircraft at a fire, the safety precautions you should take when working in and around aircraft, and what to do in an in-flight emergency situation and if you are caught in a firebombing zone.

A range of aircraft are used in fire suppression activities. The uses of aircraft at an incident can vary widely. The main uses are:

• Fireground command and control.

• Detecting fires.

• Applying water or aerial retardants (that is, firebombing).

• Aerial ignition.

• Transporting crews and equipment.

• Observing and mapping fires using infra-red equipment and other technology.

• Fire bomber co-ordination.

(a) General Safety Precautions

When working in and around aircraft, there are general safety principles that apply. You should observe these precautions at all times:

• Always follow the directions given by the pilot, flight crew or aircraft coordinator.

• Wear correct eye, ear and head protection when working on or near an airstrip or helipad. Do not wear loose head gear, for example, a baseball cap.

• Stand clear of landing and take off areas and do not smoke within 30 metres of an aircraft or refuelling equipment.

• Be aware of propellers and rotors, particularly when engines are idling, during warm up and brief stops. Never lean on them as this may cause the engine to turn over and cause injury.

• Do not handle moving parts such as flaps, aerials and airspeed sensing tubes as these can be easily damaged. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 173

• When boarding or leaving aircraft, be careful to avoid using panel areas marked “No Step”.

• Assist with loading equipment or materials only under the supervision and guidance of the pilot, as the pilot is responsible for the correct weight and balance of the aircraft.

(b) Working Around Helicopters

The nine points outlined below should be remembered at all times when working around helicopters.

• Stay in the pilot’s field of view at all times.

• Stay away from spinning main and tail rotor blades as these may not be readily visible whilst turning at high speed.

• Stand outside the main rotor disc area and wait till the pilot gives the thumbs up sign, then approach the helicopter in a crouched position. Be aware of aerials and other easily damaged attachments.

• A slowing main rotor can tilt downwards, especially in windy weather. Do not approach the helicopter until the rotors have completely stopped or are spinning at operating speed.

• Be aware of ground irregularities on uneven, sloping terrain. Approach and leave a helicopter from the lowest downslope side, within the pilot’s view, to have maximum clearance.

• Carry stretchers, tools and other objects horizontally, firmly held below the waist. Never carry equipment upright or over the shoulder. Carry long objects between two people.

• Cover eyes, if blinded by dust, and crouch down with back to the helicopter.

• Think, observe and do not rush when approaching a helicopter as it can move in any direction.

• Look after your own gear and be ready to board when directed to do so. 174 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

PILOTS FIELD OF VISION

DO NOT approach or leave without the pilot's knowledge and clearance. Stay in pilot's filed of vision.

DANGER AREA

Crouch down as you approach for extra rotor clearance. Helmets must be removed or fastened securely by a chin strap. DO NOT reach up, run or chase after articles that blow away.

Carry tools horizontally below waist level- never upright or on shoulder.

On sloping ground always approach or leave on the down-slope for maximum rotor clearance. If blinded by swirling dust or grit, STOP - sit down and await assistance.

On entering helicopter

fasten and adjust seat belt and leave it fastened until pilot DO NOT approach or leave helicopter signals to get out. when the engine and rotors are running down or starting up.

Figure 90: Safety around helicopters. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 175

• Close and latch doors carefully as they can bend easily.

• Fasten seat belts and keep them fastened at all times unless the pilot instructs otherwise.

• Sit where instructed by the pilot or flight crew.

• Stow objects so that they do not move around and affect the controls.

Do not

• Distract the pilot during take off and landing. Signal an intention to speak and wait for a response. Identify any potential hazards if required.

• Throw objects from the aircraft.

• Open doors in flight unless instructed by the pilot.

(d) What to do in an In-ﬂight Emergency

You must follow the pilot or flight crew’s instructions immediately. In an emergency situation:

• Do not panic, stay calm.

• Fasten seat belts or harnesses.

• Secure any loose objects.

• Brace for impact. This will vary according to the aircraft.

- In a helicopter, remain in an upright position with hands gripping the seat edge between the legs, feet should remain firmly on the floor.

- In a ﬁxed-wing aircraft, keep your head on your knees, and arms grasped under your legs.

After an emergency landing:

• Wait for all movement to stop.

• Leave the aircraft in an orderly manner, as directed by the pilot and flight crew.

• Disembark from the aircraft in an upwind direction in case of fire. 176 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

(e) What to do if Caught in a Firebombing Drop Zone

Firebombing is a term used to describe the dropping of water, foam or retardants in bush fire suppression activities. Firebombing activities are usually carried out by helicopters or fixed-wing, agricultural type aircraft.

If caught in a ﬁrebombing zone:

• Move away from the fire line.

• Do not run or panic.

• Watch out for dead or suspended branches.

• Place handtools well clear of you.

• Hold your helmet on or protect your head with your arms.

• Watch your footing.

• Wash with cold water if hit with foam or retardant.

13 Backburning

This section describes the basic principles involved in a backburn, its advantages and disadvantages, and the types of lighting patterns that are used. This information is intended to provide you with a basic understanding of the procedures involved.

(a) What is Backburning

A backburn involves burning a strip of land ahead of a main bush fire in order to remove fuel from between the advancing fire edge and the established control line. A backburn must be lit from a prepared control line. A backburn should never be lit without appropriate approval and the supervision of a crew leader.

Technically a backburn is lit so that it burns “back” against the wind from the control line. The term “burning out” is sometimes used to describe a fire lit to consume fuel between control lines and/or already burnt areas, such as during a parallel attack, when it is not burning against the wind. Similar precautions apply to it as for backburning. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 177

A successful backburn may:

• Stop the progress of a rapidly moving bush fire.

• In difficult terrain, be one practicable method of fire suppression.

The disadvantages of a backburn are:

• It increases the total fire area.

• If the backburn escapes control, the progress of the main fire is accelerated.

• It can endanger the lives of firefighters.

• It may produce intense fire behaviour when it meets with the main fire, and this may cause an increase in spot fires.

• It requires considerable time to effectively establish.

• It requires substantial resources to light and patrol.

In the RFS, a distinction is made between strategic and tactical backburning and the precautions needed are specified in Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 17, which states:

• Backburning is used in indirect and parallel attacks and may be used to help defend a specific asset during defensive operations.

• Strategic backburning is used as the primary means to halt the main fire. It needs to be carefully co-ordinated, suitably resourced and must only be conducted under orders from the overall Incident Controller.

• Tactical backburning is used to protect a specific asset. It must not interfere with other firefighting operations and must only be conducted under orders from the officer in charge of the area which it will affect.

• All backburning must be strictly supervised. Officers in charge must ensure:

- Weather and fuel conditions are suitable for a controllable backburn.

- Adequate time and resources are available for the backburning operation (eg: tankers, firefighters, look-outs, communications, etc). 178 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

- Backburning is commenced from suitable, safe “anchor” point/s.

- Firefighters light-up on the correct side of the firebreak.

- Spotovers can be quickly extinguished.

- Firebreaks are sufficiently wide to be effective.

- Wind direction and strength and relative humidity are monitored for change.

- If firefighters can no longer see or communicate with one another, they are to cease lighting-up until they can.

• Backburning is not to be conducted when:

- People or savable property is in the path of a backburn.

- The fire is running in extreme conditions or the weather is forecast to create extreme conditions before the backburn is likely to be secured.

- Long distance spotting is occurring.

- The location of the fire edge is unknown.

- There are no adequate control lines.

- There is insufficient time or resources to conduct the backburn.

(b) Ignition Devices

To start a backburn, a range of ignition devices can be used, such as the gas torch or the drip torch. The most common of these is the drip torch.

DRIP TORCH (FIRELIGHTER)

The driptorch is used for lighting backburns and for other prescribed burning activities. A driptorch is a container holding a fuel mixture which runs, drop by drop, out of a nozzle over a lighted wick, dripping burning liquid onto the fuel to be ignited.

A driptorch is made up of:

• A tank - This is an alloy cylinder consisting of a handle, filler cap and air vent. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 179

• A wand - This is a section of brass tube, about a metre in length and containing a coiled section to prevent flashback from the lighted tip to the tank.

• A burner - This is made up of a nozzle and an ignition wick.

Nozzle Gauze and wick

Wand

Filler cap

Air vent Tap

Handle Fuel tank

Figure 91: Driptorch.

HOW TO USE A DRIPTORCH

• Away from any sources of ignition, unscrew the filler cap and fill the tank with a pre-mixed fuel (such as kerosene or a diesel/petrol mixture - normally in the ratio of three parts diesel to one part petrol). Avoid spilling the mixture.

• Replace the filler cap and check that its neoprene ‘O’ ring is in place and sealed correctly. Wipe off any spilt fuel before lighting.

• Loosen the air vent screw and tilt the driptorch so that the wand is pointing to the ground.

• Let fuel drip from the nozzle onto the wick.

• Ignite the wick with a match or lighter. The wick will serve as a pilot flame. As fresh fuel drips onto the wick, the fuel will catch alight and fall to the ground and onto the vegetation to be lit. The flow of the driptorch fuel is controlled by the air vent screw. In some cases, there is a tap at the base of the wand. 180 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

• When finished, tilt the torch upright to stop the flow of fuel.

• When the lighting is completed, the fuel must be stopped and the pilot flame extinguished or blown out. Driving the burner into loose soil is not recommended as it blocks the nozzle and may damage the burner.

WHAT TO DO WHEN STORING A DRIPTORCH

• Switch fuel tap off.

• Close air vent.

• Ensure ignition wick is extinguished.

• Place driptorch in an upright position.

As already stated, no backburn should be carried out by firefighters unless under the direction and supervision of an experienced Officer-in-Charge. Backburns can be dangerous. Your Officer-in-Charge or crew leader will instruct firefighters in what to do. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 181

SUMMARY

• Fire calls can come from many sources. You need to be familiar with the procedures for responding to a call of fire. You should not respond to a fire call unless you are fit to attend (e.g. confirm you are fit by applying the I’M SAFE checklist). When you respond to a fire call, you should do so in a safe manner.

• Smoke may indicate the location of a fire. While en-route you should be briefed on the known details of the call. This should use the SMEACS format and include the hazards you are likely to encounter and the precautions you should take. If the situation is different on arrival, you may be given an updated briefing.

• When approaching, and when at the scene of the fire, you should observe details that may assist fire investigators. You should also protect the scene for investigation, especially the point of origin of the fire.

• Safely protecting people from the fire is your first priority. Generally, able bodied people are safer to stay with a prepared property, but the elderly, young and infirm should be evacuated early from the potential danger area.

• Bush fire suppression may use offensive or defensive strategies, depending on the situation. Offensive strategies include the direct, parallel and indirect attacks. Defensive strategies include observe and patrol, and people/property protection.

• A direct attack is used mainly on low intensity fires and involves direct extinguishment of the fire’s edge. A head attack is sometimes possible. If not, a flank attack is commonly used.

• A parallel attack is used on medium intensity fires. It involves the construction of a control line a short distance away from the fire’s edge and usually the burning out of the fuel between the control line and the fire.

• An indirect attack is used on intense fires and involves falling back to a natural or constructed fire break and carefully back burning the fuel from the “fire” side of the control line. 182 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

SUMMARY

• “Observe and patrol” is a technique used for fires burning in inaccessible areas. Firefighting resources are kept ready in case the fire “comes out” and threatens people and property. • “People/property protection” is a technique used when a severe fire is a threat to people and property. • The technique used to fight a bush fire needs to be matched to the situation, in particular the intensity of the fire. Sometimes combinations of techniques may be used at different parts of the fire. • Water is the main firefighting agent used in bush firefighting. Water needs to be applied to the fuel that is burning (so as to cool it), not to the flames. You should operate the nozzle so as to get the most effective use out of the available water. • Wetting agents, foam and retardants are used to improve the extinguishing properties of water. • Wetting agents change the surface tension characteristics of water so it spreads out further. • Foam consists of bubbles of an aerated mixture of water and foam concentrate. Foam can cling to surfaces for a persistent cooling and insulating action. • Foam is also the most common form of short-term fire retardant. Long term retardants are chemicals mixed with water into a slurry. They can remain effective for more than a day. • Firefighting chemicals should not be used close to water courses. • Control lines are natural or man-made paths cleared to mineral earth. They may be constructed by using hand tools or machinery. Temporary control lines may also be produced using foam or retardant. Control line construction with hand tools may use either the step-up or one-lick method and should be carried out using safe and appropriate techniques. • Thorough mopping up is essential to prevent re-kindles of fires. It consists of the elimination of all smouldering material in the area where re-ignition might occur. The perimeter of a mopped up fire then needs to be patrolled to ensure no further re-ignition occurs. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 183

SUMMARY

• During firefighting it is essential to work safely as a team. Your safety on the fireground depends on having good situational awareness, using safe techniques and taking the appropriate action in the event of a life threatening situation.

• Situational awareness consists of actively looking out for hazards, appreciating what is going on around you, and using your knowledge (e.g. of fire behaviour) and your observations to determine what is likely to happen next.

• Safe techniques include using the appropriate strategy, using your equipment safely, starting from a safe anchor point, and avoiding the Dead Man Zone.

• If an unsafe situation develops, you should activate your “out” plan and go to a safe refuge. You should practice your emergency procedures regularly and use the LACES checklists. LACES = Lookout - Awareness - Communications - Escape Routes - Safety Refuges.

• You should become familiar with your tanker (or other appliance/s), the hazards they involve and the precautions that need to be taken. Get on and off tankers correctly. Don’t rest or sleep up against or under tankers. Wind up windows in the vicinity of a fire. Travel inside the cabin and wear your seat belt while travelling. Do not ride on trailers at any time.

• At grassland fires, the fire may be fought using nozzles operated from a heat shielded area on the back of the tanker. At larger fires several tankers may deal with the fire using an organised flank attack task force. Tankers need to operate with care and cooperation to carry out such attacks safely and effectively.

• Machinery such as bulldozers, graders, ploughs and bobcats may be used at fires for constructing control lines and other activities. They are not used when the fire is intense and should always be accompanied by a firefighting unit. Keep at least 30 metres (or a distance twice the height of trees) from machinery when operating. Don’t get downhill of operating machinery. Do not approach operating machinery unless the operator signals it is safe. 184 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

SUMMARY

• Aircraft are used for a variety of purposes at a fire, including command and control, reconnaissance, bombing, aerial ignition, crew transport, mapping and observation. You should be familiar with the general hazards and precautions regarding aircraft, working around helicopters, travelling in aircraft, in-flight emergency procedures and what to do if caught in a fire-bombing zone.

• Backburning involves burning of fuel between a control line and an approaching fire. It a potentially hazardous activity and should only be conducted with appropriate approval and supervision.

• Strategic backburning is used as the primary means of stopping the main fire. It needs to be carefully co-ordinated, suitably resourced and must only be conducted under orders from the overall Incident Controller.

• Tactical backburning is used to protect a specific asset (e.g. property). It must not interfere with other firefighting operations and must only be conducted under orders from the officer in charge of the area which it will affect.

• A driptorch is commonly used to light a backburn and for prescribed burning activities. It consists of a container holding a fuel mixture (kerosene, or a 1 part petrol to 3 parts diesel mix) which runs out of a nozzle over a lighted wick when the wand of the driptorch is tipped downwards. The burning fuel runs onto the ground, igniting the vegetation. Driptorches must be filled, used and cared for safely. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 185

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. It is always OK to fight a fire while you are on medication, as long as it has been prescribed by a Doctor.

2. You will not be briefed about a fire until after you have arrived at the scene and your crew leader has had time to size up what is happening.

3. The point of origin of a fire should be preserved intact for fire investigators, if possible.

4. It is generally safer for able bodied people to stay with a well prepared property threatened by a bush fire, than evacuating.

5. A direct attack is normally used on high intensity fires in forests.

6. Protecting people/property is a defensive firefighting technique used when the fire is too intense to be attacked safely.

7. Foam can act as an effective fire retardant for more than 24 hours.

8. A safe distance from operating machinery is 30 metres or a distance equal to twice the height of the trees.

9. Backburning is a hazardous activity that should only be conducted with appropriate approval and supervision.

10.1 part petrol to 3 parts diesel is a suitable mixture for use in a drip torch. 186 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

ACTIVITIES

1. Listen to typical briefings given by experienced crew leaders using the SMEACS format. Note and query them if any details have been omitted.

2. Look at photographs or video of a range of bush fires, From your observation of the fire’s intensity, what sort of firefighting techniques do you think would have been appropriate in each case. Discuss with your trainer and/or officers.

3. Under supervision, go to an area where property adjoins bushland. Discuss and/or practice how you would set up safely to protect people/property in the event of an intense fire impact.

4. Under supervision, become thoroughly familiar with your tanker. Discuss and practice how to safely get on and off the vehicle. Learn where various pieces of equipment are located and how to gain safe access to them. Discuss and look at where hazards are located and the precautions you need to take.

5. Under supervision, visit an airport or earthmoving contractor in your District. Discuss with your trainer or officer how aircraft and/or machinery are typically used for firefighting in your area. Discuss/practice the precautions to be used when operating with aircraft and/or machinery. 187

CHAPTER 5 Hazard Reduction

1 Introduction

In previous chapters you have learned about safety, fire behaviour, bush firefighting equipment and techniques. You are now going to cover what measures can be taken to prevent the spread of fires, or to reduce the intensity of fires to containable levels. This chapter will examine:

• The principles of “hazard reduction”.

• Hazard reduction and the law.

• Bush fire precautions and the law.

• Safe participation in prescribed burning activities.

2 Principles of Hazard Reduction

(a) Bush Fire Hazard, Risk and Threat

Bush fires are part of the normal cycle of events in Australia. A bush fire hazard exists wherever there is bush fire fuel.

The risk is the likelihood of damage to a particular asset from a bush fire. For example, the risk would be greater to houses on a steep slope above a bush area than to those on flat ground. 188 HAZARD REDUCTION

Bush fires can be a threat (have bad consequences) to people when they occur near, or move towards, people and things of value. Things of value include not only property such as livestock, buildings, crops, forests and fences, but things of environmental, cultural or heritage value.

(Note: In training programs at more advanced levels the terms, ‘hazard’, ‘risk’ and ‘threat’ will be defined more precisely).

(b) Reducing the Hazard

You will recall that there are three ways to suppress a bush fire:

• Remove the fuel.

• Remove the oxygen.

• Cool the fire.

If you consider these three options you will realise that there is really only one step that can be taken before the start of the fire season - we can reduce or remove fuel. Hazard reduction is the practice of reducing or removing fuel before the onset of a bush fire, so as to minimise the damage by such a fire.

It is not possible to change the weather and so cool the fire; it is not possible (or even desirable) to remove all the oxygen from the atmosphere. The only realistic move to reduce the hazard from a bush fire is to reduce the fuel available to the fire.

Complete removal of fuel means, of course, that the area will no longer support fire, but such a practice may be harmful to the environment. Soil erosion is one possible consequence. The more common practice is to reduce the amount of fuel, in which case you would find that a subsequent bush fire would:

• Generate less heat and therefore be less dangerous for firefighters and the general public.

• Travel more slowly.

• Have a lower flame height and therefore be less likely to develop into a crown fire.

• Be less likely to spot and therefore easier to suppress. HAZARD REDUCTION 189

In general, a hazard reduction program means you are more likely to encounter bush fires later on that can be fairly easily contained, as opposed to fires that you might not be able to contain at all. Hazard reductions make it possible to safely protect people and property from bush fires that otherwise would be impossible to control.

The question of hazard reduction relates to fuel quantity and location. Few people really appreciate the intensity of a bush fire and of the relationship of the intensity to the available fuel. Any study of hazard reduction techniques means that you must have:

• An understanding of the relationship between fuel quantity and fire intensity.

• An understanding of how fuel quantities are measured.

In chapter 2, it was mentioned how fuel size and quantity can affect fire behaviour, but no figures were given. The table below will show how a change in the fuel quantity affects fire behaviour.

(i) In Forest Fuels:

On a particular day of high fire risk, we could expect the following fire intensities:

Fuel Load Fire Intensity

7.5 Tonnes per ha. 300 kW/m

15.0 Tonnes per ha. 1300 kW/m

30.0 Tonnes per ha. 5200 kW/m

In the above table, fire intensity is shown in kW/m which stands for kilowatts per metre of fire front. A kilowatt is equivalent to the power of a normal single bar electric radiator. Look closely at the fire intensities. A total power output of 5200 kW/m is a tremendous amount of power and yet the same forest, with a fuel loading of 7.5 tonnes per hectare may generate only 300 kW/m. 190 HAZARD REDUCTION

When the officers responsible for planning hazard reduction measure the amount of fuel in a forest, they do so by referring to the fuel load. This load is measured in tonnes per hectare and is determined by measuring the dry weight of litter (all material less than 6 mm diameter) on the forest floor.

Note the following points of interest:

• Only the fine fuel, such as twigs and leaf litter is measured, as this is the material immediately available to the fire.

• Large branches and log materials burn after the main fire front has passed and, although they contribute indirectly to fire behaviour under drought conditions, they are not included in fuel measurement.

• A shrub layer can contribute to the intensity of a fire and may, therefore, be considered when assessing available fuel.

• A good rule-of-thumb: 1 cm depth of fuel in a eucalypt forest represents about 5 tonnes per hectare of fuel. A more accurate way of determining the fuel in forest leaf litter is to take a sample of fuel, dry it and weigh it using the following steps:

• Step 1 - Sampling frames are used to collect the litter in a given area.

• Step 2 - The litter found within each frame is dried and weighed.

• Step 3 - The average fuel load is calculated from the samples.

• As a guide - Five tonnes per hectare is considered to be a light fuel loading which would only carry a mild fire, while 30 tonnes per hectare is a heavy fuel load that could support an uncontrollable bush fire. HAZARD REDUCTION 191

(positional only) pic to be scanned in from photo.

Figure 92: Typical forest ﬁre fuel.

(ii) In Grassland Fuels:

Grassland fuels are not measured by weight, but are estimated by using the following criteria:

• Degree of curing - ranging from green (virtually non-combustible) grass to fully cured (highly combustible) grass.

• Density of grass - that is; eaten out, grazed or natural pasture.

On a particular day of high fire risk, you could expect that a fire in fully cured, grazed pasture would result in a fire with a flame height of only 1.5 metres. A fire in fully cured, natural pasture, on a similar day, however, would result in a fire with a flame height of around 3.5 metres. 192 HAZARD REDUCTION

0% Cured 50% Cured 100% Cured

Figure 93: Curing of grass ﬁre fuel.

(d) Fuel Location

Apart from fuel quantity; the other factor that must be considered when planning hazard reduction is that of fuel location. Remember that while dense fuels are always a hazard, it is where they can endanger life or property that they become a threat.

The two main points to consider are:

• Terrain - slope and aspect.

• Wind direction.

Remember that fires accelerate as they travel uphill, so that particular attention must be paid to the protection of areas such as ridge-top housing developments. Be aware of the direction of winds which have previously caused the greatest threat during a bush fire. You can usually predict, with a reasonable degree of certainty, the most likely direction to produce intense bush fire activity. Adding the effects of terrain and winds, in N.S.W. we can generally say that the most potentially dangerous areas are generally on sloping land facing the North-West. HAZARD REDUCTION 193

(e) Methods of Hazard Reduction

There are many individual techniques of hazard reduction. Here are two basic methods:

• Burning is known as ‘controlled’ or ‘prescribed’ burning. This is one of the most common form of hazard reduction and is covered in more detail later in this chapter. In addition to hazard reduction, prescribed burning can also be used as a land management tool. For example, it can be used to reintroduce the natural fire patterns in an area.

• Mechanical methods can be safer than burning, are more predictable and do not produce smoke. They are usually more expensive than burning and cannot be used in some areas. Mechanical methods include mowing, slashing, trittering, removal of trees with chain saws, use of hand tools, and the use of ploughs, graders or other earthmoving machinery.

Burning

Ploughing

Slashing

Figure 94: Methods of hazard reduction. 194 HAZARD REDUCTION

(f) Bush Fire Risk Management Zones

Planned hazard reduction involving rural fire brigades is most often conducted to protect specific assets from the effects of bush fires. This is usually achieved by reducing the bush fire fuel in accordance with the Bush Fire Risk Management Plan (BFRMP). This plan outlines risk management strategies based on defined zones. These zones are discussed in more detail below.

(i) Asset Protection Zones (APZs)

Asset protection zones (APZs) are in bush areas that immediately surround assets such as dwellings, crops, pasture, sheds and facilities. They consist of areas cleared of most vegetation, with minimal under-storey and a few trees. The intention is that a severe bush fire will cease to crown and be controllable by direct attack once it hits this zone.

The width of APZs can vary from about 20 metres to 100 metres, depending on the vegetation, the slope, the type of asset and the method used for clearing. The steeper the slope leading up to an asset, the wider the APZ needs to be. APZs are usually established and maintained using mechanical equipment, but burning may be used in difficult terrain where using such equipment would be difficult.

(ii) Strategic Fire Advantage Zones (SFAZs)

Strategic fire advantage zones (SFAZs) are areas of reduced fuel designed to provide firefighters with an advantage in controlling a bush fire. Generally they are next to APZs, but may also be located along roads, powerlines, boundaries between public and private land and in areas with a history of frequent fires. SFAZs are usually established and maintained by prescribed burning and may be as much as 500 metres wide.

(iii) Land Management Zones (LMZs)

These are areas which do not involve a risk to life or property, but in which prescribed burning may be conducted to achieve land management objectives.

(iv) Fire Exclusion Zones (FEZs)

These are areas from which fire should be excluded. They include rainforest, other ecologically sensitive areas, fire sensitive plantations and commercial crops. HAZARD REDUCTION 195

Hazard Reduced Asset Native Bush Strategic Fire Protection Zone Advantage Zone (APZ) (SFAZ)

Figure 95: Typical hazard reduction zone/s .

(g) Prescribed Burning

Prescribed burning is an effective method of bush fire hazard reduction. It usually enables assets to be protected from what would otherwise be an uncontrollable bush fire. It also enables firefighters to protect the community effectively while placing themselves at less risk of injury.

Prescribed burning may also be done for reasons other than hazard reduction. For example, in some parts of Australia, fire has sometimes been excluded from an area through human intervention. As a result, the environment in that area has been changed. Prescribed burning may be used by land management authorities to restore and maintain the “natural” condition of the environment in such an area, and/or to imitate the use of fire by its traditional owners over tens of thousands of years.

Prescribed burning is not just a matter of “lighting up the bush”. It is always carried out to achieve specific objectives that give an effective balance between the need to protect life, property and the environment. The conditions needed to meet those objectives will form a ‘prescription’ for the way in which the work is carried out. For example, the prescription may include the maximum temperature, lowest humidity and maximum wind speed acceptable for the burn to proceed. 196 HAZARD REDUCTION

There are many points to consider when carrying out a prescribed burn, but at this stage we will familiarise you with two only:

(i) Weather

Even though a prescribed burn is carried out under relatively mild weather conditions, sudden changes in weather - particularly a change in wind direction - can cause a prescribed burn to endanger crew members or escape the planned perimeter. The officer in charge of any prescribed burn will be continually monitoring weather conditions and you should advise him/her of any change in fire behaviour which could indicate that the weather has changed.

(ii) Acceptable Scorch Height

This is a term that indicates the intensity of the fire in relation to the vegetation. The scorch height will vary, depending on the type of vegetation, but you must bear in mind at all times that the aim of the exercise is to carry out a burn to a prescription; not to simply burn the bushland. The burn plan will usually define the acceptable scorch height. This will usually limit the weather conditions under which the burn can be conducted satisfactorily.

In order to have the right weather conditions and achieve an acceptable scorch height, most prescribed burning is done during the cooler months of the year.

Acceptable scorch height. The scorch height is typically 4 -5 times the fire's flame height.

Figure 96: Acceptable scorch height. HAZARD REDUCTION 197

3 Hazard Reduction and the Law

The legal aspects of hazard reduction are covered in more detail in more advanced programs of training. For now, however, the following information will give you a quick appreciation of it.

(a) Bush Fire Management

The Rural Fires Act includes provisions such that:

• Bush fire management across NSW is co-ordinated by the (state) Bush Fire Co-ordinating Committee.

• Local bush fire management committees are established and prepare local bush fire risk management plans to manage bush fire risks in their area.

• Public authorities and private land owners and occupiers are required to prevent bush fires. It is an offence to allow or not take practical steps to stop or contain a fire.

• Local authorities may require bush fire hazard reduction work to be carried out. If that work is not done, they can have it carried out and charge the costs to the owner or occupier.

• Bush fire hazard reduction may also be initiated by the Commissioner of the RFS on public or private land.

• Local authorities are required to review the incidence of bush fire hazards.

• People may make a complaint to the RFS if they believe their property is at risk from a bush fire hazard on private land. These must be investigated and the person making the complaint advised of the outcome. The Commissioner of the RFS can investigate complaints about such risks on public land (and can review an investigation conducted by a council) and, if necessary, may require that work be done or have it carried out. 198 HAZARD REDUCTION

(b) Local Planning and Bush Fire Risks

Amendments to Environmental Assessment legislation in 2002 requires councils to:

• Identify and map bush fire prone land, and have the Commissioner verify their accuracy.

• Warn potential purchasers of that bush fire risk.

• Refer residential, rural residential and other vulnerable developments requiring special bush fire protection to the Commissioner for authorisation.

• Not approve such developments without the relevant RFS authorisation, including any conditions related to bush fire protection.

• Consult with the Commissioner about planning for bush fire protection.

Amendments to legislation in 2002 considerably simplified the process of gaining environmental approval to conduct a hazard reduction. Instead of having to gain approval under several different pieces of legislation, a person now only needs to obtain a single Hazard Reduction Certificate. In most cases this is issued by the RFS.

Note that a Hazard Reduction Certificate is not a ‘Permit to Burn’ during the bush fire danger period. Such a permit is a fire safety approval to carry out the burn and is described in more detail in the next section of this Chapter.

Owners of managed public land (national parks, state forests, councils, etc.) can issue their own Hazard Reduction Certificates, provided they’re consistent with the local bush fire management plan and a bush fire environment code.

A Hazard Reduction certificate is valid for 12 months and includes all the conditions under which the hazard reduction is permitted to be conducted. A Hazard Reduction Certificate is not required for burning crop stubble or diseased orchard pruning, but a fire permit will still be needed if it is done during the bush fire danger period. HAZARD REDUCTION 199

4 Bush Fire Precautions and the Law

The following information is a brief summary of key bush fire precautions in NSW. More detailed information can be found in pamphlets available from your Fire Control Officer.

(a) The Bush Fire Danger Period

The bush fire danger period is declared by the Commissioner, in consultation with local councils, and is typically from 1 October until 31 March in the following year. During this time there are restrictions on the use of fire so as to minimise the risk of bush fires being started accidentally. These fire restrictions include:

Barbecues and Campﬁres

• Only light fires in a permanently constructed fireplace surrounded by ground that is clear of all combustible matter for a distance of at least 2 metres, or

• at a site surrounded by ground that is clear of all combustible matter for a distance of at least 3 metres, and (in both cases).

• make sure the fire is completely out before leaving the area.

2 metres clear of combustible material 3 metres clear of combustible material

Figure 97: Safe distances around barbecues and campﬁres. 200 HAZARD REDUCTION

Smoking

• Don’t drop or throw down any lighted cigarette, match or anything burning on any land, bridge, wharf, pontoon or similar.

• Don’t light or carry a lighted cigarette or match within 15m of stacked or standing crops.

Burning off in the open

• You need a permit to burn off.

• Notify your neighbours at least 24 hours before you light the fire.

• Make sure someone is there all the time the fire is alight.

• Observe all conditions of the permit.

(b) Permits to Burn

While land owners and occupiers have a responsibility to ensure that fire does not escape from their property, they are not allowed to burn-off during the bush fire danger period without first obtaining a permit. A permit is also needed for a prescribed burn to be conducted by a private person or organisation, but not by a firefighting agency or other authority.

A permit will not generally be issued until any approvals to enable a burn to be carried out have been obtained. Permits are automatically cancelled if a day of total fire ban is declared. Your Captain or Fire Control Officer should be able to tell you who is authorised to issue permits to burn in your local area.

On days of extreme fire danger caused by a combination of certain weather conditions and dry vegetation, the Commissioner may declare a Total Fire Ban in part/s or all of the state. Your Fire Control Officer and your brigade will be notified of the ban. During a total fire ban:

• No fire may be lit in the open. This includes incinerators and barbecues which burn solid fuel, (e.g. wood or charcoal).

• People may use a gas or electric barbecue, but only if: - it is on a residential property within 20m of the house or dwelling, or in an area with council approval and HAZARD REDUCTION 201

- it is under the direct control of an adult and - the ground within 3m of the barbecue is cleared of all materials which could burn and - there is a continuous supply of water available.

If a Total Fire Ban is declared, a media release will be issued listing the weather forecast districts involved. Total Fire Bans will also be announced through newspapers, radio and television. A Total Fire Ban usually lasts for 24 hours (usually from 12 midnight), but can last for several days.

(d) “No Burn” Days

When air pollution levels are bad, the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) may declare a “no burn” day, restricting the use of fire so as to minimise air pollution. “No burn“ days are not related to the level of fire risk on a particular day. Exemptions can be obtained to allow essential hazard reduction activity to proceed on “no burn” days, but prescribed burning may be limited or discontinued on such days.

5 Participating in a Prescribed Burn

It is not unusual for the first “bush fire” that you attend to be a prescribed burn. Prescribed burns are planned events and are an opportunity for new firefighters to apply the skills they have learned in their training and to observe actual fire behaviour.

Because they are generally conducted during the cooler times of the year, they are often thought of as being a lower risk activity than actual fire fighting. However, several firefighters have been killed or badly injured during prescribed burns under very mild weather conditions. In addition to all the normal firefighting hazards, prescribed burns also involve the following risks:

• The mild conditions may lead to people becoming complacent about safety.

• Fire behaviour may be more variable than usual. Patchy moist and dry areas in mild conditions may lead to unexpected lulls and bursts of fire behaviour.

• As firefighters have full control over where, when and how the fire is lit, they also have a greater responsibility and liability for what the fire does. 202 HAZARD REDUCTION

• The attention of officers may be split between supervising the burn and mentoring inexperienced firefighters. This might limit their alertness for hazards.

In this section, you will be given an insight into how a prescribed burn should be conducted. This will make your first prescribed burn a better learning experience. More importantly, it will let you know how things should be done, so that if something starts to go wrong you can recognise it, report it, and avoid or control any hazards before they become dangerous.

(a) Planning for the Burn

Planning for the burn takes place in a number of stages. A comprehensive local bush fire risk management plan looks at all the bush fire risks in your area and works out a systematic way of dealing with them, giving priority to the more serious risks. Individual prescribed burns are then planned in detail, including such aspects as the burn prescription, public safety, firefighter safety, smoke management, traffic control, asset protection and control of any escape of fire.

The resources needed to carry out the burn are worked out. These may include the number and type of firefighters, tankers, equipment and supplies needed for the activity. The prescribed burn may also be assessed for its suitability as a training or assessment event for new firefighters. If suitable, trainers, mentors and/or assessors will need to be organised.

(b) Preparing for the Burn

A date is usually set for a prescribed burn well in advance. This gives the officer assigned to be in charge of the activity sufficient time to study the plan, ensure the area is still as described in the plan, and to assemble and prepare the resources needed to conduct it. Any needed certificates and permits are obtained, and any required notifications are also typically given at this stage.

It is at around this time that you may be asked to participate. You should not be asked to take part in a prescribed burn until your competency is sufficient that you can use equipment, follow procedures, and have an understanding of bush fire behaviour and safety at BF level. You will also need to have been issued with a full set of bush firefighting personal protective equipment (PPE). HAZARD REDUCTION 203

If you are ill, injured, not yet competent, or not equipped with the full set of bush firefighting PPE, you should not take part in a prescribed burn. If you are unsure about what is involved, or worried about participating in the activity, you should discuss your concerns with your trainer or Captain.

Before the burn itself there might also be quite a lot of preparation of the site needed. This can include constructing control lines, setting up markers, manually removing fuel around specific assets and habitats, and notifying neighbouring residents. These activities can also be valuable training opportunities.

Before the burn itself, you should be given a comprehensive briefing about what is to take place. This will be given in the standard SMEACS briefing format:

S - Situation • The characteristics of the area, including terrain, vegetation, access, and current and forecast weather conditions.

M - Mission • The purpose and objectives of the burn.

E - Execution • How the burn is to be conducted, control lines, lighting patterns, contingency plans, etc.

A – Assistance/Administration • Logistical support including water supply, fuel supplies, food and drink, first aid, communications facilities, etc.

C – Command/Control/Communications

• Who’s in charge of who, the chain of command, the communications network etc.

S – Safety • Hazards and precautions, competency requirements, standard procedures, escape and refuge arrangements, emergency procedures/facilities, safety officers and PPE, etc. 204 HAZARD REDUCTION

Unless the area of the prescribed burn is small and/or open enough for all parts of the area to be fairly readily visible to all participants, a map or accurate sketch will be supplied as an aid to briefing and operating at the prescribed burn. If there is something in the briefing you are not sure about, or has not been covered, always ask for further information.

Prior to lighting up, you should be familiarised with the area in which you will be working and the location of any refuges and emergency facilities/equipment. Personal protective equipment should be donned and checked. Radios should be tested to ensure they are working correctly. Equipment and supplies should be distributed and checked to ensure they are suitable and serviceable.

The area should be checked for members of the public and access to the area controlled. Sometimes traffic control arrangements are needed, such as if smoke might reduce visibility on adjacent roadways. You should be reminded of any contingency plans and emergency procedures before the burn commences.

(d) During the Burn

All the usual safety rules that apply during bush firefighting also apply during prescribed burns. In particular, you should never work alone and always apply the LACES checklist. If you are inexperienced, you should work together with a mentor. This might be a trainer, but quite commonly it will be a competent, experienced firefighter assigned to work as a “buddy” with you. Watch how they do things, ask questions, share any concerns with them and listen to their advice.

The lighting patterns used during a prescribed burn are rarely the same as those used during back burning at a bush fire. In particular, most prescribed burns will use fire lit in spots or strips, rather than as a continuous line. This is to enable the fire to be kept well under control and to stay within the intensity specified in the burn prescription.

A fire lit in a continuous line will build up to its full intensity very quickly, whereas when lit in spots or short strips it will take some time to build up. Prescribed burning is usually designed to remove the combustible ground litter but leave upper level vegetation intact. It should therefore nearly always be a low intensity fire. A fire that is fierce or crowns is unlikely to meet the objectives given of the burn and may need to be discontinued. HAZARD REDUCTION 205

Spot /strip lighting.

Line /layer lighting.

Figure 98: lighting patterns. 206 HAZARD REDUCTION

In most prescribed burns, the perimeter of the burn area is burnt first to secure it better against the escape of fire and then the interior of the area is allowed to burn out. Sometime the interior of the burnt area may be ignited by incendiaries dropped by an aircraft or fired from a special gun. If the interior is lit by hand or from a ground vehicle, the sequence of the lighting up and refuge arrangements must be planned so that the crew can operate safely.

As in bush firefighting, during a prescribed burn you should ALWAYS have a refuge area nearby and a suitable escape route available to get to it. Many fatal fire overruns have occurred with as little as about 30 seconds warning between when the fire is recognised as being dangerous and actually arriving. As a rough rule of thumb you should therefore have a refuge area no more than about 30 seconds jogging distance away.

Two types of refuge areas are used in prescribed burns. One is existing cleared or very damp areas. The other (and more common) are refuges that are “constructed” as the burn progresses. Usually the burn is commenced at a safe “anchor point”. That is, an area which is a refuge in its own right. A section of bush is burnt from the anchor point. Once this section has burnt out sufficiently (and is checked to see it is free of other hazards, such as potential for falling trees or branches) it then becomes the refuge area for the next section of the burn, and so on.

Future Refuge

Refuge

Burnt out area as refuge Refuge

Anchor Point

Figure 99: Safe anchor point and progressive refuges. HAZARD REDUCTION 207

Throughout the burn, officers will monitor the weather and fire behaviour, and may adjust the lighting sequence or pattern to provide for a safe burn that best meets the prescription. If you see any hazards, or a change in the weather, vegetation patterns or fire behaviour that you think is significant, report it to your crew leader immediately.

As when operating at a bush fire, great attention needs to be given to mopping up, blacking out, making burning trees and logs safe, and patrolling, before the burn is completed.

(e) After the Burn

After a prescribed burn, a debriefing should take place. This is aimed at learning from the experience of the burn and improving arrangements for such activities in the future. You should participate in the debriefing and use it as a learning opportunity, not only while you are inexperienced, but right throughout your life as a firefighter.

Equipment used during the burn will need to be cleaned, sharpened, replenished, serviced and re-stowed (as applicable). Water tanks, foam and fuel containers will need to be checked and refilled. Supplies carried on vehicles may need to be replaced. Your PPE will need to be checked, cleaned and, (if needed), repaired or replaced. 208 HAZARD REDUCTION

SUMMARY

• Bush fires are a normal event in Australia. A bush fire hazard exists wherever there is bush fire fuel. The risk of bush fires is greater under certain conditions (e.g. above steep bush slopes). The threat is greatest when bush fires move towards people and things of value.

• Bush fire hazard reduction consists of reducing the fuel to a level where control of any subsequent bush fire would be possible.

• Hazard reduction in forests is aimed at reducing the surface litter fuels so that a crown fire could not be sustained in the area during a fire later on. Particular attention may be needed for vulnerable areas, such as developments on ridge tops or slopes facing North-West.

• Two basic methods of hazard reduction are burning and mechanical removal of the fuel. Bush fire risk management zones includes asset protection zones (APZs), strategic fire advantage zones (SFAZs), land management zones (LMZs) and fire exclusion zones (FEZs).

• Prescribed burning can be used for hazard reduction and other purposes. It is not simply “lighting up the bush”, but carried out to achieve specific objectives. Things considered for prescribed burning include the weather and acceptable scorch height.

• The Rural Fires Act includes provisions for overall co-ordination of bush fire management, local bush fire management, the prevention of bush fires, local review of the incidence of bush fire hazards, the carrying out of hazard reduction work and preparation of firebreaks, and the handling of related complaints.

• Councils are required to map bush fire prone land, warn potential purchasers, refer significant developments to the Commissioner for authorisation, and consult with the Commissioner about bush fire protection planning.

• Bush Fire Hazard Reduction Certificates enable all the approvals to conduct a hazard reduction to be obtained using a single form. They are valid for 12 months. Burning of stubble and diseased orchard prunings does not require a Certificate, but a burn permit is still needed to light a fire during the bush fire danger period HAZARD REDUCTION 209

SUMMARY

• The bush fire danger period is declared by the Commissioner. It is usually between 1 October and 31 March each year. During this time there are restrictions on the use of fire for barbecues, campfires, smoking in the vicinity of crops and burning off in the open. A permit is required to burn off during this period. A permit is automatically cancelled if a day of total fire ban is declared.

• On days of extreme fire danger, the Commissioner may declare a total fire ban. This prohibits the lighting of fires in the open, (with a few exceptions). “No burn” days may be declared by the EPA to minimise air pollution. Essential hazard reductions may be exempted on a ‘no burn’ day.

• Prescribed burns are normally carried out in mild weather conditions, but they are not without safety risks. The mild conditions may lead to complacency, the fire behaviour may be more variable, attention to hazards may be diverted, and firefighters have a greater responsibility for what the fire does.

• Planning for prescribed burning starts with a systematic local bush fire risk management plan. Individual burns are then planned in detail. As a firefighter you may be asked to participate during the preparation stage. You should not participate if you are not ready for it.

• Before the burn you should be given a comprehensive briefing covering the situation, mission, execution of the plan, assistance/administration, command/control/communications and safety. If there is something you do not understand or has been omitted, ask about it. You should be familiarised with the area and the proposed burn plan, and ensure everything is ready to proceed before lighting up.

• All the usual precautions for bush firefighting also apply during a prescribed burn. Lighting patterns may be different than used at a bush fire to ensure the correct fire behaviour is achieved. Normally the perimeter is secured first, then the centre of the area burnt. 210 HAZARD REDUCTION

SUMMARY

• Always have a refuge area available nearby during a burn. Refuge areas may be pre-existing or may be “constructed” as the burn progresses. Weather and fire behaviour are monitored during the burn. Report anything unusual to your crew leader. Give great attention to mopping up and related actions before the burn is completed. • After a burn, participate in the debriefing and return your equipment to service.

Self-Check Questions Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. Bush fire hazard reduction involves removing ignition sources.

2. 30 tonnes per hectare is a light bush fire fuel load.

3. A fire in fully cured, natural pasture will be more intense than a fire in fully cured, grazed pasture, given the same weather conditions.

4. In NSW the most potentially dangerous bush fire areas are on sloping land facing the north-west.

5. A good prescribed burn should involve the burning of the crowns of trees.

6. Local authorities may require bush fire hazard reduction work to be carried out.

7. A Bush Fire Hazard Reduction Certificate is valid for a year.

8. A permit to burn is automatically cancelled on a day of total fire ban.

9. The briefing given to you before a burn should include (among other things) details of escape routes and refuge arrangements.

10. Refuge areas at a prescribed burn may be “constructed” as the burn progresses by using the section already burnt as the refuge for the next section of the burn. HAZARD REDUCTION 211

ACTIVITIES

1. Examine a map showing any bush fire prone areas in your brigade area.

2. Visit bush fire prone areas. Discuss what factors make it bush fire prone and what sort of fire behaviour you might expect if no hazard reduction was conducted.

3. Visit an area where a hazard reduction has taken place. Discuss the fuel load compared with surrounding areas, Discuss how the hazard reduction would change the behaviour of a fire moving through the area.

4. Find out who is authorised to issue fire permits in your area.

5. Under supervision, safely participate in a prescribed burn. 212

CHAPTER 6 Immediate Emergency Care

Note: This chapter is a slightly modiﬁed version of the Queensland Fire and Rescue Service / Rural Fire Service training unit 103, Emergency Care – Copyright: State of Queensland (represented by the Queensland Fire and Rescue Service) – reproduced with permission.

1 Introduction

Looking after your personal safety and protecting others on the fireground is basic to all rural firefighting. In this chapter, you will identify and assess those situations calling for immediate emergency care; ensure the safety of a casualty while avoiding any hazards facing the care giver; and learn how to give assistance in a calm, caring and reassuring manner.

Danger, Response, Airway, Breathing and Circulation (DRABC) procedures for implementing immediate emergency care until qualified personnel can be contacted will be explained, as will the ways of maintaining the readiness of first-aid equipment and the need for complete documentation of any event requiring immediate emergency care.

2 Casualty Assistance

(a) Introduction

Rural firefighters are working in situations where fellow firefighters or members of the public may be injured. You may need to provide assistance to casualties at an incident until qualified medical, ambulance or first-aid support can be arranged. This unit provides information for urgent, on-the-spot response to life-threatening emergencies where IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 213 no expert assistance is available. The following material gives ideas on what to do on arrival at an incident where there are casualties. Your initial assessment has to determine:

• The extent and nature of immediate emergency care required.

• Potential dangers to self and others.

• When to call for assistance.

• Hygiene precautions that need to be taken.

• The type of emergency care you can give.

As a firefighter, you may sometimes need to provide support and assistance to casualties at a fire or other incident. Fellow firefighters or members of the public who are injured or in danger may require immediate emergency care. In the event that you are the most experienced or most capable person at the scene of an emergency, your decisions on how to respond to the emergency can make a difference in the recovery of those casualties.

(b) Emergency carers

In providing immediate emergency care, your focus will be on assisting casualties who are conscious. Certified first aid training covers the treatment of unconscious casualties more deeply. This study guide is designed to give you sufficient knowledge and skills to provide immediate emergency care at an incident. It does not provide you with the training needed to achieve a First Aid Certificate. While all firefighters need to be skilled in immediate emergency care procedures, not all need to be qualified First Aiders. However, you are encouraged to extend your ability to assist casualties by achieving and maintaining first aid qualifications. With these qualifications, you will be able to help on-scene Ambulance Officers in a greater range of situations.

Ambulance officers are highly trained to provide emergency care for casualties and transport them to hospital while providing the appropriate support. You may need to work closely with Ambulance Officers and other emergency personnel, not only to provide fire protection for their activities, but also to assist them when required. 214 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

Teamwork and co-operation are vital between agencies. Where medical personnel are present at an incident, your Officer-in-Charge (OIC)/ Incident Controller should make contact with the Ambulance Officers as soon as possible after arrival. You should follow the directions and instructions given by ambulance personnel.

Activities you may have to undertake will vary according to the type of incident. They may range from helping place a stretcher in an ambulance, providing support to the casualty while waiting for treatment, to fetching or holding equipment.

In all emergency care activities you are to assist trained personnel by carrying out their instructions and directions, regardless of their rank.

Figure 100: Co-operation at an incident between agencies.

Because of the nature of the work of firefighting, you or your crew could be first on the scene of an incident or accident. Certainly this will be the case if your partner on the fireline goes down with heat-related illness or smoke inhalation. It will certainly be the case if your first-response vehicle reaches a motor vehicle accident before other agencies arrive.

What do you do until assistance from qualified medical staff arrives? You will need to undertake an initial assessment of the incident. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 215

(d) Initial assessment at an incident

For the OIC/Incident Controller, the first and vital step is to assess the whole scene and any potential dangers to you, other members of your crew, casualties and bystanders. This requires:

• Identifying the type of incident.

• Identifying any potential hazards.

• Determining the number of casualties and the extent of their injuries.

• Taking appropriate precautions.

• Protecting both carers and casualties.

• Requesting appropriate assistance.

Figure 101: Typical incident.

At the incident, your first action may be avoiding danger, or making the scene safe – for you and others. Don’t approach a fire or accident scene, or enter a building when such actions could put you or others at risk. 216 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

ASSESSMENT OF LEVEL OF CARE REQUIRED

Here is an example of the process you would undertake to establish the level of emergency care a casualty needs.

During a direct attack on a fire, you come across a fellow firefighter wearing a knapsack, on the ground and semi-conscious. Your first step is to note the visual signs of injury to the firefighter. Are there cuts, bruises, obvious fractures? What is the level of consciousness?

To put this visual assessment into context, identify the history of events leading up to the collapse and assess the circumstances.

Figure 102: Assessment of a casualty.

These are some of the facts that would feature in your considerations:

• Strenuous firefighting activities may contribute to exhaustion, lack of concentration and diminished reflexes.

• Smoke reduces visibility and causes breathing difficulties.

• Uneven ground can lead to sprain/strain or broken limbs.

• Extra weight of a knapsack can lead to back injury by increasing the impact with the ground.

• If the head strikes the ground in a heavy fall, concussion can result. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 217

Because you have found the firefighter to be semi-conscious, you know that he/she needs medical assistance beyond the level of care you can give.

You need to report your findings to the OIC/Incident Controller who will take appropriate action by bringing in the necessary resources to handle the situation. The OIC/Incident Controller will record the incident so that documentation is available for the injury reporting process. Details of any communication between Firecom and the OIC/Incident Controller will also be on record.

(e) Complexity of incident

Where, why and how accidents happen can be the result of complex factors. In emergency situations firefighters have to think clearly, analyse carefully and act cautiously to select the best options for helping injured parties.

What appears to be a straightforward incident may not be so simple. Take the case of a motor vehicle accident.

• The motor vehicle accident may involve power lines down, fuel spills, hazardous materials, LPG or entrapment.

• The number of casualties in the accident could be more than the two or three trapped – others may have wandered off in a daze.

• A casualty may be trapped under a fallen tree but other vegetation, power poles or structures may be on the point of collapsing.

Figure 103: Urban Fireﬁghters • The injuries that casualties have at a vehicle accident. may vary from superficial to severe.

A careful assessment of the type of incident you are dealing with is essential, as is the need to work out any potential hazards. These hazards have to be identified before anyone can provide emergency care. The worst outcome would be carers being injured and becoming victims because they failed to assess the dangers of the situation accurately. 218 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

Some of the ways to make yourself aware of potential hazards that may confront you are suggested by Occupational Health and Safety practices:

• Walk-through surveys of accident scenes.

• On-the-job experience of emergency situations.

• Safety inspections of protective clothing and equipment.

• Reviews of injury and first aid records.

• Discussion of accident investigation reports.

• Incident debriefing – what can we learn from our last incident?

Note: The first rule of immediate emergency care is to ensure your own safety and not add to the problem by becoming a casualty yourself.

(f) Hazards at an incident

Hazards you could encounter at an incident can be grouped into categories.

These categories are:

• Electrical hazards such as live fallen wires.

• Trees or branches at risk of falling.

• Fire or explosion.

• Hazardous materials.

• Toxic fumes.

• Damaged overhead structures involving buildings, poles and transformers.

• Hazards from vehicles.

Your actions at an incident need to take these hazards into consideration and you have to avoid them to ensure your own safety. Report any hazards to your officer and follow their instructions. Failure to do so may endanger the safety of casualties, bystanders and firefighters. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 219

What are the potential hazards facing firefighters in the incidents illustrated below?

Figure 104: Hazards around a road and accident scene.

One further category of hazards that must not be overlooked is the rather remote possibility of contracting a communicable disease while providing immediate emergency care.

3 Hygiene Precautions

There is growing concern about the risk of contracting an infectious disease. For some people in the community – such as doctors, nurses, social workers and emergency service personnel – the risk is higher because of contact with ‘at risk’ groups in our society. Treating or caring for people who may be infected means emergency carers have to be aware of the risks and take common sense measures to protect themselves. The best way of guarding against infectious disease is to ensure that ‘standard precautions’ (sometimes also referred to as “universal precautions”) are followed as a minimum level of protection. This conforms with the latest recommendations from the Australian National Health and Research Council (Version 2.0, revised June 2001).

As an RFS volunteer, you may be called to attend and assist at incidents such as road accidents where you may be exposed to infectious diseases. It is important that you recognise the risk and use the ‘standard precautions’ to prevent the spread of infection, as well as any ‘additional precautions’ necessary to prevent transmission of infection. 220 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

(a) Risks of infection

While firefighting activities pose a greater risk than that of contracting communicable diseases, you need to be aware of the risk and make sure you do not leave yourself open to infection.

Bacteria and viruses (i.e. blood-borne pathogens) found in the blood of infected individuals or animals are the source of communicable diseases. These blood-borne pathogens may be transferred through:

• Absorption of blood and bodily fluids from an infected individual.

• Breathing in infected droplets.

• Swallowing contaminated fluids.

• Injection through being pricked by a used needle (referred to as needle-stick injuries) or cut by a contaminated edge.

There are many infectious diseases but those of main concern are HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B (HBV), Hepatitis C and Tetanus. Other potential infections include Hepatitis A, Non-A Non-B Hepatitis, Glandular Fever and more common diseases such as Influenza. The potential for transmission of HIV is less than for HBV.

HIV/AIDS

HIV stands for Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus and is the virus that causes the disease called Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

Figure 105: Fireﬁghters at an accident scene. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 221

The risk of transmission in a workplace setting is extremely low. To date there has been no known transmission in emergency service workers in Australia through occupational exposure.

HIV is transmitted in the following ways:

• Infected blood/blood products.

• Unsafe sexual practices.

• Injecting drug use.

• Transmission from infected mother to baby.

HEPATITIS

Hepatitis is a disease causing inflammation of the liver. A number of different types exist, but the most common types are those caused by viruses, including Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C.

Hepatitis B is transmitted in a variety of ways including:

• From mother to baby at time of birth.

• Injecting drug use.

• Unsafe sexual practices.

• Infected blood/blood products.

• Tattooing with unsterilised needles.

• Sharing razors/toothbrushes.

• Occupational exposure (e.g. needle stick-injury).

Hepatitis C is transmitted in the following ways:

• From mother to baby.

• Injecting drug use.

• Unsafe sexual practices.

• Infected blood/blood products. 222 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

Infection by HBV and HIV is transmitted through blood or bodily fluids including saliva, vomit, urine and faeces. Bacteria and viruses may enter your body through an existing cut or wound, a vulnerable area such as the eye, or through a cut sustained at the accident scene from broken glass or jagged metal.

Casualties may bleed heavily, providing the opportunity for blood contact between casualties and firefighters. There is also the risk of infection from contact with contaminated surfaces, equipment and clothing (including contact with dried blood and other body substances). Some highly infectious diseases, (e.g. influenza) can spread when droplets contaminated with the virus are breathed in. These droplets may have been sneezed or coughed.

While there are vaccines to protect against infection from diseases such as Hepatitis B and Tetanus, there is no vaccine for protection against Hepatitis C or HIV. Vaccinations should, therefore, be considered as only a second line of protection.

So how do you safely administer immediate emergency care without running the risk of infection?

(b) Infection control guidelines

Undertaking correct infection control procedures, commonly known as ‘standard precautions’ and ‘additional precautions’, are the primary forms of protection at an incident. The guidelines indicating the principles of these precautions must be followed.

Note: The importance of adopting standard and additional precautions before, during and after an incident cannot be overstated.

With focus on getting onto the scene as soon as possible, it is important not to overlook the necessary safety steps. In your haste to start looking after casualties, you may think you do not have time to use appropriate personal protection such as surgical gloves and a facemask. This equipment, vital to your protection against infection, takes minimal time to apply. A short delay is unlikely to make any difference to the patient’s condition. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 223

Figure 106: Facemask and gloves.

You wouldn’t go to a fire without the appropriate protective gear, so why go without gear to protect yourself against disease?

Extreme care should be taken at incidents to avoid contact with sharp objects, particularly where blood or body fluids are involved. This hazard exists at motor vehicle accidents where there may be broken glass or torn metal contaminated with blood.

BEFORE PROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO A CASUALTY

• If possible, wash hands thoroughly with soap and water.

• Cover all cuts and abrasions with waterproof dressings in situations where there is a risk of contact with blood and bodily fluids.

• Always wear disposable gloves (plastic or rubber) and protective gear whenever there is the potential for direct skin contact of the hand with blood or other infectious material.

• Disposable gloves may not offer you sufficient protection when conducting heavy work, so wear them under normal work / industrial / firefighting gloves when appropriate.

• Always wear protective eyewear such as goggles, face shields or masks when contamination of the eyes, mouth or nose is possible. 224 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

DURING CASUALTY ASSISTANCE AT AN INCIDENT

• Do not use bare hands to pick up sharp objects such as broken glass that may be contaminated. Clean up potentially dangerous material using brush and dustpan.

• Use pocket resuscitation face shield when resuscitation is needed.

• Rinse eyes and mouth immediately if accidentally splashed with blood.

• Wash surfaces of the body that have been exposed to bodily fluids with soap and water at the earliest opportunity.

AFTER ASSISTING A CASUALTY

• Wash hands and any other exposed areas immediately with soap and water following activities that may have resulted in contamination. Personal hygiene to minimise the risk of infection is essential: - after removal of gloves or protective clothing. - after hand contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials. - before leaving an incident where there has been potential contact with blood, bodily fluids or bodily tissue.

• Place contaminated, non-disposable clothing such as overalls in a bag labelled ‘CONTAMINATED’ and seal. This clothing should be cleaned by a laundry equipped to deal with contaminated clothing.

• Clean boots, goggles, etc., that may have been contaminated by bodily fluids and secretions.

• Use a disinfectant for cleaning your personal protective equipment.

• Clean contaminated and non-disposable equipment by wiping down with disinfectant.

• Thoroughly clean all face masks with an appropriate disinfectant.

• Where appropriate use bleach for removing blood products. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 225

Figure 107: Cleaning of gear.

ACTION TO TAKE IF EXPOSURE HAS OCCURRED

Report to an officer and document all exposures where blood or bodily fluids may have penetrated the skin, eyes, nose or mouth. Your officer will seek further medical assistance for you if required. In circumstances where exposure has occurred, you need to apply the following first aid procedures:

• Complete infection control procedures before applying first aid.

• Wash any wound with saline solution before bandaging.

• If blood and/or body fluids are in the mouth, eyes, ears or nose, flush with lots of water for at least five minutes.

• In the event of an injury that punctures the skin, wash with saline and seek medical attention.

• Seek further medical assistance if required.

Note: Accidental exposure to blood or bodily fluids does not automatically mean a person will be infected with the HIV or Hepatitis B virus. In fact the chance of infection is relatively small. If you do suffer exposure, medical tests and ongoing assistance can be arranged for you through your Fire Control Officer. 226 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

4 Caring for Casualties

Firefighting can be dangerous work and you need to focus on keeping safe at all times. Your concern is for your own safety, the safety of your partner or group, and the safety of members of the public. Despite your best efforts, accidents may occur and you may be called upon to assist casualties.

Every rural firefighter needs to know how to support life and minimise the trauma suffered by an accident victim until qualified help is available.

(a) Emergency care plan

When you are required to respond to urgent, life-threatening emergencies where no expert assistance is available, it is useful to have a plan that sets out the appropriate way that you can assist a casualty. That plan – Danger, Response, Airway, Breathing and Circulation (DRABC) – tells you the best approach and the sequence in which to render emergency care.

Follow the steps of the DRABC plan while calling for ambulance and/or medical assistance. Expert medical advice should be sought at the earliest opportunity when you are dealing with any life-threatening situation.

DANGER

Calmly assess the emergency for any possible danger to yourself, the casualty and others. Do not proceed until that danger has been removed and it is safe for you to give assistance to the casualty.

For example, if a patient is in contact with a high voltage power line, do not approach closer than 8 metres until the electricity distributor’s personnel declare the area safe. They will isolate and test wires before giving the ‘ALL CLEAR’ for the rescue to proceed.

Rapidly and accurately assess the whole situation, and prioritise the assistance to be given. Deal with the most important things first; if the victim is in danger from the surroundings, e.g., fire or explosion, it may be necessary to remove the threat first or to remove the victim despite any injury. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 227

RESPONSE

Once it is safe to approach the casualty, check the level of consciousness by getting the casualty to respond to ‘the shout and gentle shake’ technique.

If the casualty is conscious:

• Control bleeding from wounds.

• Reassure the casualty and attend to his/her comfort.

• Monitor and keep a record of vital signs.

A – Is the airway clear?

B – Is the casualty breathing?

C – Is circulation (i.e. pulse) present?

Figure 108: Casualty being checked.

AIRWAY

If the casualty is unconscious, check the victim’s airway and breathing. An obstruction in the airway can be removed by using the following technique:

• Roll the casualty onto their side, supporting the head and neck during movement.

• Turn face slightly downward.

• Clear the mouth of any obstruction. 228 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

• If an obstruction is present and cannot be cleared with your fingers, give up to four sharp blows between the shoulder blades.

• Open the airway by tilting the head slightly backward while supporting the jaw.

Figure 109: Casualty in lateral (recovery) position.

BREATHING

To determine whether a casualty is breathing or not, put your ear close to the nose and mouth of the casualty and look towards the chest.

• Look for signs of the chest rising or falling.

• Listen for breathing sounds.

• Feel for evidence of breathing on your cheek.

• Check breathing for 10 seconds.

If the casualty is unconscious but breathing:

• leave casualty on his/her side in the lateral (recovery) position.

• monitor and record vital signs.

If the casualty is unconscious and not breathing:

• commence breathing for the victim; that is, carry out Expired Air Resuscitation (EAR) or call for assistance from any person who is a qualified First Aider;

• after 5 full breaths in 10 seconds, check circulation. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 229

CIRCULATION

Without pulse and without breathing, death is imminent. A casualty in this situation needs a First Aider to take over the work of the heart and lungs to ensure a continuous supply of oxygen to the casualty’s brain. Urgently the casualty needs:

CPR = Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation.

CPR = EAR + ECC.

EAR = Expired Air Resuscitation (substitute for breathing).

ECC = External Cardiac Compression (substitute for circulation).

This procedure is to be carried out by a qualified first-aider only. Monitor the progress of a casualty constantly and keep a record of his/her vital signs.

Radial pulse Carotid pulse

Figure 110: Taking the radial pulse and carotid pulse of a casualty. 230 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

TAKING THE PULSE OF A CASUALTY

Check the victim’s circulation by feeling for the carotid pulse in the victim’s neck.

• If pulse present / breathing absent, continue EAR – 1 breath every 4 seconds.

• Check pulse and breathing after 1 minute, then after every 2 minutes.

• CALL FOR ASSISTANCE.

• If pulse absent / breathing absent, commence CPR (CPR = EAR + ECC).

• Check pulse and breathing after 1 minute, then every 2 minutes.

• CALL FOR ASSISTANCE.

Remember. A good way to jog your memory of the emergency care plan for giving assistance to a casualty is DRABC, where the correct sequence for assessment is:

D = Check for DANGER

R = Check for RESPONSE

A = Check for AIRWAY

B = Check for BREATHING

C = Check for CIRCULATION

(b) Treatment of casualties

Whenever you are providing casualty assistance, you need to be aware that the casualty may be in shock or distressed because of pain. The injured person should only be moved if he/she is in danger, or needs to be moved to be resuscitated. Unnecessary movement may increase the casualty’s distress. You can reduce the stress the casualty is feeling by behaving in a comforting and reassuring manner.

When assisting a casualty, maintain a calm and supportive approach. Speak in a relaxed and friendly voice and avoid conveying panic or concern. Let the casualty know who you are, what is happening and what you are going to do to help. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 231

Figure 111: Casualty being reassured.

Make sure the casualty is as comfortable as possible. For example, ensure he/she is protected from heat, cold, weather and embarrassment. Place an unconscious but breathing casualty in the lateral (recovery) position.

To place a casualty lying on his/her back in the lateral (recovery) position, kneel close to the casualty’s upper body.

• Extend the casualty’s arm on his/her far side at 90 degrees to the body.

• Place the nearside arm across the chest.

• Raise the nearside knee to make that foot sit flat on the ground.

• If assistance is available, ensure the casualty’s head is supported as this next step takes place.

• Roll the casualty away from you, on to his/her side.

• Make the casualty comfortable as you support and maintain head-tilt to help keep the airway open. 232 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

Figure 112: Moving a casualty to the recovery position.

A conscious victim will usually adopt the most comfortable position and this position should not be altered without valid reason. It may be desirable to help the victim into a more comfortable position to ease pain and control shock.

Shock can be a life-threatening condition. Factors that contribute to shock are severe pain, continuous bleeding and fluid loss from burns. In severe cases, shock can lead to collapse and death.

Shock usually occurs in casualties who have lost a large amount of blood through either internal or external bleeding. It also occurs where casualties have suffered serious burns, dehydration, prolonged vomiting or diarrhoea. Shock can sometimes occur as a severe allergic or emotional response.

Be aware that if your body has been overheated and you plunge into a body of cold water (a possible action when taking refuge from fire) your body could experience shock. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 233

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF SHOCK

Shock does not always occur immediately after an injury. In many cases shock occurs gradually. Firefighters need to recognise the signs and symptoms that indicate a casualty may be about to go into shock. Initial signs include:

• Cold, sweaty pale skin.

• A weak and rapid pulse.

• Quick, irregular and shallow breathing.

• Unconsciousness.

Figure 113: Casualty being reassured.

Casualties may not only show signs of shock but may also experience symptoms. These symptoms are feelings of:

• Weakness and dizziness.

• Nausea.

• Thirst.

• Coldness.

• Nervousness and restlessness.

In cases of extreme shock a casualty may become:

• Drowsy.

• Confused.

• Unconscious. 234 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

ASSISTING A CASUALTY IN SHOCK

If there is bleeding, it should be controlled by direct pressure and/or elevation (as described in the next section). The casualty’s limbs may be elevated slightly if spinal injuries or fractures are not suspected.

1. Cover the casualty with a blanket to maintain body heat.

2. Reassure the casualty by speaking calmly and gently.

3. Do not give the casualty anything to drink or eat.

4. Monitor the casualty’s condition and do not leave the person unattended.

5. At all times be aware of any potential dangers to the casualty and assess the casualty’s response to gauge the level of consciousness.

6. Do not move the casualty unnecessarily.

Limbs elevated slightly to control bleeding.

Casualty covered with a blanket to maintain body heat.

Figure 114: Assisting a casualty in shock. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 235

(d) Circulation and bleeding

Blood is circulated through the body by the arteries and veins. The arteries take blood from the heart while veins return the blood to the heart.

Note: When treating a casualty, stemming arterial bleeding is a priority.

BLEEDING FROM ARTERIES

Arterial blood is bright red in colour. It tends to spurt from wounds as it is being pumped directly from the heart.

BLEEDING FROM VEINS

Venous blood is a dark red colour. It tends to ooze from wounds as it is returning to the heart.

Figure 115: Principle arteries and veins in the human body. 236 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

CONTROL OF BLEEDING

The body has its own in-built mechanisms to stem the flow of bleeding.

• Blood will clot and prevent further bleeding.

• The cut ends of a blood vessel (especially arteries) will contract and reduce the loss of blood.

• Blood pressure falls and, as a result, there is less force to push the blood out of the vessel.

• The skin contracts, which reduces bleeding.

WHAT YOU CAN DO

Place the casualty at rest. This will slow down the heart rate and reduce the flow of blood. Apply a dressing, with a pad if necessary, and bandage firmly in position. An adhesive dressing may be suitable. Raise the injured part and support it in position, unless you suspect there could be a fracture in that area.

Figure 116: Controlling bleeding. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 237

CONTROL BLEEDING

Apply direct pressure to the wound using a pad or clean cloth. Elevate the injured area above the level of the heart if you do not suspect a fracture. Apply a pressure bandage using either a folded triangular bandage, or a rolled bandage.

FOR SEVERE BLEEDING

Apply direct pressure by pressing your protected fingers or hand to the wound. The pressure will stem the flow of blood. Place a clean dressing and pad over the wound and then firmly bandage the area. The pressure exerted by the dressing will act to control the flow of blood.

Do not remove the bandage when bleeding ceases. Any wounds that are exposed should also be covered before commencing to immobilise a fractured limb

Figure 117: Stemming the flow of blood.

(e) Fractures

A fracture is a broken or cracked bone.

Signs and symptoms of fractures include:

• Limb at an awkward angle.

• An open wound with exposed bone.

• Swelling and bruising.

• Pain at or near the site of the fracture.

• Unbroken skin with substantial blood loss in the tissues.

Fractured limbs should be immobilised until medical aid arrives. 238 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

IMMOBILISING LIMBS

The procedures used to immobilise a limb vary according to the type of fracture or break. They should be carried out by a trained First Aider.

If a casualty is in danger and needs to be moved urgently, try to support and minimise movement of any suspected fractured limbs.

(f) Burns

A burn is an injury caused by contact with very hot, very cold (“cold burns”) or corrosive materials (“chemical burns”). Burns can be very painful and lead to shock. Burns to substantial parts of the body may be life threatening.

Burns should be treated as soon as possible by cooling them with water. If possible, keep applying the water for at least 15 to 20 minutes. Get medical attention as soon as possible.

Figure 118: Cooling a burn with water. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 239

(g) Heat related illnesses

Heat related illnesses include heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Heat exhaustion may occur when people work strenuously under hot and/or humid conditions. People who are very old, very young or infirm may be more susceptible to heat exhaustion than most.

The signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion include tiredness, collapse and profuse sweating. Heat exhaustion should be treated by getting the casualty to cease any activity and lie in a cool area. Sponging them down with water will help to alleviate the condition. They may be given water to drink once their symptoms become settled.

Heat stroke is a serious, life threatening condition. In heat stroke, the body’s heat regulation mechanism breaks down. Often they will cease sweating, their skin will be dry and hot, and they will become unconscious. The core temperature of the person may rise to dangerous levels. Even a rise of only a few degrees or more in core body temperature can be fatal. Heat stroke must be treated immediately by cooling the person down and getting urgent medical assistance.

Figure 119: Treating a person with heat exhaustion.

(h) Documentation

Where documentation is required – such as accident/injury reports, records for coroner’s inquests – notes should be made at the incident and recorded fully on the appropriate forms on return to the brigade station. 240 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

5 Moving a Casualty

(a) When to move a casualty

A casualty should not be moved unless it is absolutely necessary. In most cases, you should wait until medical help arrives.

A casualty should only be moved if that person is in immediate danger (the collapse of a building, spread of fire or leak from a chemical spill), or needs to be moved for first aid to be given.

In these circumstances, the casualty must be moved as quickly as possible using appropriate handling techniques. Proper handling and movement techniques will help ensure that the casualty does not experience further injury or shock.

(b) How to move a casualty

Do not move a casualty who has not been assessed by medical personnel unless the casualty is in danger. Any movement of a casualty is best handled by firefighters working in a team. The team should identify the most experienced first aider as the ‘leader’ of the group.

Figure 120: Casualty laying on ground.

The leader will direct and supervise the actions of the team members. Before moving the casualty, explain what is about to happen and ask the casualty to assist with the move if able to do so.

Stabilise the casualty by controlling bleeding and immobilising fractures (as described in the previous chapter) before moving him/her. The casualty’s head should be supported to allow the airway to remain open during the move. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 241

When lifting a casualty, try to do so while protecting any injured parts and supporting all parts of the body. Any movement should be carried out gently and firmly, avoiding abrupt, jerky movements as these could cause the casualty further shock, pain and discomfort. If the lift is carried out by a team, it should be co-ordinated by the team leader.

MOVING A CASUALTY WITHOUT ASSISTANCE

In circumstances where assistance is unavailable, you may have to move the casualty alone. There are several techniques that can be used.

THE CRADLE

This technique involves cradling a child or light casualty in your arms. Place one of your arms around the waist and the other around the thighs and lift the casualty.

Use your legs to lift. Keep your back straight and your head up to avoid straining back muscles. Try to balance the weight evenly. Clearly this technique is limited to lighter casualties.

The cradle The human crutch

Figure 121: The cradle and the human crutch technique. 242 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

THE HUMAN CRUTCH

The human crutch is used in cases where an adult casualty can walk with assistance. This technique involves supporting the weight of the casualty by placing the individual’s arm around your neck and holding on to the hand. The other arm is placed around the waist of the casualty to give firm support.

THE BACKWARDS DRAG

A casualty who is unable to move, or is too heavy to be lifted, may need to be dragged clear of a dangerous situation. Depending on the circumstances, there are several techniques you can use to move a helpless casualty from danger.

In a crouching position, use an ankle grip or wrist or elbow grip to drag the casualty along the ground.

Slip your arms under the casualty’s armpits to grasp the forearms. Lean back, with your knees bent, and pull the casualty along.

Tug on clothing to drag the casualty clear.

Figure 122: Backwards drag. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 243

(d) Multiple casualties

When confronted by a multiple casualty incident, trained Ambulance Officers will usually ‘sort’ the casualties to determine the priority of treatment. This sorting is called ‘triage’ and groups the casualties according to the severity of their injuries. You may be asked to monitor the less seriously injured while Ambulance Officers and First Aiders deal with the more seriously injured.

6 Critical Incident Stress

(a) What is Critical Incident Stress?

Firefighters who have been involved in a recent traumatic incident may experience some degree of Critical Incident Stress (CIS). CIS can be described as the emotional pain or discomfort a person experiences after a traumatic event.

The way in which each person responds to this type of stress will vary. If you either attend or experience traumatic incidents of this type, it is not uncommon for feelings of fear, helplessness and sadness to develop.

You may also experience the added emotions of guilt, shame and anger that you were unable to prevent what has taken place, or do enough to help relieve suffering. These feelings and reactions tend to be stronger of you relate to the event on a personal level and if deaths were sudden, violent and occurred in horrifying circumstances.

Firefighters who may be undergoing CIS often experience a range of physical and mental sensations. The types of physical sensations experienced include dizziness, heart palpitations, difficulty in breathing, eating disturbances and muscular tension. The types of mental responses can vary greatly from feelings of numbness, to tiredness, sleeplessness and flashbacks, to loss of memory and depression. 244 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

(b) How to reduce the effects of CIS

Some useful steps that can assist with dealing with the effects of CIS:

• Participate in physical exercise and relaxation, and maintain a healthy diet.

• Keep your life as normal as possible and make as many day to day decisions as possible.

• Do things that are enjoyable and fun.

• Allow yourself to feel rotten and share feelings with others.

• Realize that it is normal to feel the way you do.

• Spend time with others but allow for some time out to relax, rest, sleep and think.

• Ask for help.

In some situations, CIS cannot be dealt with effectively without some form of professional support. The signs that indicate the need for professional help can vary widely. Some general signs that indicate the need for assistance are:

• An inability to handle intense feelings or bodily sensations.

• Chronic tension, feelings of confusion, emptiness and exhaustion.

• Nightmares and poor sleep.

• No outlet or person to share their feelings with.

• Emotional and sexual problems in personal relationships.

• Poor work performance. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 245

(d) What To Do

Help is available. The Rural Fire Service has a Critical Incident Support Services (CISS) Team. This team is made up of firefighters like you, who have received extra training to help in such situations, and to refer you to professional support if needed.

Simply contact:

• A peer debriefer.

• Your Fire Control Officer .

• The CISS team of the Rural Fire Service - Phone (1800) 049 933.

7 First Aid Equipment Recovery

When you are involved in immediate emergency care of casualties at an incident, your job will not be finished until you have dealt with any first aid equipment you have used. This may involve disposal, recovery and re-stowing. The range of equipment used will vary considerably, depending on the extent of the care and the level of your involvement in administering that care.

Figure 123: First aid being given. 246 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

You may, for example, have assisted a fellow volunteer with a minor injury – an ankle sprain, a splinter in the hand – and used bandages, tweezers and dressings from your first-aid kit. At the other end of the spectrum, you may have assisted an ambulance officer who was providing life-saving care and used a broad range of equipment, instruments and dressings.

We will look at what is involved in the following four areas:

• Checking.

• Re-stowing.

• Cleaning.

• Disposal.

(a) Checking

Ensure that first aid supplies are ready for use.

• Inspect all dressing packs and bandages. Make a note of any with damaged wrapping so that they can be replaced.

• Check use-by dates of vials of eye-washing solutions. Make a note of any with an expired use-by date so that they can be replaced.

• Inspect scissors and tweezers. Note any that are damaged or rusted and in need of replacement.

(b) Re-stowing

Where minor treatment has been carried out, re-stowing may be as simple as putting the first-aid kit back in the vehicle. Once it is back at the brigade station, cleaning, checking and replacement can be undertaken.

Where you have assisted an ambulance officer, you may be required to recover items, replacing them in the appropriate kit and stowing all kits in the ambulance, under direction from the ambulance officer. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 247

Following an incident where you have used supplies from the first-aid kit, use an alcohol solution to clean used tweezers, scissors or thermometers.

The first-aid kit itself may need to be emptied and cleaned if it has been open in an area where fire debris has been falling.

Where there is a possibility that instruments/equipment have been contaminated, sterilisation will be necessary.

(d) Disposal

Because of the risk of contamination from medical waste arising from treatment of casualties, all used wipes, swabs, cotton buds and bandages must be taken to an ambulance centre or hospital for appropriate disposal. 248 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

SUMMARY

• As a firefighter, you might sometimes be called upon to provide immediate emergency care to a casualty until qualified first-aid or medical help arrives.

• You should work closely with Ambulance Officers, and follow their instructions (normally given via your crew leader) regarding assistance given to casualties.

• If an incident involves casualties, you first need to assess the scene to determine the type of incident, potential hazards, number and extent of injuries, appropriate precautions for carers and casualties, and the need for assistance. Incidents may be complex. The first rule of immediate emergency care is to ensure your own safety and not become a casualty yourself

• Hazards need to be reported, and avoided or removed. Hazards may include electricity, falling trees/branches, fire/explosion, hazardous materials, toxic fumes, damaged overhead structures, vehicles and communicable diseases.

• Communicable diseases may be spread by absorption, inhalation, ingestion or injection of germs. Communicable diseases include Hepatitis, AIDs, tetanus, glandular fever and influenza. Bleeding from casualties and other bodily fluids at an incident may present a risk of infection.

• “Standard Precautions” are used to minimise the risk of infection. These precautions assume that all bodily fluids present may be infectious. Standard precautions include washing self and equipment, covering of cuts and abrasions, use of protective gloves, and the use of masks and eye protection.

• Tell your crew leader if blood or bodily fluids have entered your skin, eyes, nose or mouth. Apply infection control procedures. Where applicable, wash the wound with saline before bandaging. Where applicable, flush the eyes, mouth, ears or nose with lots of water. Seek further medical assistance.

• Follow the DRABC (Danger – Response - Airway – Breathing – Circulation) emergency care plan. Maintain a calm and supportive approach. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 249

SUMMARY

• Shock can be life threatening. Signs and symptoms include cold, sweaty pale skin; weak and rapid pulse; quick, irregular and shallow breathing; thirst, weakness, dizziness, nausea, coldness, nervousness, restlessness, drowsiness, confusion and unconsciousness..

• To assist a casualty in shock you should control bleeding, cover them with a blanket, reassure them, do not give anything to eat or drink, monitor them, protect them from danger and do not move them unnecessarily.

• To control bleeding you should place the casualty at rest, bandage a dressing firmly in position and raise the injured part unless there may be an underlying fracture. For severe bleeding, use direct pressure, apply a clean dressing and pad, and bandage firmly. Do not remove the bandage when the bleeding ceases. Cover exposed wounds before immobilising fractures.

• Fractures should be immobilised by a person qualified in first-aid. Burns should be treated by cooling them with water for at least 15 to 20 minutes. Heat exhaustion should be treated by getting the casualty to cease activity, lie in a cool area and cooling them with water. Heat stroke is a life threatening condition. Cool the person down and get urgent medical attention.

• A casualty should not be moved unless absolutely necessary, such as if they are in immediate danger. Control any bleeding and immobilise fractures. When lifting a casualty, protect injured parts, avoid further shock, pain or discomfort, and work as a coordinated team. Techniques to move a casualty include the cradle, the human crutch and the backward drag.

• Firefighters who have been involved in a traumatic incident may suffer critical incident stress (CIS). Symptoms include a range of physical, emotional and behavioural effects. Physical activity, relaxation, having fun, sharing feelings and recognising that CIS is normal are ways of reducing its effects. The RFS has a Critical Incident Support Services (CISS) Team available on request and professional help available if needed.

• After an incident, first aid equipment needs to be recovered. This may involve checking, re-stowing, cleaning and disposal. 250 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. Direct pressure can be used to control bleeding.

2. Assessing the scene includes identifying potential hazards and taking the appropriate precautions.

3. Standard precautions greatly minimise the risk of transmission of blood borne pathogens.

4. Protective eyewear does not form a part of standard precautions.

5. If they are splashed with blood, you should immediately rinse your eyes and mouth with water.

6. Hot, reddish skin is a sign of shock.

7. Burns should be cooled with water.

8. Heat stroke is a life threatening condition.

9. Casualties should not be moved unless it is necessary.

10.Critical incident stress is a normal response.

ACTIVITIES

1. At a simulated incident, go through the process of assessing the scene, identifying hazards and the precautions to be taken.

2. Practice the donning, using and care of protective equipment used to help provide “standard precautions”.

3. Practice the actions to take if an exposure to possible blood borne pathogens has occurred.

4. At simulated incidents, go through the procedures for assisting conscious casualties with a variety of simulated injuries.

5. Practice methods of moving casualties, when that is a necessity. IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 251

List of Terms (a) Standard Precautions

Standard Precautions are work practices required for the basic level of infection control. They include good hygiene practices, particularly washing and drying hands before and after patient contact, the use of protective barriers in certain situations which may include gloves, gowns, plastic aprons, masks, eye shields or goggles, appropriate handling and disposal of sharps and other contaminated equipment or infectious waste, and use of aseptic techniques.

Standard Precautions are recommended for the treatment and care of all patients, regardless of their perceived infectious status, and in the handling of:

• blood. • all other body fluids, secretions and excretions (excluding sweat), regardless of whether they contain visible blood. • non-intact skin and • mucous membranes.

Standard Precautions also apply to dried blood and other substances, including saliva and equipment that has come into contact with these substances.

(b) Additional Precautions

Additional Precautions are used for patients known or suspected to be infected with highly transmissible pathogens that can cause infection by:

• air-borne transmission (e.g., mycobacterium tuberculosis, measles virus, chickenpox virus), or • droplet transmission (e.g., mumps, rubella, pertussis, influenza); or • direct or indirect contact with dry skin (e.g., colonisation with MRSA), or with contaminated surfaces; or • any combination of these routes.

Additional Precautions are designed to interrupt transmission of infection by these routes and should be used in addition to Standard Precautions when transmission of infection might not be contained by using Standard Precautions alone. 252

CHAPTER 7 Bush Fireﬁghting Team Work

1 Introduction

Firefighting is a team activity. It is not something you can do safely or effectively while working alone. Team work extends not only to actual firefighting, but to almost every brigade activity, such as equipment maintenance, training, community education, and even social events.

In this chapter we will look at a typical bush firefighting operation. This is for two reasons. Firstly it will give you an idea how many of the activities already covered in this Manual are integrated together at a firefighting operation. Secondly it will highlight just how essential good team work is to safe and effective firefighting. Good team work is your “final defence” against errors and conditions that could lead to serious accidents, especially in unusual fire situations.

From there we will look at the principles of team work in general, and then a range of techniques and systems that can help to develop the team work needed to deal safely with rapidly changing situations and potentially high risk activities like firefighting. In particular, we will cover:

Crew Resource Management (CRM) – a set of techniques, based on an understanding about how people behave, that enables normal human errors to be detected and corrected before they lead to death, injury or damage. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 253

The Incident Control System (ICS) – a standardised way of delegating functions and responsibility to firefighters at an incident so that workload is evenly shared, nothing that needs to be done gets missed, nothing is unnecessarily duplicated, and everyone works to the same basic game plan.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) – standard ways of doing things at incidents that have been worked out in advance, to provide precautions against hazards, enable everyone to work together more smoothly, and reduce the mental workload during the heat of firefighting.

2 A Typical Fireﬁghting Operation

In some ways it is difficult to describe any firefighting operation as “typical”. They all differ according to the type and size of incident, the weather conditions, the location and terrain, time of day, the season, and the people, property, procedures and equipment involved.

What happens in your own brigade at a specific incident will not be exactly the same as what is described here. However, it will give you an idea of “what should go on” at a typical incident, and enable you to make much more sense of what is happening when you start to attend fires.

Regardless of the type of incident, one thing that always stays the same are the fundamental priorities. The overriding priority is always to protect your own safety and that of fellow firefighters. After that the three priorities are first to protect life, second to protect property* and third to help restore normality to the area. (*Property means anything of economic, environmental, cultural or personal value.)

(a) Call Out

Most incidents are reported by people ringing the ‘000’ emergency number. These are transferred by a Telstra operator to the NSW Fire Brigade. If a call comes from within a Rural Fire District, the NSW Fire Brigade will alert the appropriate Fire Control Officer or duty officer. They, in turn, will activate electronic pagers, telephones and/or local sirens to call out the appropriate brigades.

In most brigades, the firefighting vehicles are located at a fire station or shed. When you receive a fire call you should first assess whether you are fit and available to attend. You can assess your fitness to go by using the 254 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

I’M SAFE checklist as described in Chapter 4. If you are OK to go, make sure you have your Personal Protective Equipment PPE, and proceed to your fire station/shed (or direct to the incident if so instructed). If you are driving, remember that you must observe all normal road rules, and you should park your vehicle in a safe position and secure it.

(b) Departing Station

Many brigades practice the routine they will go through to depart their station/shed. Getting this “down pat” saves a lot of time and is a much safer and more effective way of improving the response time than trying to drive faster to the scene. The routine needs to be flexible as you will never be quite sure how many or exactly who will be available for a particular call.

The routine will usually include unsecuring and opening up the station, starting and briefly checking the vehicle/s are serviceable, closing and securing the station and making the initial radio call. Most of your PPE should be donned before departing the station. The only exceptions are things like your helmet and gloves, which may be donned upon arrival at the incident.

Figure 124: Station response activities.

In many cases, you will not know full details of the call until you arrive at the station. The initial radio message serves to let people know the unit is responding, and to get or confirm the details of the call. In a typical fire tanker the crew leader will be sitting in the front left hand seat and will BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 255 make most, if not all, of the radio calls. The driver is usually also the pump operator. The other crew members should be seated in the rear cabin.

The driver should not proceed until they have confirmed that everyone is on board, all are seated within the cabin and have fastened and adjusted their seat belts, and that the station has been appropriately secured. The driver and crew leader will usually confirm the location of the incident and cross check with each other about the route to be taken.

While you are en-route, the crew leader should give you a briefing about the known details of the call. This lets you know what to expect, reminds you about the particular hazards to look out for, what precautions to take, and what you are likely to need to do on arrival. The briefing helps you to start to build up a shared “mental picture” of what is happening at the incident. The briefing should use the SMEACS format, as described in Chapter 4.

The call is to grass alight...... etc

Figure 125: En-route briefing.

Most units will be carrying pre-incident planning data (PPD) sheets on board. These give information about various risks in the brigade area, and where firefighting resources (like hydrants or dams) are located. They will often include maps, drawings and information sheets about particular buildings, facilities or locations in your brigade area.

Another thing you might notice the crew leader do while en-route is fill in a “T-card”. As the name implies, this is a T shaped card. The officer in overall charge at a big fire collects these cards from crews and places 256 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK them in slots on a special board. The T-card system is used to keep track of where all the crews are, who is in each crew, what each crew is doing, and the times at which they start and finish various duties.

(d) Approaching the Incident

As your unit approaches the scene, the crew leader will start sizing up the situation, adding to the “mental picture” of the incident that started with the details of the call. There is a lot to consider; such as the type of incident, the terrain, the weather, the fuel, whether people or property are threatened, what other units are doing, and most importantly, any hazards to the crew.

The crew leader will often get input from other crew members about the situation and the action to take. As your training and experience progresses you will be able to contribute to this discussion to a greater degree. One of the reasons for including hazards and precautions in the en-route briefing is so that all the crew members are “primed” to look out for them, point them out, and avoid them, as they move in closer to the scene. At the same time you can also start to look for clues about where and how the fire started, so as to help later investigation.

If units are already at the scene, your Crew Leader will call the officer in overall charge of the incident as you are approaching. They will reply with instructions about where to go, what to do and what to look out for. At big fires you might report to a staging area where you will be checked in (using your T-card), briefed and then sent to where you are needed, or held in waiting.

(e) Arrival and Initial Attack

As you arrive, your crew leader normally will give you some initial instructions. These will usually either confirm or modify the instructions given to you in the en-route briefing. Sometimes, you may be asked to commence a particular type of attack on the fire straight away. Sometimes you may be asked to set up ready to attack the fire. Sometimes you may be asked to just wait. You should briefly confirm back those instructions, so your crew leader knows you understand what to do.

The initial attack is one of the busiest times at an incident. Conditions are often confused and a lot needs to be done quickly. The human brain has a limited conscious information processing capacity. Training and practice to develop firefighting skills, like running out hoses, is designed to make BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 257 those tasks automatic and largely unconscious, which releases your “brain capacity” to observe what else is happening, detect and avoid hazards, and plan non-standard activities.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 126: Crew getting to work.

(f) During the Incident

As a firefighter, your main role will be to carry out the activities ordered by your crew leader. This usually means using the correct firefighting agent and equipment properly. Safety always remains your main priority. Keep asking yourself questions like, “What hazards might be nearby? How can I avoid, eliminate or control them?”.

Always have an “out” available to you in case things start to become dangerous. Use the LACES checklist (see chapter 4) to help ensure your safety. In a later section of this chapter, a system called Crew Resource Management (CRM) will be introduced to you. It is a system to help integrate safety into team activities.

Work consistent with the overall plan of attack. Follow the orders given by your crew leader, but respectfully question anything that might lead to an unsafe situation. Keep asking yourself questions like, “Am I using the best agent and/or equipment for this task? Am I conserving agent or wasting a lot of it? Is what I am doing helping to achieve our assigned mission or task?” 258 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

During the incident conditions will change. You can be in danger if your situational awareness is not keeping up with, and staying ahead of, the changing situation. These changes may be sudden, like the arrival of a cold front, or subtle like the gradual increase in temperature and decrease in humidity from morning to afternoon. Both cases may require a change in the plan of attack. A plan that is safe and effective early in the morning might be futile, or even deadly, by mid-afternoon. If you see a significant change in conditions, report it to your crew leader immediately.

If, during the incident, you or your crew are assigned to a new area or job, you should be briefed about it using the SMEACS format. Before commencing any new task you should also think through the hazards it involves, and the precautions you should take to avoid, eliminate or control those hazards.

Photo by David Miller

Figure 127: A crew leader directing a crew.

Most incidents will be small and probably easily handled by, say, two firefighting units. Occasionally, however, larger operations will occur. Regardless of the size of an incident, the operation needs to be well organised and co-ordinated. In a later section of this chapter, the Incident Control System (ICS) will be introduced to you. It details how an incident should be organised and controlled. It is a very flexible system that can grow and contract rapidly according to the needs of the situation.

Once the fire has been knocked down (i.e. no longer burning freely, but still smouldering), the operation should move into a mopping up and patrolling BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 259 stage. While it might appear to be the less glamorous side of firefighting, it is very important that this be done safely and thoroughly. Many fires on “bad” days are often rekindles of previous fires that have not been completely extinguished. Hazards might appear to be less obvious, but you should not drop your guard. Some types of hazards; for example, logs or rocks rolling down slopes, or falling trees or branches, are often more likely at this stage of the fire.

(g) After the Incident

As operations at the scene (or at least your part in them) are completed, you may be released to return to your station. In most cases, you will collect, check and re-stow your equipment, and refill your water tank before departing the vicinity. Although your equipment may need some cleaning and maintenance, your vehicle should be available to attend another call if needed.

Figure 128: Tanker being replenished.

Once you are back at station, your vehicle should be properly re-stowed, used equipment and supplies replenished, and the vehicle thoroughly cleaned. Your crew leader should conduct an operational debriefing. This debriefing should use the incident as an opportunity for learning. It is not a “witch hunt”, but an opportunity to work out “what we can do to improve next time”. Finally the station needs to be closed down and secured. 260 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

3 Principles of Team Work

A team is two or more people working towards a shared purpose. From the description given above of a typical firefighting operation, you can see that almost every firefighting activity is a team effort. This level of team work does not just happen: it has to be specifically learned and maintained. This is achieved through active participation, sharing information, and giving and accepting support to/from team members.

(a) Active Participation

Active participation means taking part in activities in a way that helps the team achieve its purpose. To do this you need to have a clear idea of the roles and responsibilities within the team, so that you mutually support each other and do not work at cross-purposes to each other.

The brigade officer rank system will be described in chapter 9. It is used to define the roles and responsibilities of officers within your brigade and the Rural Fire Service in general. The Incident Control System (or ICS) will be described later in this chapter. It is used to define roles and responsibilities at each particular incident, including those where many brigades and many officers may be involved.

Whether your brigade is involved in an emergency or non-emergency activity, active participation means contributing to identifying the goals and objectives of the team. Through team meetings you can discuss and help shape the future development of your brigade. Make a point of participating in meetings and brigade gatherings whenever it is reasonably possible for you to do so. Later in this chapter you will be introduced to Crew Resource Management (CRM), a technique that uses the contribution of team members to help achieve the goal of safe firefighting.

Working as a team implies working with each other in a consistent direction. Many tasks that need to be carried out by brigade members are already clearly defined in various policies and procedures. These help ensure that activities run smoothly and safely, and consistently get good results. Whenever you are given a task, you should always check if there is already a procedure outlined for doing it, and complete it to the needed standard.

As a new member you will not be expected to know and do everything straight away. It is expected that you will need guidance and support to learn and practice new tasks. If you are not sure about something, always ask, and always acknowledge the help you are given. For example, BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 261 if you are not sure which nozzle to select on a hose-reel “dial-a-jet” for a particular task, then ask; and acknowledge with a “thank you” for the advice.

As you become more proficient, give support to the newer members. Take the initiative to help them when needed. For example, many newer members underestimate what is needed for effective mopping up. Emphasise how important good mopping up is to preventing a rekindle of the fire later on. Show them how to work as a team, one with the nozzle, another with a suitable hand tool, so that they thoroughly mop up and black out the affected area.

Finally, expect that roles and responsibilities within the brigade will change over time and in different situations. Almost everyone has a role within the brigade that they prefer to do, but there is also great value in swapping roles with others as time goes on. Being flexible in what you can do is very important in a volunteer Service, as you can never be certain about which members will be available for any particular fire. At some types of incidents, some members may have more expertise than others. It makes sense to give those with the greatest expertise a more leading role in such situations.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 129: Crew working as a team at a bush fire. 262 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

(b) Sharing Information

The way a team performs depends on the way the members communicate and inter-relate with each other. If team members work at cross-purposes with each other, the confusion can be so great that they achieve little. However, if they share knowledge, skills and information between them, then the team can become much more effective than the sum of its individual members.

Sharing information comes down to some basic communications skills; like the ability to ask the right questions in a situation, to speak up when something concerns you, to listen effectively, to resolve conflicts for the better, and to evaluate objectively how things can be improved. These skills are covered in more detail in a more advanced training program, but for now here are some simple techniques you can use:

• Before you commence any task, seek the information you need to carry it out, discuss what hazards are involved, and how they can be avoided, eliminated or controlled.

• If you think a task is unsafe, or you are not confident about your ability to do something competently, tell you crew leader your concerns about that task (i.e. Speak up about what you think and feel about the task, not about him/her for giving it to you!).

• When you are given an order, paraphrase it back to make sure you understood it correctly (e.g. “I’ll just check I’ve got this right. You want me to……”)

• If there is a disagreement about something, focus your attention and discussion on “what is right” not “who is right”.

• Share important information with the others in your team. If you see something hazardous or a significant change in conditions, report it. If something concerns you, speak up about it.

• After each incident, participate in a debriefing. Agree on one thing the team could do better next time around, and work out how to make that improvement happen. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 263

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 130: Firefighting team at work.

Team support works in both directions. It refers to the support you give to others, and to accepting the support they give to you. Probably the person who needs the most support is your crew leader. You might sometimes think of them as an “all-knowing” person who deals out orders to members. The reality is that their decisions are often based very much on the information and advice the team members can supply to them, and on the capabilities of the team to carry them out.

The best support you can give a crew leader is not just to mindlessly “do whatever they say”, but to support their decision making by accepting that they can make errors, feeding them good quality information, operating to the required standard, and respectfully questioning their judgement when you have objective concerns. Remember that crew leaders are only human and will differ in leadership style and skills. Take that into account in the way you inter-relate with each of them.

Look out for opportunities to support others in the team. Offer help if they are in difficulty or have a high workload. Be aware of the limitations and needs of others. Not everyone will always see things or be able to do things the way you do, and you may need to adjust the way you work with them. By interacting honestly and respectfully with other members you can help create an atmosphere of mutual trust that allows errors to be identified, admitted and corrected before they become dangerous. 264 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

Photo by Nick Moir

Figure 131: Crew at work at a bushfire.

Getting feedback is an important and ongoing part of being a brigade member. No-one is doing anyone any favours by failing to correct a problem that could become a real danger at an incident. Giving feedback to others should be constructive, and focus on the person’s behaviour, not the person themselves. Recognition and praise should be given when it is deserved, but it should not be given if it might reinforce dangerous behaviour, bad firefighting habits or poor performance.

Accepting support from others is often the most difficult aspect of team support. Like everybody else, you need to acknowledge that you are human, with a normal human capacity for making errors, needing help and learning from feedback. When help is offered to you, don’t regard it as an insult to your ability. Volunteer fire brigades depend heavily on having members who are versatile and flexible. Helping one another out with tasks is a good way of sharing the knowledge and skills held by all members. Most feedback given to you is likely to be friendly and constructive, but realise that not everyone has the skills to give feedback in that way. However, even poorly expressed feedback can contain good learning points and shouldn’t be totally ignored or rejected.

Something that has to be said is that if you refuse to take notice of well- founded feedback on a serious matter, your brigade officers can take formal disciplinary action against you. There’s more about that in chapter 9. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 265

Rural fire brigades usually consist of people who are enthusiastic, if not passionate, about what they do. They also frequently work together at incidents that are challenging and sometimes emotionally charged. These tend to build strong bonds between people. On a positive side this can result in great friendships and teamwork, but on a negative side it can also sometimes lead to tensions between people.

Conflict between members, if skillfully handled, can often lead to positive outcomes. Sometimes the conflict is imaginary; simply a misunderstanding of what each thought the other was on about. But conflict can also be an indicator that some important issue needs to be resolved. By focussing discussion on what people really need, a solution that satisfies all can often be found. If things can’t be resolved informally, the RFS has formal grievance handling procedures that can be applied. These are referred to in chapter 9. 266 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

4 Crew Resource Management (CRM)

Crew Resource Management (CRM) is a set of techniques designed to manage errors that can lead to death, injury or disruption at a fire or incident. It is widely used by the military and airlines, although some of the research behind it is based on observation of firefighting operations. CRM is covered in more detail in more advanced programs of training. At this level we will introduce you to some of its key principles and practices.

(a) Errors and Violations

Many catastrophic accidents occur not because of big failures, but because of a string of minor human errors. Types of errors include lapses (forgetting to carry out an intended action), slips (acting inappropriately because of distraction or inattention) and mistakes (acting inappropriately due to a lack of knowledge, understanding or judgement).

TYPES OF ERRORS (unintentional)

Lapses Slips Mistakes

(e.g. forgetting (e.g. inappropriate (e.g. inappropriate an intended action due to action due to lack action) distraction or of knowledge etc.) inattention)

Figure 132: Types of errors.

Human error is normal. It is not something to be denied or criticised, but it can and should be managed. Research shows that most errors are due to informational problems. Improving the quality and flow of information can be used to manage errors.

Violations are different from errors. A violation is deliberately departing from some rule, procedure or good practice. Violations are due to attitudinal problems and often arise from within the culture of an organisation. Contrary to common belief, they are often well-intentioned, and committed in order to “get the job done”. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 267

TYPES OF VIOLATIONS (intentional)

Well-intentioned Reckless Malicious

(e.g. to "get the job done") (e.g. playing the "hero") (e.g. sabotage)

Figure 133: Types of violations.

(b) Typical Chain of Events at Serious Accidents

Investigations conducted into several serious firefighter accidents indicates that the chain of events often goes something like this:

• The conditions often don’t appear to be particularly hazardous. Therefore the level of alertness of people is relatively low.

• The situation is often unusual or different than anticipated. There might be unexpected conditions, unavailable resources or a change of plan.

• There is often some pressure in the minds of the people involved to complete the work. This encourages them to “cut corners” or operate without usual precautions.

• A series of delays, frustrations or hassles often narrows the attention of the people involved, so that they lose touch with the hazardous situation developing around them.

• The developing situation leads to a sudden change in conditions that is often outside the experience of those involved. This takes them by surprise. By then they do not have sufficient time to react to their situation and avoid disaster.

• In hindsight, all of the information needed to recognise and avoid the accident was present before it occurred, but this information was not “put together” by the people involved in a way that enabled it to be seen and avoided in time. 268 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

positional only - pic to be scanned in from photo

positional only

Remove ‘place name’ on side of cabin door (red letters on white) once hi -res scan has been done.

Figure 134: Examples of firefighter accidents. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 269

In the past it was assumed that all firefighting decisions were made on a logical or analytical basis. That is, a person faced with a decision considered the available options, analysed the advantages and disadvantages of each, and picked the best option to take.

Research, however, shows that experienced people, especially when working under pressure, do not use logical decision making. They use what is called intuitive decision-making. That is, when faced with a decision, they immediately select a course of action that has worked in the past in a similar situation. It might not be the best decision, but it is usually workable and successful.

Intuitive decision making is much faster than logical decision making, but it has two disadvantages. First, if a person’s perception of the situation is wrong, they might pick the wrong response to it. That response might be ineffective or dangerous. Second, if they don’t recognise a developing situation, (for example if they have never seen or heard about a particular type of situation), they might not see the need to make a decision at all, and through their lack of knowledge allow people to become exposed to danger.

(d) Situational Awareness

Having good “situational awareness” means making sure what you think is going on (your perception) is what is really going on (reality). Because of the way intuitive decision-making works, you must have good situational awareness to make the right decisions; and, making the right decisions is essential for safe and effective firefighting. It’s also important to be able to recognise when you are losing situational awareness. It is then that you need to “step back” to a safe position and re-assess what is going on before it gets dangerous. 270 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 135: Crew at work in a chaotic fire situation.

CRM has a number of techniques to enable errors to be avoided, to be detected and trapped, and for their impact to be minimised. These are described in the following sections of this chapter. You will find that many of these techniques are covered in your Bush Firefighter (BF) training.

(e) Techniques to Avoid Error

Techniques to avoid error revolve around ensuring that you can gain good situational awareness. They include:

• Personal Fitness – To avoid error you need to be fully alert. This might not be possible if you are ill, injured, medicated, stressed, intoxicated, dehydrated or fatigued. Minor stressors and hassles can reduce your alertness, and erode your ability to see hazards and errors. At such times you need to stop what you are doing, regardless of the pressure, and sort things out before proceeding. Keeping alert also means staying well hydrated, eating nutritious food, and getting appropriate breaks and rest at incidents.

• Preparation – Preparation includes pre-incident planning, familiarising yourself with Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and training. Pre-incident planning is gathering information about possible incidents beforehand. SOPs are about working out how BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 271

to handle incidents in general, in advance. Training consists of learning from the experiences of others so you know what to do in advance. Through good preparation your mind is freed up to focus on looking out for hazards and errors at incidents.

• Planning and Brieﬁng – Planning means members of the team participate in the process of working out what to do. This gives them a shared situational awareness and a common approach. Briefing is a way in which the team leader can share information with team members about what’s happening, what’s to be done, how it’s to be done, what to look out for, and (through feedback) ensure all those things are understood. In particular, a briefing primes all members of the team to look out for hazards, report them, and deal with them.

• Incident Control System (ICS) – ICS is an organised way of sharing the workload at an incident. It ensures that people do not become overloaded and more subject to error.

(positional only)

Figure 136: Line up of fire units at a staging area. 272 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

(f) Techniques to Detect and Trap Error

Techniques to detect and trap error revolve around ensuring that you constantly challenge and update your situational awareness, to make sure what you think is happening is really what is happening. They include:

• Active Vigilance – This means always expecting something might go wrong, knowing what to look out for, scanning for hazards and errors, knowing what is (and is not), an acceptable situation, and cross-checking what you think with others.

• Mutual Scrutiny – This means “everybody looks out for everybody”. If something concerns you, you speak up. If somebody else has concerns, you listen to them. When you are told something, you don’t blindly accept it: You check that it’s correct and query it if it does not make sense.

• Respectful Interaction – Using friendly respectful language within the team encourages people to speak up and listen when needed. It helps focus attention on “what is right” not “who is right” at the incident.

• Use of Safety Ofﬁcers – At larger incidents, the officer in charge may assign a safety officer to scrutinise the safety of their actions. Safety officers do not relieve anyone of their responsibility for safety; but ensure that key people observe their safety responsibilities.

• Reacting to Uncertainty – If you experience a situation that is not expected, or seems odd or worrying, it may indicate something has gone wrong; you may be losing situational awareness, or have made an error of some sort. Act straight away. Tells others about your concerns. Go to your safe refuge, work out what is going on, and take safe action. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 273

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 137: Crews at work at a bush fire in a chaotic situation.

(g) Techniques to Reduce the Impact of Error

Techniques to reduce the impact of error consist of having things to fall back on if something goes wrong. They include:

• Always have an “Out” – This means always starting your fire fighting activities from a safe position (called a “safe anchor point”) and always having a safe escape route and refuge available. Never tackle an incident without having an “out” planned, in case things don’t go as expected.

• Set Personal/Team Limits – This means having a clear idea of when to activate your “out” plan. If you leave it too late it can be dangerous. As a team, set a time when you will confirm what you are doing is still safe. As a team, set fire behaviour limits that, if met or exceeded, will cause you to cease what you are doing. If you seriously lose situational awareness (i.e. If you don’t know what’s happening any more!) go to your safe refuge and re-assess what is going on. Don’t wait for a full blown emergency to develop. 274 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

• Emergency Procedures – Know and regularly practice your emergency procedures. You should be able to do them virtually without thinking, in any conditions, because that’s how you might need to do them under the stress of an emergency.

• Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – Always wear PPE at an incident, as most emergencies happen too quickly to don it at the time. PPE cannot perform miracles, but it can buy you a little more time in extreme circumstances, and that might be just enough to enable you to survive.

Figure 138: Typical emergency procedures drill - Crew sheltering under blankets inside the cabin of a vehicle parked in a safe refuge area. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 275

5 The Incident Control System (ICS)

At the scene of a fire or other incident, the officer in charge will put the Incident Control System (ICS) into operation. ICS is a system of organising incident control activities and delegating tasks so that things get done in the right order, the workload is shared, and the safety of firefighters is monitored more effectively and easily.

(a) ICS – Formal or Informal?

At large incidents, the ICS may be a formal system with written plans. At most small incidents, however, it will be informal, with the officer in charge having it all in their head, or perhaps just referring to a map or a sketch to keep track of what is happening.

To carry out the plan, the officer in charge will assign tasks to various groups of firefighters. For example, some of you may be asked to use hoses, or to construct a fire trail, or to rest so as to be refreshed when you are needed later. The job of the officer in charge is to harmonise all these actions together so the attack on the fire is safe and effective. In the ICS, the officer in charge of an incident is called the Incident Controller. This is regardless of the size of the incident or the rank of the officer.

(b) Sectors and Divisions

The area covered by an incident may be divided up into sectors. The officer in charge of each is then called a Sector Officer or Sector Commander. At large incidents, where there are many sectors, they may be grouped into Divisions, each with a Division Officer or Division Commander. For example, there might be three Divisions each with a Division Commander reporting to the Incident Controller. Each Division Commander might, in turn, have several Sector Commanders reporting to them.

Note that “Sector Commander” and “Division Commander” are not ranks. They are merely functions or roles that are carried out at that particular incident. In principle, an officer of any rank can be appointed to any position in the ICS. In practice however, Sector Commanders and Division Commanders are usually people with the rank of Deputy Group Captain or higher, as the training that corresponds to that rank includes how to be a Sector or Division Commander. You will find more information about RFS ranks in chapter 9. 276 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

Sectors and Divisions are normally given a name to identify them. This might be a geographic name or a phonetic letter. For example, “Sector West” or “Division Alpha”.

Smith Cross High Main

INCIDENT MANAGEMENT TEAM

Division Boundary

Sector B Sector C

Sector F

Sector A

Sector E

Sector D Sector Boundary

Figure 139: Sectors and divisions. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 277

At a small incident, the Incident Controller may be your crew leader, and there might not be any divisions or sectors. If an incident grows rapidly in size, however, and more units are needed to control it, your crew leader might appoint another officer (called an Operations Officer) to run the units now at the scene. Meanwhile your crew leader retains the role of Incident Controller, but focuses on planning how to use all the other units that have now been called to the scene. Later a more senior officer might arrive and take over the role of Incident Controller as the incident grows.

At a large incident in a neighbouring District, your crew leader might report to a Sector Commander, who might be an officer from the neighbouring District. Most of the time you will remain together with other members of your brigade as a unit, but sometimes you might be asked to work with firefighters from other brigades or services. Because common ICS and training systems are used, however, you should not have any difficulty in working safely and smoothly together.

At larger incidents, units may be organised into strike teams or task forces. Technically a strike team has units all of the same type, like five tankers. A Task Force, on the other hand has a mix of units designed to carry out a particular task. For example, it might consist of two light tankers, two heavy tankers, a bulldozer and a command vehicle.

Either way, a strike team or a task force will have a Commander and a common communications system. In principle, an officer of any rank can be appointed as the Commander, but they are often an experienced brigade Captain or Senior Deputy Captain.

A typical strike team

A typical task force

Figure 140: Strike teams and Task Forces. 278 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

(d) Staging and Assembly Areas

At larger incidents, it would be dangerous if all the firefighting units simply converged on the fire like an uncontrolled rabble. To make things safer and more organised, staging areas are often used. Your unit may be asked to go to a staging area (often just a convenient corner or area near the incident) and wait until it is assigned a task on the fireground.

Figure 141a: A typical staging area.

Figure 141b: A typical assembly area.

Assembly areas are usually larger than staging areas. They may be next to a Fire Communications Centre or in a park, for example. They are places where units going to, or coming from, a large incident can be reorganised, resupplied, refuelled, briefed, debriefed, fed or rested.

(e) Incident Management

In the ICS, the only position that must be filled is the Incident Controller. All other positions are optional. Research shows, however, that one person can really only directly control up to about six to eight others without becoming overloaded. The ideal is about five. The reason why sectors and divisions are created is to make sure no one person has more than about five people or units reporting directly to them.

When an incident gets quite large, even the job of being in overall charge becomes too much for one person. When that point is reached, an Incident Management Team (IMT) is appointed. The person in overall charge is still BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 279 called the Incident Controller, but they now have a team assisting them in the functions of Operations (actually running the firefighting), Planning (working out what to do) and Logistics (getting the resources to do it).

Figure 142: A typical IMT at work.

6 Fireground SOPs

Fireground Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) describe the minimum standards to which various tasks and activities should be carried out at incidents, and may give certain officers the authority to carry out those activities. For example, the Incident Control System (ICS) described in the previous section is specified for use by the Fireground SOPs. In addition, it gives Incident Controllers the authority to do things like form sectors or divisions within that system.

You should be able to find a copy of the Fireground SOPs at your Fire Station and/or in your brigade’s vehicles. Crew leaders will also often have pocket sized versions for personal reference. Firefighting is not (and cannot be) something that is done “out of a book”, but the SOPs give officers a valuable aide-de-memoire to help protect them from lapses (normal errors of memory).

At firefighter level you are not expected to know the SOPs in detail. If you read them, however, you will find a lot of familiar things, because they are the official procedures upon which much training material is based. 280 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

There are over 40 Fireground SOPs, with most no longer than a single page, and with each covering a specific aspect of firefighting. For example:

• Fireground SOPs 1 to 10 are about firefighting in general. They cover the basic priorities and what should take place from the time of call until the end of an operation.

• Fireground SOP 11 covers all the specific procedures for specific incidents. It is subdivided into sections covering bush fires, grass fires, structural fires, and so on.

• Fireground SOP 12 covers procedures in the case of emergencies on the fireground.

• Fireground SOPs 13 to 24 cover specific procedures for specific activities. These include things like backburning, use of chain saws, use of aircraft, and so on.

• Fireground SOPs 25 to 39 cover incident management matters. These include the ICS, how to issue orders, out of area assistance, media liaison, and so on.

• Fireground SOPs 40 and upwards are to do with safety. These include the use of PPE, safety refuges, and so on.

Using SOPs reduces the decision-making workload at incidents for officers, provides a ready “how to” reference for the less common types of incidents, and allows firefighters to all work to the same basic game plan. This has the effect of making firefighting safer, easier and more effective.

Figure 143: Fireground SOPs and pocket versions. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 281

SUMMARY

• Firefighting is a team activity. Crew Resource Management (CRM), the Incident Control System (ICS) and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) can facilitate the sort of team work needed at high tempo and potentially high risk activities like firefighting.

• The overriding priority at incidents is firefighter safety. After that, the priorities are first to save life, second to save property and third to help restore normality.

• Most call outs to incidents come in via the ‘000’ system and are directed by the NSW Fire Brigades to your brigade via your local Fire Control Officer or duty officer. You should check you are fit to attend before responding to a call.

• Practice can make departing your station quicker and smoother. Most PPE should be donned before leaving the station. The initial radio call advises that your unit is responding and enables details of the call to be gathered. The crew leader will normally be in the front of the tanker. The driver should not proceed until all are on board and wearing seat belts.

• While en-route to an incident, your crew leader should brief you. Your vehicle will usually have pre-incident planning data on board. Your crew leader might fill in a T-card en-route.

• The crew leader will start sizing up the incident as you approach it. He/she may get input from crew members. Look out for, report and avoid hazards. Look for clues as to the fire’s origin and cause. If other units are already at the scene, your unit may call the officer in overall charge of the incident for instructions as you approach.

• Your crew leader will normally give you initial instructions as you arrive. Confirm back those instructions to verify you have understood them correctly. Your basic firefighter skills need to be second nature to you so that you can focus your attention on what is happening.

• Carry out the instructions of your crew leader. Keep alert for hazards and how to deal with them. Always have an “out” available. Keep questioning whether you are doing things correctly. Report any significant changes in conditions. Get a briefing before undertaking any new assignment. 282 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

SUMMARY

• After a fire has been knocked down, focus on thoroughly mopping up and patrolling. Watch out for, and deal with, hazards during this stage.

• A team is two or more people working towards a shared purpose. Team work needs to be learned and maintained through active participation, sharing information, and giving and accepting support to/from team members.

• Active participation means fully taking part in activities so that the team achieves its purpose. To do this you need a clear idea of roles and responsibilities within the team. These are defined in the RFS rank system and Incident Control System (ICS).

• Participating in meetings, briefing and debriefings, following procedures and using Crew Resource Management (CRM) techniques can facilitate team work. You will need guidance and support at first; accept and acknowledge it. As you become more proficient you can help guide and support others.

• Roles and responsibilities in the brigade may vary over time and in different situations. While you might prefer certain roles, you need to be flexible in what you can do.

• Sharing information enhances team work. It depends on good communications skills such as knowing how to ask the right questions, speaking up if you are concerned, listening to the concerns of others, resolving conflicts and objectively evaluating how to improve.

• Giving and getting feedback is an integral part of being a brigade member. Feedback should be constructive, and focus on the person’s behaviour, not the person themselves. Refusal to take note of well founded feedback may result in disciplinary action. Recognition and praise should be given when deserved.

• Strong bonds often build up between people in brigades. Sometimes these can lead to tensions. Formal grievance handling procedures are available if these cannot be resolved. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 283

SUMMARY

• Crew leaders need the support of team members. You can support their decision-making by accepting they can make errors, feeding them good quality information, operating to the needed standard, and respectfully questioning their judgement if you have objective concerns.

• Crew Resource Management (CRM) is a set of techniques to enhance team effectiveness and manage error. Human error is normal, but it can be managed. Most errors are due to informational problems. Improving the quality and flow of information can help manage error.

• Violations are deliberate departures from good practice or procedures. They are due to attitudinal problems. They are often well intentioned and committed in order to “get the job done”.

• Under pressure, experienced people use intuitive rather than logical decision making. Intuitive decision making does not involve the detailed analysis of options, but consists of immediately selecting a course of action that has worked in a similar situation in the past. Good situational awareness is essential for good decision making.

• Techniques to avoid error include having appropriate personal fitness, preparation, planning and briefing, and the use of the Incident Control System (ICS).

• Techniques to detect and trap error include the use of active vigilance, mutual scrutiny, respectful interaction and safety officers.

• Techniques to reduce the impact of error include always having an “out”, setting personal/team limits, being well drilled in emergency procedures and always using PPE.

• The ICS is a system of organising activities and delegating tasks at an incident. At small incidents it may be informal and unwritten. At large incidents it may be formal, with written plans. The officer in overall charge at an incident is called the Incident Controller. 284 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

SUMMARY

• The incident area may be divided into sectors, each under a Sector Officer or Sector Commander. At a large incident, sectors may be grouped into Divisions, each under a Division Officer or Division Commander. Sectors and Divisions may be identified by either geographic names or phonetic letters.

• If an incident expands rapidly, the Incident Controller may appoint an Operations Officer to run the current operation, allowing the Incident Controller to focus on expanding it smoothly. The Incident Controller may later be relieved in that role by a more senior officer.

• Strike teams and task forces consist of a group of units under a common Commander and with a common communications system. Staging and assembly areas may be established to help organise the deployment of units. An incident management team (IMT) may be appointed if the incident becomes too large for one person to manage it by themselves.

• Fireground SOPs describe minimum operating standards and may authorise officers to carry out certain activities. Copies are usually kept on firefighting vehicles. Using SOPs reduces the decision making workload, reduces errors of memory, gets firefighters working to a common game plan, and makes fire fighting safer, easier and more effective. BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 285

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. The briefing on the way to an incident helps to build up a shared mental picture of what is happening.

2. It is up to your crew leader alone to make decisions and you should not offer any input into that process.

3. You need to practise your physical firefighting skills until they become second nature, so that you will be able to deal effectively with everything else that is happening at an incident.

4. Some types of hazards may actually be more likely after the fire has been knocked down.

5. A debriefing is conducted to work out if any disciplinary action needs to be taken against firefighters because of poor performance or conduct at an incident.

6. If you think a task is unsafe, or you are not confident about your ability to do something confidently, you should tell your crew leader about your concerns.

7. Most errors and violations of procedures during fire fighting happen because people are careless, and they should be disciplined for it.

8. Good situational awareness is essential for good decision-making.

9. Among other things, using the ICS is a way of sharing the workload at an incident and reducing the risk of error.

10.During firefighting, you should always start from a safe anchor point, always have an “out” available and have a clear idea of when to activate your “out” plan. 286 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK

ACTIVITIES

1. Participate in a simulated briefing, such as might be given while en-route to a fire.

2. Discuss with some crew leaders in your brigade how they decide what to do at an incident.

3. Familiarise yourself with the pre-incident planning data (PPD) and Fireground SOPs carried in your brigade’s vehicles.

4. Ask some of the trainers or crew leaders in your brigade to tell you about some of the fires they have been to, and how things like CRM, the ICS and SOPs were applied.

5. Participate in an operational debriefing after a simulated or actual incident. 287

CHAPTER 8 Radio Communications

1 Introduction

Effective communication is the very heart of safe and effective firefighting. Radio communication, in particular, is vital. All bush firefighters need to be able to use a two-way radio in a clear, concise manner. This chapter is an introduction to the use of radio communications. In particular, it covers:

Communications Systems - or “how radio systems work”.

Communications Phraseology - or “what to say on the radio”.

Communications Procedures - or “what calls to make, and when to make them”

2 Communications Systems

The first step in using radio communications is to understand something about how radio communication works. In this part of the chapter you will be introduced to the principles of radio communication, the radio spectrum, typical radio systems, typical radio equipment, and the RFS radio communications network. This chapter will also touch on the use of mobile phones, satellite telephones, pagers and fax machines, and the testing of communications equipment. 288 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

(a) Principles of Radio Communications

Radio communication is the transmission of messages by electronic means, without the use of wires. It occurs when a message is transmitted via a radio operated by one person, and received by a radio operated by another person in a different location.

One way to understand radio is to compare it with normal face-to-face communications using your voice. You produce speech by vibrating the vocal chords in your throat to form waves of sound. These sound waves travel through the air to the ears of the person with whom you are talking. Their ears detect and amplify those waves, and convert them into nerve impulses (signals sent to their brain) that are understood as your speech.

Figure 144: Voice communications.

In radio communications you speak into a microphone. It converts the sound waves of your speech into an electrical signal. This signal is transmitted via an aerial to create radio waves. Radio waves can be detected through a receiving aerial on another radio, amplified within that radio and converted back into sound waves through a speaker so you can hear them. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 289

Figure 145: Radio communications.

There are, however, some important differences between the two. Sound waves travel through air at the speed of sound, which is not much faster than the average jet airliner. Radio waves are electromagnetic radiation. (Visible light is another form of electromagnetic radiation.) Both light and radio waves travel at the speed of light; which is very much faster than sound, and they can travel through a vacuum just as well as through air.

The frequency of vibration of sound waves is also fairly slow. Very low pitched sounds are around 20 vibrations per second, while very high pitched sounds might be as high as 20,000. One complete vibration per second is called a “Hertz”, or “Hz” for short. Your local commercial AM radio station broadcasts radio waves at a frequency usually somewhere between 500 thousand to 1800 thousand hertz (or 500 to 1800 kilohertz or kHz). Radio frequencies typically used by emergency services are up in the 150 to 500 million Hertz (or 150 to 500 megahertz or MHz) range.

When a radio message is sent, your voice is converted into an electronic signal that is superimposed over the frequency of the radio waves being transmitted. The radio frequency carrying the signal is called the “carrier wave”, and the process of superimposing the signal on to the carrier wave is called “modulation”. A radio receiver tuned to the same frequency can extract the signal out of the radio waves being received and convert it back to voice. This process is called “demodulation”. 290 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

1 Carrier Wave

2 Signal

3 A Signal modulated onto a carrier wave

Figure 146: Modulation of a carrier wave.

(b) The Radio Spectrum

The wide range of radio frequencies allows a vast number of radio messages to be transmitted at the same time, using a different frequency for each. The full range of frequencies is called the “radio spectrum”. Not all frequencies within the radio spectrum behave in the same way. These differences in behaviour mean that radios operating on different frequencies can have quite different types of performance. Some examples are given below:

HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) – 3 to 30 MHz

HF radios can have a long range (a few thousand kilometres in good conditions) as their radio waves can reflect off the upper layers of the atmosphere under some circumstances, enabling them to travel over the horizon. These layers of the upper atmosphere change throughout the day, and from time to time, so the performance of HF can vary quite a lot. For instance, in general, the lower HF frequencies work better at night, and the higher frequencies work better during the day. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 291

Fire units in remote areas sometimes use HF radios. As HF radios need quite large aerials to work effectively, such units will have large aerials fitted to them. HF radio messages are not always clear, and are prone to interference from storms and other electrical activity, and from “fading” when the waves travelling across the ground and those reflected from the upper atmosphere cancel each other out.

HF Aerial

L FIR RA E U S R E R

N.S V .W R W . URA I

L F C

IRE S S .

ERVICE E

Figure 147: HF radio aerial.

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF) – 30 to 300 MHz

VHF radio waves do not reflect off the upper atmosphere. They have a relatively short range (dozens of kilometres) and travel in straight lines (“line of sight”). They will not penetrate solid materials, but can reflect off some objects. They do not need large aerials and are free from most interference. Many Fire Services use VHF radios. They are also used for communications in civil aviation and by some commercial broadcast stations.

ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY (UHF) – 300 to 3000 MHz

UHF radio waves behave similar to VHF. Most of the radios used by the NSW Rural Fire Service operate in the UHF band. As the signals travel only in line of sight, it might be necessary to move a mobile radio to higher ground in order to communicate effectively in mountainous terrain. Offsetting this is the advantage that UHF allows a very good clear quality of communication. 292 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

UHF Aerial

L FIR RA E U S R E R

N.S V .W R W . URA I

L F C

IRE S S .

ERVICE E

Figure 148: UHF radio aerial.

UHF-CB (Citizen’s Band) is used in some rural areas. This equipment is inexpensive, reliable, and free from atmospheric interference. However, as the “Citizens Band’ name implies, it is open to use by anyone. This makes it almost useless for firefighting operations near well-populated areas. However, in areas where it is monitored and used on a day to day basis by rural people, it is not only effective during firefighting, but can be used for reporting fires and alerting Brigade members.

The next diagram illustrates some of the limitations of VHF and UHF radio systems. Both the distance between the transmitter and receiver and the relative location of each unit, will determine the signal strength. If you are stationary, and the signal is weak, either move the mobile closer to the base or seek a more elevated location. If you are moving, the signal may ‘break-up’; that is, you will only receive parts of the transmission. Stop, preferably on the highest available location and try again. If needed, try several locations until you receive a clear, unbroken signal. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 293

RECEPTION AREA

BASE STATION SHADOW

RALFIR U E R S E

R N.S. W W RUR . V

A I

L F S IR C

E SERV . ICE E N AREA

R I F L A R E U S R E

R W . S . N

V . R U R W I A

S F L C I

. V R E S E R

E C I N E RECEPTION AREA RECEPTION AREA

Figure 149: Limitations of VHF and UHF systems.

MF, LF and VLF

There are also Medium, Low and Very Low frequencies (MF, LF and VLF) in use in some radio systems. However, you won’t generally see them in use in Fire Services. MF is the band used by many commercial radio stations, Both MF and LF signals are absorbed by the upper atmosphere during the day, but may reflect off it at night. VLF (which can penetrate underwater) is used to communicate with submarines. Generally speaking, the lower the frequency, the larger the aerial that is needed for the radio to work effectively.

REGULATION

International agreements limit the use of various bands of frequencies to various types of uses. For example, the VHF frequencies between 108 MHz and 136 MHz are used across the world for aviation radio communications.

In Australia, the Australian Communications Authority regulates the radio spectrum under the (federal) Radio Communications Act 1992 and issues the required radio communications licences to users. A Fire Service (like anyone else) must apply for a licence before setting up a radio network. The licence provides protection from interference from other radio users, and allows the use of particular frequencies in certain areas. 294 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

There are several types of radio systems used in Fire Services. These include simplex, duplex, repeater and trunked systems.

SIMPLEX SYSTEMS

This is the simplest type of radio system. It uses only one frequency and all stations operating on that channel transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) on the same frequency. In a simplex system what you hear when you receive is the signal actually transmitted by the sender, as shown in the diagram below:

BASE STATION

R I F L A R E U S R E

R W S . N

V .

. R U R W I A

S F L C I

. V R E S E R

E C I N E MOBILE MOBILE ONE TWO

N.S. W RURAL F I AL F R R I E U R E S R E S R E V W IC . R

E V .

I N

C E

R I F L A R E U S R E

R W S . N

V .

. R U R W I A

S F L C I

. V R E S E R

E C I N E MOBILE THREE

Figure 150: Simplex system. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 295

DUPLEX SYSTEMS

This is a another way of operating a radio system. Two frequencies are used: Your radio signals are transmitted on one, and received on the other. In a full duplex system this enables a two-way conversation to be conducted simultaneously, similar to that which is possible on a telephone. Many duplex radio systems, however, still only enable communication in one direction at a time. When you transmit, it cuts out the receiver side of the radio. The latter are sometimes called “half-duplex” systems.

REPEATER (“TALK-THROUGH”) SYSTEMS

A repeater is a device that receives radio messages on one frequency and simultaneously retransmits them on another frequency. When using a repeater, mobile radio units transmit on one frequency, but receive on the other frequency. It is the retransmission by the repeater that is received by the mobile units, not the original transmission from the mobile. When you select a repeater channel on a radio, you are actually selecting a pair of frequencies (one to transmit and the other to receive). Using a repeater can overcome one of the main disadvantages of VHF/UHF radios: that is, being limited to “line of sight” operation.

REPEATER

HILL BASE MOBILE STATION MOBILE TWO

N.S.W RURA L ALF F R IR IR U E E R S SE E W R R V .

I V

C S

E I

C N E ONE

R I F L A R E U S R E

R W S . N

V .

. R U R W I A

S F L C

. V R E S E R I

E I N E C

Figure 151: Repeater system. 296 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

In a repeater system, what you hear is the repeater re-transmitting your original signal; or, as some describe it, you are “talking-through” the repeater. This has two advantages. First, the strength of the radio signals is better, as you are always hearing the powerful re-transmissions from the repeater station. Second, if well positioned at a high location, the repeater allows high quality communications between units even when they are not in “line of sight”.

Two stations, for example, on opposites sides of a hill would be able to communicate to each other through the repeater on top of the hill, whereas they would not be able to communicate at all if they were using a simplex system. This is shown in the diagram below:

Tx Rx

Tx x R

Figure 152: Advantage of using a repeater in hilly terrain. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 297

A disadvantage of repeater systems is that, if a repeater fails, none of the mobiles working through that repeater can then talk to each other. (In most systems there is, however, a ‘talk-around’ option, which really just enables the mobiles to change over to simplex operation on one of the frequencies they normally use). Also, if one or both of two units are not in line of sight to the repeater, they will not be able to communicate, even though they may be in line of sight (or even next to) each other.

Repeater cannot receive signal

Hill blocks transmission

No signal received

U Z U S I ISUZU 700 0 0 7

T540 0 4 5 T

Figure 153: Disadvantage of a repeater system. - (Second truck cannot communicate with first truck through a blocked or failed repeater even though they are in sight of each other.)

TRUNKED SYSTEMS

A trunked radio system is one in which many users share the use of a common pool of radio frequencies. As you move from place to place, the frequency you are using and the repeater through which you are communicating may change, although this will not be apparent to you. A computer controlling the system automatically allocates the appropriate frequency and repeater to your call.

While the controls on the radio will have something looking the same as a channel selector, it is in fact selecting a particular “talk-group”, which may include different frequencies working off different repeaters throughout the system’s network. The computer, however, normally only allows your particular “talk-group” to hear the calls you are making. Likewise, you will 298 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS normally not be able to hear the other “talk-groups” using the same pool of frequencies.

When you press your microphone button, your radio sends a signal to the controlling computer telling it your identification and talk group, and requesting an idle frequency be assigned to it for the call. If a frequency is available, it sends a signal back telling your radio (and all other radios on that talk group) to switch automatically to that frequency. It also patches the call to a frequency on any other repeater where there is a radio in your talk group. This process takes less than a second. If a frequency is not available, a signal (commonly called a “lock-out” tone) will indicate that to you, and later tell you when one does become available.

The big advantage of a trunked system is that it can make much more efficient use of a limited number of frequencies. For the user, the advantage of a trunked radio system is that you can communicate with units in your talk-group over any distance within the network. The fact that the unit you’re talking to is several hundred kilometres away, and working off a completely different repeater, makes no difference.

Long distance (outside normal radio range)

Repeaters Linked

500m

Figure 154: Advantage of a trunked system.

The disadvantages of a trunked system are that they generally only have coverage in more populated areas, and there is a limit to the total number of calls each repeater can handle. For instance, if a major fire occurs, many more units than usual may “load up” the local repeater and it may be unable to cope. This may occur even if your radio does not sound all that busy. Remember that, in a trunked system, the frequencies are being RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 299 shared by a large number of users, and you won’t be able to hear all the calls being made by users on other “talk groups”, even though they are sharing the same repeater system as you.

Repeater unit has a limited capacity for simultaneous calls

1 2

4 3

Figure 155: Disadvantages of a trunked system.

(d) The RFS Radio Communications Network

The RFS radio communications network uses a combination of simplex, repeater and trunked systems, using a range of channels (a radio frequency or group of frequencies) in the 400 to 470 MHz segment of the UHF band. These are further described below:

GOVERNMENT RADIO NETWORK (GRN) CHANNELS

These form a trunked network with coverage within and near cities and many major towns. You can call any station listening within the range of any repeater in the network. (Note that they do not have to be within range of the same repeater you are working through.) GRN is generally used for upper level command and control purposes.

Some Districts near more populated areas have specific GRN channel/s allocated to them and may use them as their primary District radio system. Other GRN channels are reserved for use in major emergencies. Because the GRN “channels” actually use a wide range of shared frequencies, the channels are more correctly called “talk groups”. 300 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

PRIVATE MOBILE RADIO (PMR) CHANNELS

These are local, repeater networks each enabling communications within a specific area. You need to be working off the same repeater system to contact another station on the channel. They are used in most Rural Fire Districts as the main local RFS radio system.

The RFS strategic network (for communications between senior commanders) also has some PMR channels linked back to an applicable RFS Regional Office and State Operations.

SIMPLEX (“CAR TO CAR”) CHANNELS

These are a set of simplex working networks (i.e. single frequencies giving direct, station to station communication) enabling short range, “line of sight” communications to other units. Some channels are unique to the NSW RFS, others are shared with other Services to enable communications at combined operations.

Simplex channels can be used to provide a separate sub-network for units at a larger incident, or even divisions or sectors within an incident. By having units at an incident use a simplex channel, it enables the local PMR channel to be freed from the bulk of the calls associated with that incident. In such situations, only the Incident Controller communicates back to base on the local PMR channel, while directing units at the incident using a second radio on the relevant simplex channel. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 301

ALLOCATED CHANNELS

The table below shows how the groups of channels (and talk groups) in the NSW RFS network are allocated to various purposes, at the time of writing. For the channels allocated to specific areas, check the current “State Wide Frequency Lists”, produced by NSW RFS State Operations.

Channels Description

1 to 8 PMR (mobile repeater) channels for emergency use 9 to 12 Simplex channels for internal use within the NSW RFS 13 to 17 Simplex channels for shared use with other Services 18 to 116 PMR District network channels allocated to specific areas 117 to 146 Strategic network channels allocated to specific areas 147 to 156 GRN channels for emergency service liaison (permission required from NOCC via State Operations prior to any use) 157 Not currently in use 158 to 165 GRN State Operations channels (available for large operations and other major events – contact State Operations for permission to use) 166 State Operations administration channel 167 to 174 GRN channels allocated to each NSW RFS region 175 to 214 GRN channels allocated to applicable Districts 250 Dynamic regrouping – used only by NOCC

GRN = Government Radio Network, NOCC = Network Operations Control Centre, PMR = Private Mobile Radio.

“Note: The above is subject to change - check the latest State Wide Frequency List for current information about radio channels.”

Note: Other Services (NSW Fire Brigades, SES, Ambulance and Dept of Health) do not use the same channel numbers as RFS radios for the common simplex channels. The following page has equivalent channel numbers for other agencies horizontally across the table. Permission is not required for the use of the simplex channels at the top of the page only the GRN channels in the bottom half. 302 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

EMERGENCY SERVICES SHARED LIAISON CHANNELS/MODES SIMPLEX LIAISON MODES

NSW RFS NSW SES NSW Ambulance Dept of Health NSW FB SIMPLEX SIMPLEX SIMPLEX SIMPLEX SIMPLEX (Z1) 13 SIMP (Z1) 1-89-SIMP- (Z6) 11 GRN S1 (Z6) 11 GRN S-1 (Z13) GRN SHR1 SHR-1 SMPX 1 (Z1) 14 SIMP (Z1) 1-89-SIMP- (Z6) 12 GRN S2 (Z6) 12 GRN S-2 (Z13) GRN SHR 2 SHR-2 SMPX 2 (Z1) 15 SIMP (Z1) 1-89-SIMP- (Z6) 13 GRN S3 (Z6) 13 GRN S-3 (Z13) GRN SHR 3 SHR-3 SMPX 3 (Z1) 16 SIMP (Z1) 1-89-SIMP- (Z6 14 GRN S4 (Z6) 14 GRN S-4 (Z13) GRN SHR 4 SHR-4 SMPX 4 (Z1) 17 SIMP (Z1) 1-89-SIMP- (Z6) 15 GRN S5 (Z6) 15 GRN S-5 (Z13) GRN SHR5 SHR-5 SMPX 5

(Z = ZONE) Simplex liaison channels are available as needed. Adjacent districts should pre-plan the use of shared liaison channels to avoid conflicts. Remember that other agencies may be using these channels for other purposes. Range can be up to 20km. GRN EMERGENCY SERVICE LIAISON MODES TRUNKED (GRN) MODES Permission required before use

NSW RFS NSW SES NSW Ambulance Dept of Health NSW FB 147 ESLO 1 (Z1)-94- Z6 1 ESLO 1 Z6 ESO 1 (Z12) LO-ES-1 ESO-1 148 ESLO 2 (Z1)-95- Z6 2 ESLO 2 Z6 ESO 2 (Z12) LO-ES-2 ESO - 2 149 ESLO 3 (Z1)-96- Z6 3 ESLO 3 Z6 ESO 3 (Z12) LO-ES-3 ESO - 3 150 ESLO 4 (Z1)-97- Z6 4 ESLO 4 Z6 ESO 4 (Z12) LO-ES-4 ESO - 4 151 ESLO 5 (Z1)-98- Z6 5 ESLO 5 Z6 ESO 5 (Z12) LO-ES-5 ESO - 5 152 ESLO 6 (Z1)-99- Z6 6 ESLO 6 Z6 ESO 6 (Z12) LO-ES-6 ESO - 6 153 ESLO 7 (Z1)-100- Z6 7 ESLO 7 Z6 ESO 7 (Z12) LO-ES-7 ESO - 7 154 ESLO 8 (Z1)-101- Z6 8 ESLO 8 Z6 ESO 8 (Z12) LO-ES-8 ESO - 8 155 ESLO 9 (Z1)-102- Z6 9 ESLO 9 Z6 ESO 9 (Z12) LO-ES-9 ESO - 9 156 ESLO 10 (Z1)-103- Z6 10 ESLO 10 Z6 ESO 10 (Z12) LO-ES-10 ESO - 10

NOTE: NSW RFS & NSW SES liaison modes are in ZONE 1 ( first three numbers indicate channel position) Ambulance and Dept of Health modes are in Zone 6.

NSW Rural Fire Service use of the ten trunked (GRN) liaison channels must be arranged through State Operations. Phone (02) 8845 3501 (24 hours) The State Operations Duty Ofﬁcer will make all arrangements with the Network Operations Control Centre (NOCC) RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 303

PROGRAMMING OF RFS RADIOS (INCLUDING ZONES)

Modern radios can be programmed in a wide variety of ways. The system described below is how RFS radios are programmed (at the time of writing).

Each unit (RFS vehicle) normally has one mobile radio programmed with all the needed channels. When you select a particular channel, the operating mode (simplex, repeater or trunked) is also automatically selected. When you select “Zone 1” on your radio’s menu, you have access to all programmed channels. When you select “Zone 2” (or “Home”), you have access to your local channel/s only. When you turn a radio on, normally it is programmed to default to “Zone 2” automatically. You should ask your trainer or Captain what channel normally is used by your brigade.

When working on a PMR system you might need to select the specific local channel that gives the best communications for your specific brigade location. In some areas, however, this selection might be programmed to be done automatically by the radio (called “voting”).

BACK-UP IN CASE OF SYSTEM FAILURE

In case of a repeater failure, PMR repeater channels can be converted to simplex working (on the receive frequency of the mobile radios) by selecting the appropriate menu items on the radio (Check your radio operating instructions for more details).

This means that, even if the other unit has not changed from repeater to simplex, they will be able to hear you when you transmit using simplex working, provided they are in line of sight. However, if they are still trying to work through the repeater they won’t be able to talk back to you. You must also get them to change to simplex working to enable full two-way communication.

Occasionally the interconnection between repeaters in the GRN network may fail. If so, your radio will show a “Site Trunking” indication on its display screen. You will still be able to communicate with other units working from the same repeater as you, but not with units sharing your same channel off distant repeaters. 304 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

UHF-CB RADIOS

Some country areas have networks based on UHF-CB radio. It is important to note that UHF-CB has some limitations in that its use is controlled by convention rather than by legislation, and the RFS is just one of a number of users. Check your local procedures for operating instructions and the correct brigade operating channel/s if you use UHF CB radio in your area.

PORTABLE RADIOS

Most RFS units carry handheld portable radios. These are of two types:

Some are called “Fireground Portables” and use simplex working channels in the VHF band. They are used for short range, fireground communications, particularly for crews working on foot away from the vehicle. Some fireground VHF channels are allocated to specific Districts, while others are allocated for general use within the RFS.

NOTE: You cannot access the RFS radio network (GRN, PMR and simplex channels) using a ﬁreground portable radio - ﬁreground portables use an entirely different set of frequencies.

Figure 156: Typical use of fireground portables. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 305

Some portable radios are called “RFS Portables” and are programmed with simplex, PMR and GRN channels of the RFS radio network. They are generally used by officers so as to give them instant access to an RFS radio when they are away from a vehicle.

HF RADIOS

In some remote rural areas, HF radios are used for long distance radio communications.

(e) Typical Radio Equipment

While manufacturers have different designs for their equipment, all transceivers used in the New South Wales Rural Fire Service have similar controls.

Figure 157: Typical mobile radio.

ON/OFF SWITCH

The use of this switch is self-explanatory; it simply controls the electrical power to the receiver. Do not leave transceivers switched on when not in use as they consume power and will eventually drain the battery.

VOLUME CONTROL

This controls the output volume of the receiver, ie: the loudness of the sound that you hear. Transmitter output is fixed and is not adjustable by the operator. On some units, volume control and the on/off switch are incorporated in the one control. 306 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

MUTE, SQUELCH, or NOISE

These are different names for the same control which limits the sensitivity of the receiver to the input signal. This control must be correctly adjusted.

To adjust: Rotate the mute control towards full ‘OFF’ position until background noise is heard, then reverse fractionally until the noise ceases.

It may be necessary to re-adjust the mute control from time to time.

In some instances it is possible to increase reception of a weak signal by turning the mute down, or off; this action increases the sensitivity of the receiver and may increase signal readability. (Note: Most radios now used in the RFS have automatic mute/squelch.).

CHANNEL SELECTOR

If you are operating a multi-channel radio, it is important that you ensure that the correct channel is selected. Your radio will normally default automatically to your normal local channel when you turn it on. Normally you will be instructed what channel to change to, if use of a different channel is required. If at any other time you wish to change to a different channel, you must first seek and receive approval from the controlling station.

Figure 158: Typical portable radio RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 307

(f) Operating Mobile and Portable radios

The procedures for operating a mobile or portable radio vary according to the type of radio you are using. To operate the radio, you should:

• Switch the radio on by either pressing the combined on/off volume control once, or by rotating the on/off volume control clockwise until you have the appropriate volume. The default channel (usually your local channel) will be displayed.

• Select the channel by rotating the channel selector to display the channel you want. The channel shown on the display will be either numerical or alpha-numerical. To select channels used outside your local area on an RFS radio, you will need to select Zone 1.

• To set the volume control, turn the volume control to the required level.

• Consult the Operating Instructions Booklet for the particular radio (and its associated programming) for more details.

(g) Other Communications Systems

Apart from radio, other electronic means of communications are also used in the RFS. These include mobile telephones, satellite telephones, pagers and facsimile (fax) machines.

MOBILE TELEPHONES

Within their area of coverage, mobile (cellular) telephones can be used for routine communications. They can also be used to supplement incident communications, provided sufficient cells (frequencies) are available. They offer the user more privacy with less radio interference. They are also ideal for long duration conversations that might normally tie up the radio network. Mobile phones also allow direct communication with other agencies and authorities and are very useful for command communications, when long, detailed discussions on the objective, strategies and tactics at an incident are required. 308 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

SATELLITE TELEPHONES

Satellite telephones are not limited by the area of coverage of the mobile telephone system, as they communicate directly through an orbiting communications satellite. For this reason, they are currently being introduced in some remote areas of Australia. They are more expensive to purchase and operate than mobile phones, but can often provide a more reliable and higher quality form of communications in remote areas than, say, HF radio.

Figure 159: Satellite telephone. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 309

PAGERS

A pager is a compact pocket or belt-carried radio receiver for providing one-way communications. Pagers may either operate via the RFS radio system in a local District, or be activated by a commercial provider. There are three general forms, the tone pager, tone page with voice-over and the alpha-numeric.

Figure 160: Typical pager.

• The tone pager is the most simple in operation. To operate it, a base radio automatically or manually sends a combination of tones over the frequency which activates all pagers fitted with that particular range of tones. Normally the activation of such a pager means a fire call has been received and firefighters should report to their fire station and/or call for further details.

• Some tone pagers are also capable of receiving a verbal radio transmission. If there is an operator at the base radio, the tone may be followed by a message giving details of the incident and its location. A disadvantage of both tone and voice-over pagers is that they may need to transmit activating tones over an operational frequency, possibly when incident radio traffic is taking place. 310 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

• As its name indicates, an alpha-numeric pager displays a visual message when activated. The person who wants to transmit information rings the pager service and leaves a message. The pager is able to receive up to 230 characters of alpha-numeric information. This information is typed in by the operator and the message is then relayed to the receiver. Pagers are an effective form of communication, but in some systems delays can be experienced because messages sent by emergency personnel may not always have priority over others.

You should familiarise yourself with the various functions on the pagers used in your area (if applicable) as these may vary. If your pager has a chain, you should always use it. This will ensure that you do not damage or lose it.

FAX MACHINES

Facsimile (fax) machines scan written or pictorial documents, convert the images into coded electronic signals and then transmit them across the telephone network to another fax machine. The information is then de-coded and reproduced on paper to look the same as the original. At an incident, the facsimile machine can provide a two-way flow of written or pictorial information.

Fax machines are particularly useful for transmitting graphical information such as sketches, plans or maps. Generally they are used for passing such information from one communications centre to another, but some mobile units may be fitted with fax machines.

CONFERENCE CALL TELEPHONE SYSTEMS

A system that enables several telephones to be called at the same time by Firecom is sometimes used to alert firefighters of a fire or incident. If such a system is in use in your area, you will be briefed about its specific features as part of your training. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 311

(h) Care and Maintenance of Communications Equipment

Two-way radios are expensive items of equipment. They can be damaged if they are handled carelessly. Don’t leave the microphone on the seat of the vehicle; put it back in its cradle. Keep radios out of direct sunlight and protect them from water, dust and chemicals. If your portable radios use non-rechargeable batteries, ensure that when you replace them you use leakproof alkaline ones.

Regular testing of radios and other communications equipment is very important. Equipment left unused for long periods may deteriorate due to changes in the weather, humidity and dust. Deterioration can be prevented by regular use of the set. The only way to ensure that all radios on a network are working is to test them regularly and follow the correct care and maintenance procedures.

The importance of regular testing, including the changing and/or recharg- ing of batteries cannot be over emphasised. A piece of equipment unused for several months may fail when it is needed most. The advantages of a radio network are negated if the equipment does not work. You should refer to your brigade equipment maintenance schedule for details of when radios and other communications equipment are to be checked, inspected and tested. 312 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

3 Communications Phraseology

The next step in using radio communications to best effect is to learn the phraseology that is used. In this part of the chapter you will be introduced to the principles behind radio phraseology, radio call-signs, pro-words, the phonetic alphabet and numbers, priority colour codes, discreet message codes and the recording of messages.

(a) Principles of Phraseology

Radio communications can be become ineffective if it becomes over-used or loaded up with a lot of unnecessary information. Good radio phraseology is designed to get messages across quickly and in a way that will be easily and correctly understood, even when conditions are not the best. Some basic principles are:

• Keep all calls short, sharp and to the point, and use standard phrases for commonly made calls.

• When contacting another unit, give their callsign first, then give your callsign. For example, if you are in Mullaby Two, and want to call Sunnyville Firecom, you would say, “Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two”.

• Once communication is established, callsigns do not have to be included in each and every call, provided it is clear who is talking to whom.

• Letters and numbers should be transmitted using the standard phonetic words given later in this chapter.

READ BACK PROCEDURE

A good habit to get into is to read back the key points of any operational instructions (orders directly concerning a fire or incident) you are given. (There is no need to read back operational information, general information or other messages, unless requested).

Why read back instructions? Simply, it is the quickest and best way of ensuring that an instruction has not been misheard or misunderstood.

International practice is to put your own callsign at the end of a read-back, instead of the beginning, so that read backs are easy to distinguish from original messages. Again, this is a good practice, but is not mandatory. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 313

For example if you are “Mullaby Two”, and “Johnson’s Control” gives you the following message,

“Mullaby Two, Johnson’s Control. Make a direct attack on the left ﬂank of the ﬁre. Rankaroo Brigade will be arriving to assist you in about 10 minutes.”

Your reply should be:

“Direct attack, left ﬂank, Mullaby Two” (or similar).

NOTE: that only the key points of the instruction (order) were read back. The additional information (“Rankaroo Brigade will be arriving to assist you in about 10 minutes”) need not normally be read back. While reading back operational instructions is a very sound safety habit, it is only mandatory in the NSW RFS if you are speciﬁcally asked to do so by the sender of a message.

(b) Radio Callsigns

A callsign is the “name” a station uses to identify itself during radio communications. Three types of callsigns are used in the RFS. These are:

• Callsigns used by fixed radio stations.

• Callsigns used by mobile stations.

• Callsigns used temporarily during an incident to indicate a key ICS role.

FIXED STATION CALLSIGNS

Fixed stations are those that are permanently established in a particular location. There are two types in the RFS: The official RFS Commun- ications Centres in a District or Zone, and any unofficial communications centres.

• The callsign for an “official” Fire Communications Centre in a District or Zone consists of the name of the District or Zone followed by the word “Firecom”. For example, the Communications Centre for the (mythical) Sunnyville Rural Fire District would be “Sunnyville Firecom”. 314 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

• The callsign of any fixed radio station used for RFS operations in a District or Zone, except the RFS District Firecom, consists of the name of the station followed by the word “Base”. For example, if the Johnson’s property homestead was commonly used as an unofficial radio communications centre for rural firefighting in an area, its call sign could be “Johnson’s Base”.

Another fixed station callsign is “State Operations”. This is used by the State Operations Centre at the headquarters of the NSW Rural Fire Service

MOBILE STATION CALLSIGNS

Mobile stations are units like tankers and other vehicles in the RFS. The callsign for a mobile station consists of three parts;

• The name of the brigade (or the group name for brigade group officer vehicles),

• The category number of the tanker (see the list below), or a suitable one word description (for vehicles other than tankers), and

• A distinguishing letter (e.g. Alpha, Bravo, etc.), if needed.

Callsigns for tankers always include the appropriate category number from those listed below.

1. 4x4, 3001 to 4000 litre 6. 4x2, 4001 litre (or larger) fire tanker. fire tanker.

2. 4x4, 1601 to 3000 litre 7. 4x4, 801 to 1600 litre fire fire tanker. tanker.

3. 4x2, 3001 to 4000 litre 8. 4x2, 801 to 1600 litre fire fire tanker. tanker.

4. 4x2, 1601 to 3000 litre 9. 4x4, 350 to 800 litre fire fire tanker. tanker.

5. 4x4, 4001 litre (or larger) fire tanker. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 315

So, for example, if there are two Category 1 and one Category 7 tankers in the Westville Brigade, their callsigns would be:

• Westville One Alpha,

• Westville One Bravo,

• Westville Seven.

For vehicles other than tankers, category numbers are not used, and instead a short descriptor is used, such as:

• “Pumper”, “Carrier”, “Bulk Water”, “Slip-on”, “Trailer”, “Boat”, “Group (one, two, east, west, etc.)”, “FCO (one, two, etc.)”, “Support”, “Catering”, “Comms”, or just “RFS (plus a number)” for some Head Office vehicles.

So, for example, if there is a (Category 10) pumper and a personnel carrier in the Westville Brigade, their callsigns would be:

• Westville Pumper,

• Westville Carrier.

ICS CALLSIGNS

During an incident it is important to be able to contact units that are playing a key role in the control of the incident. ICS callsigns are temporary callsigns, assigned to a mobile unit to indicate their role at an incident. The actual unit with a particular role (e.g. the Incident Controller) may change, (perhaps many times), during an incident. The advantage of using an ICS callsign is that you don’t have to keep track of such changes.

The callsign of the Incident Controller (the person in charge) of an incident consists of the name given to the incident followed by the word “Control”. For example, the officer in charge of fighting a grass fire off Whiteford Road might be “Whiteford Control”. An incident may be named after a property name, the name of a road, the name of a distinct geographical feature, or any other appropriate name.

When a unit first arrives at a fire, the senior officer on that unit takes charge as the initial Incident Controller. They advise Firecom or Base that they are assuming control and give their new ICS callsign. A typical call might be something like, “Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two is assuming Whiteford Control”. 316 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

FIRECOM

Whiteford Other Other units not control Incident assigned to ( Mullaby 2 ) Controllers (ICs) incidents

Other units at the Whiteford Incident

Figure 161: Radio network indicated.

Later on, if the fire is large, a more senior officer might arrive and take over the role of Incident Controller and the “Control” callsign. If that was to happen in the example given above, the senior officer would now have the callsign “Whiteford Control”, while Mullaby Two would revert back to its normal callsign. If anyone calls “Whiteford Control”, they would get the Incident Controller (or their radio operator, if applicable), regardless of how many times that role was handed over to someone else.

Whiteford Staging Brigade Rural Fire l X ne an Ch

ISUZU 700

Channel Y T540

l X Other units not assigned to Incidents ne an Ch FIRECOM Channel X

LF RA IRE N.S U S .W R R E URA R W L F V IR .

E S I S E C

RVIC . E E

N FIRECOM Whiteford Other Stations Whiteford IC or ICs Control Channel Y Channel Y Channel Y Channel Y Whiteford Staging Other units at the Whiteford Incident

Other units at the Whiteford Incident

Figure 162: Radio network indicated. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 317

Units with other specific Incident Control System (ICS) functions at an incident may also be given ICS callsigns for the duration of the incident. These may include callsigns containing such ICS terms as “Operations”, “Division”, “Sector”, “Staging Area”, “Strike Team”, “Task Force”, etc. For example, the officer in charge of Sector Alpha would have “Sector Alpha” as a callsign; and the officer in charge of the staging area for the Whiteford Road fire might have “Whiteford Staging” as a call sign.

PHONETIC ALPHABET

When saying letters on the radio, use the following (pronunciation is exaggerated slightly):

Letter Word Pronunciation Letter Word Pronunciation

A Alpha AL-fah N November No-VEM-ber B Bravo BRAH-vo O Oscar OSS-kah C Charlie CHAR-lee P Papa Pah-PAH D Delta DELL-tah Q Quebec KEY-beck E Echo ECK-oh R Romeo ROH-me-oh F Foxtrot Foks-trot S Sierra See-AIR-ah G Golf Golf T Tango TANG-go H Hotel HOH-tel U Uniform You-nee-form I India In-dee-ah V Victor VIK-tah J Juliett Jew-LEE-ett W Whiskey WISS-kee K Kilo KEY-loh X X-ray Ecks-ray L Lima LEE-mah Y Yankee YANG-key M Mike Mike Z Zulu ZOO-loo 318 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

PHONETIC NUMBERS

When saying numbers on the radio, use the following (pronunciation is exaggerated slightly):

Number Word Pronunciation

0 Zero Zero 1 One Wun 2 Two Too 3 Three Tree 4 Four FOWer 5 Five Fife 6 Six Siks 7 Seven Sev-en 8 Eight Ate 9 Nine Niner 100 Hundred Hun-dred 1000 Thousand Tousand

Examples:

10 - wun zero 108 - wun zero ate 1,000 - wun tousand

25 - too fife 500 - fife hundred 1,100 - wun tousand wun hundred

76 - seven six 510 - fife wun zero 1,127 - wun wun too seven

Time should be given as four figures, using the 24 hour clock, preceded by the word “time”. For example: 10:37 PM would be said as “Time; Two Two Three Seven”. “(Note: In some organisations the word “time” is not used. Instead the four figure group is followed by the word “hours”)”.

Wind should be given as a compass direction, followed by the wind strength (kph) and the speed to which it is gusting. For example, a wind coming from the south west at 25 kph, gusting to 35 kph would be said as: “Wind; South West; two five, gusting to three five” RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 319

(d) Radio Pro-words

The standard words (given below) should be used when appropriate:

Pro-Word Meaning

“Affirmative” Yes, or that is correct. “All stations” General call to all stations on a network. “Cancel” Ignore my previous instruction or request. “Clear” This is the end of my transmission No reply is expected. “Clear to you” This is the end of my transmission to you (about to transmit to another). “Confirm” Verify this statement. “Correction” That is incorrect, the correct message is. “Disregard” Ignore my previous statement or information. “E-T-A” Estimated time of arrival. “E-T-D” Estimated time of departure. “Incident call” I have a new fire or other incident to report to you; or to send your unit to. “Figures” The figures that follow are numbers (other than a grid, time, wind, etc). “Go ahead” Invitation to transmit or reply. “Grid” The figures that follow are a map grid reference. “I say again” I am repeating my last transmission. “Negative” No, or that is not correct, or permission not granted. “Nothing heard” I have heard no reply to my transmission. “Over” My transmission is over. You may transmit a reply now. “Read back” Please repeat back to me the message I just gave you. “Roger” I have received and understood your last transmission. “Say again” Please repeat your last transmission. “Sitrep” I’m about to transmit a situation report. (Get ready to copy it down.) “Stand by” I must pause. I will call you back when I am ready. “Wilco” Message received, understood and I will comply. 320 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

(e) Priority Colour Codes

Colour codes are one of the few codes specified in the NSW RFS procedures. They are useful when a lot of calls are being made and, say, a Firecom or Base operator needs to work out which call has the greater priority. The colour code is added to the end of your initial call to indicate its level of importance:

PRIORITY/COLOUR CODE

Priority/Colour Code Meaning

“Emergency” Used only when a unit is in grave danger or life is threatened. “Red” Used to indicate urgent assistance is needed. (but the unit itself is not in grave danger). “Blue” Used to indicate an operational (incident related) call. “Yellow” Used to indicate a general (non incident related) call.

As an example, if Sunnyvale Firecom was to receive the following two radio calls, one straight after the other, it would ask Rankaroo One Bravo to send their message first:

Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Eight Alpha, Blue.

Sunnyville Firecom, Rankaroo One Bravo, Red.

Apart from “emergency”, colour codes are not mandatory for use in the NSW RFS, but you should be aware of their meaning, and use them if needed. The colour codes are based on NSW Fire Brigades practice, who also use “white” (when reporting a fire/incident by radio, it has the next priority after “red”) and “green” (a “stop” message – i.e. fire/incident is under control) colour codes.

Colour codes are not generally used by other Australian Fire Services, the more common interstate practice being to use key words such as “emergency”, “priority”, “sitrep” or “message” to indicate the priority of the call. Note that some interstate Fire Services may use “Mayday” instead of “Emergency”. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 321

(f) Discreet Message Codes

These codes should only be used to discreetly report the condition of casualties. They are used when a casualty or other survivor might become more distressed if they heard something like, “There’s two dead and one really badly injured” blaring out over the speaker of another fire vehicle nearby when the message is sent.

Code D (delta) code for a deceased person Code I (india) code for an injured person Code M (mike) code for a missing person Code T (tango) code for a trapped person

For example: Two injured casualties can be discretely reported as “Two Code India”, or two persons deceased can be reported as, “Two Code Delta”, etc.

(g) Readability Scale

1 Unreadable 2 Readable now and then 3 Readable but with difficulty 4 Readable (but not perfect) 5 Perfectly readable 322 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

(h) Recording Messages

RECORDING INFORMATION

Working with two-way radios often involves writing down the messages you receive. When recording messages, operators must be aware that accuracy and speed are very important.

ABBREVIATIONS

The use of abbreviations, provided that they are clear and legible, can help speed up the process of recording messages. With practice, you should become familiar with the following common abbreviations used at a fireground level. Please note that some variations may occur from District to District in the use of abbreviations, and a more extensive list of abbreviations may be used by Firecom Operators.

Term Abbreviation

Ambulance AMB Approaching APP Approximate APPROX Attack ATK Brigade BDE Callsign CS Captain CPT Casualty CAS Channel CH Control CTRL Control Point CP Coordinates COORD Deputy Captain D/C Deputy Group Captain DGC Equipment EQPT Evacuate EVAC Firefighter FF Fire Control Officer FCO RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 323

Term Abbreviation

Forecast FC Forest Fire Danger Index FFDI Forward Control Point FCP Forward Control Unit FCU Grassland Fire Danger Index GFDI Grid reference GRID Group Captain G/C Haines Index HI Headquarters HQ Incident Controller IC Logistic LOG Message MSG Number No Officer OFFR Officer in Charge OIC Operations OPS Personnel PERS Police POL Priority PRI Proceeding PROC Reconnaissance RECON Relative Humidity RH Responding RESP Senior Deputy Captain SDC Situation Report SITREP Support SPT Temperature TEMP To Be Advised TBA Unknown UNK Water Point WP 324 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

Some points to remember when using abbreviations:

• Full stops are not used.

• Unless otherwise advised, the singular always includes the plural, for example ambulance and ambulances = AMB.

• Any word may be abbreviated, provided that the abbreviation used is clear and legible to the writer and to others who may have to read it.

• Avoid obscure abbreviations. They can waste time if others have to decipher them.

(i) Microphone Technique

The microphone is a sensitive piece of equipment that converts sound waves into an electric signal. It is important to observe a few simple rules when using a microphone:

Always listen out before you make a transmission, so that you do not interrupt someone else’s radio message.

Speak across the face of the microphone and not directly into it. Speaking directly into the microphone may cause distortion. (Exception: if your microphone is a ‘noise-cancelling’ type, you will need to speak directly into it from a close distance). Keep the microphone at a constant distance from your lips to ensure that you give a consistent signal.

CAUTION: Remember that your transmitter is activated whenever you press the microphone switch. To save power, only press the microphone switch when you are actually transmitting. Keep transmission time to the minimum; when you press the microphone switch you ‘jam’ the network so that nobody else can transmit. Always replace the microphone on its hook to ensure that you do not accidentally jam the network. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 325

During radio communications you can ensure that messages are clear by speaking correctly. The following factors (RSVP) are very important:

• R - Rhythm

– Speak naturally and with a normal rhythm.

– Speak in complete phrases that make sense.

– Do not use speech fillers such as er, um and ah, as these interrupt the rhythm.

• S - Speed

– Speak steadily at medium speed.

– If your message is to be written down, pause between phrases.

– During long messages, occasionally release the transmission button to allow an emergency call from another station to be made if needed.

• V - Volume

– Talk slightly louder than in a normal conversation, but do not shout.

– Do not allow your voice to fade away at the end of a message.

– Keep your mouth close to the microphone and at a constant distance.

– Speak across the microphone.

• P - Pitch

– Your voice may be pitched higher than normal.

– Avoid dropping your voice on the last syllable of each word and on the last word in each phrase, as voices normally do in natural conversation.

– Avoid dropping your voice at the end of a sentence. 326 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

4 Communications Procedures

Communications procedures are designed to get key pieces of information passed as quickly and effectively as possible between those who need to know them. The procedures are published in a document called “RFS Radio Communications Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). This training material is based on those SOPs.

This part of the chapter includes some general principles, establishing contact, non-emergency calls, reporting or being advised of an incident call, calls made when responding to an incident, calls made when proceeding to provide back-up at an incident, calls made while at an incident, calls when operating out of your local area, and calls used by other organisations.

NOTE: At the time of writing, some Districts had not yet fully introduced the procedures upon which this section is based; so you might hear some variations on what is described.

At BF level, you will not be expected to know how and when to give all these calls in detail. But at this level you will be expected to understand what they mean when you hear them, and to be able to transmit a message you have been asked to send.

A booklet and CD-ROM on the Communications SOPs is available. The CD-ROM gives numerous (audio) examples of calls. While this Manual focuses on the calls made by units in the ﬁeld; the SOPs, booklet and CD-ROM cover the full range of calls.

(a) General Principles

• “Plain language” is used as much as possible (codes have only a very limited use).

• Each unit communicates with the local Firecom or Base for non- incident related calls.

• Each unit calls their local Firecom or Base when they depart to go to a fire or incident.

• The first units responding to an incident report their arrival at the scene to Firecom or Base. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 327

• A senior officer of the first responding units takes charge (“Control”) of the incident on arrival. That is, he or she takes overall control the activities of all of the units at that incident.

• If more units are called, Firecom or Base tell them where to go and who to call, and “hand over” those units to the Incident Controller (or other designated officer) as they approach the scene.

• Each unit calls the local Firecom or Base when they are released from operations at the incident, when they return to their station/shed, and when closing down radio.

(b) Establishing Contact

If the other station you are calling is not expecting a call from you, or you have not called them for some time, it is wise to first make a call to establish communication, rather than giving your actual message straight away.

Figure 163: Radio call being made. 328 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

When establishing contact with another station, give their call sign first, then give your callsign. For example, if you are in Mullaby Two, and want to call Sunnyville Firecom, you would say,

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two.”

If you prefer, you can add a “this is” before “Mullaby Two”, but it is not a requirement. If several other calls are being made by other units, you can add the priority colour code “yellow”, so that Firecom knows it is only a general call. If you like you can also add, “over” at the end of the message; although this is not required unless the end of the message is not obvious. Putting all of these together, a longer but equally acceptable version of the call would be:

“Sunnyville Firecom, this is Mullaby Two, yellow, over.”

Once communication is established, call signs do not have to be included in each and every call, provided it is clear who is talking to whom.

KEY POINT: To establish contact, transmit their callsign and then your callsign.

Radio calls not related to an incident are usually given to keep Firecom/Base advised of your unit’s status, or to get general information.

Figure 164: Typical Firecom operator. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 329

Firecom/Base needs to know if the method applicable to contact your unit for a fire call has changed. For example, if normally they would advise members via pagers or telephones, they need to know when a crew is out in a unit and is now contactable by radio. After establishing contact with Firecom/Base, a typical call in these circumstances might be:

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby 2 is on radio, with a crew of ﬁve, in Mullabyville, on a training exercise.”

This call lets Firecom know that, if a fire call is received, there is a tanker with a crew available in the area via radio contact. A typical call seeking general information might be:

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby 2. Can you conﬁrm if tonight’s Captain’s meeting is still on?”

Most non-incident calls are not calls using standard phrases. You should think out exactly what you are going to say, before you make the call. As in the examples above, use short, concise language that gets your message across in a clear way.

When Firecom/Base replies, they will either acknowledge your call by giving your callsign, ask you to “stand-by”, or reply with the information you have requested. If things are busy, their reply could be as short as,

“Mullaby Two, Firecom.”

Often, however, they will give a longer reply and add the word “clear” to indicate they have completed their message to you and the channel is now clear for other units to call them. Although read-back is not required in this case, the Firecom might still use it to confirm they have received your message correctly. (Note how they put their callsign at the end of the transmission, not the beginning during a read-back). For example, they might say,

“Copied Mullaby Two on radio with a crew of ﬁve; Sunnyville Firecom, clear.”

A typical reply to a request for information might be something like,

“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom, Captain’s meeting is conﬁrmed for 0730 tonight; clear.”

KEY POINT: Establish contact. Use short plain language to get your message across. 330 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

(d) Calls – Receiving/Transmitting a Call to an Incident

If your unit happens to be out in your Brigade area on radio at the time a call to an incident is received by Firecom/Base, you may be advised by radio. A typical message of this type may go something like:

“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom; Incident Call.”

The words “incident call” in the initial message indicate that Firecom has a call to an incident to pass on to you. Obviously you would need to be ready to copy down details when you reply to it, or advise them if you cannot accept a call to an incident for any reason at that time (e.g. if your vehicle was disabled). Assuming you are able to accept the call, a typical reply from you would be:

“Mullaby Two, Go ahead.”

Notice that, in some of these calls, both call-signs are not always given because it is clear from the context of the preceding call/s who is talking. Once you’ve said “go ahead”, Firecom will pass known details of the call to you, and instruct you to go to the incident, with words like,

“Mullaby Two, respond to a bush ﬁre at 381 Northern Road, Mullabyville, nearest cross street Fuller Road.”

Your reply should read back the key details to confirm you have copied them correctly, and advise your crew strength and the name of the officer in charge (OIC) of your unit. A typical reply would be”

“Crew of ﬁve responding to bush ﬁre, 381 Northern Road, near Fuller Road, Mullabyville, OIC Captain Palmer, Mullaby Two”

Firecom normally will also provide you with other information about the call, to help you build up a mental picture of the situation. For a bush or grass fire this would typically include the current Forest or Grass Fire Danger Index and Haines Index (which helps your OIC determine the best type of attack) and what other units are attending. An example of such a call from Firecom is:

“Mullaby Two. For information, the FFDI is 27, HI is 6. Wind is from the west at 20, gusting to 25, with a southerly change expected at 1600. Rankaroo Two is also responding.” RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 331

Sometimes Firecom might wait a short time and give this message when all of the first responding units are ‘on the air”, to save repeating it. Because this is information, not an instruction to do something, there is no need to read it back, so your reply might simply be:

“Mullaby Two, copied.”

NOTE: If it is you that is reporting the incident (e.g. you see a ﬁre while out driving in the unit), the initial calls are reversed. (That is, it is your unit that says “…. Incident Call”.) You will need to advise Firecom/Base of the type of incident and its location.

KEY POINTS: If you get an Incident Call from Firecom/Base, be ready to note down the details before you say “Go ahead”. If you transmit an incident call to Firecom/Base, include the type of incident and its location.

(e) Calls – First Units Responding to an Incident

While you might occasionally get a call to an incident while your unit is on radio, it is more common for a call to be received while firefighters are at home.

If notification in your area is by a tone pager alone (i.e. no message) you will not know the details of the call until advised by radio in your unit at the fire station/shed. If notification is via a message pager or by telephone, you may already know those details when you get to your station/shed.

If details of the call are not yet known

If you do not yet know details of the call, the first radio call you make to Firecom/Base is simply to let them know that a crew (including an officer to be the OIC) is available and ready to respond. Your call should be something like:

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two, available with a crew of ﬁve, OIC is Deputy Captain Briggs, over.”

As it was Firecom/Base that called you out, they will know to then give you details of the call to the incident. Their reply might be a message like:

“Mullaby Two, respond to bush alight, corner of Fuller Road and Hill Road.” 332 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

Your reply should read back the details of the call.

“Responding to bush alight, corner of Fuller and Hill, Mullaby Two.”

Again as in (d), Firecom might provide more information about the incident, such as:

“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom, for information, Rankaroo Two is also responding. The FFDI is 37, and the HI is 5, over.”

1 Advise Firecom you are available • give call sign • give crew strength • give name of OIC

ISUZU 700

T540 2 Copy details of the incident from Firecom

3 Advise Firecom you are responding

ISUZU • Read back incident type 700

• Read back incident location T540 • Give call sign

4 Copy any additional information from Firecom

Figure 165: Content of a typical “responding” radio message (details of call not known on arrival at station).

If details of the call are known

If you already know details of the call, the first radio call you make to Firecom/Base will be to advise them that you are responding. You need to advise the crew strength, type and location of incident, and the rank and name of the officer in charge. Your initial call should be something like:

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two, crew of ﬁve, responding to bush alight, corner of Fuller and Hill Roads, OIC Deputy Captain Briggs.” RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 333

Firecom/Base might then reply with details of other units responding, and any other relevant information (e.g. the Fire Danger Index and Haines Index). As example of a reply from Firecom is:

“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom, roger; Rankaroo Two is also responding. FFDI is 37, HI is 5, over.”

KEY POINTS: When departing your station/shed to go to an incident, give your call-sign, conﬁrm the type and location of the incident, your crew strength and the name of the OIC of your unit.

NOTE: The Haines Index is not always available. If it is not available, it will be omitted by Firecom. 334 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

(f) Calls – First Units Arriving at an Incident

As units of the first response arrive at the scene of the incident, they need to call the local Firecom/Base and advise that they are “at scene”.

One of the units, usually the one carrying the senior-most officer present from the local Brigade, will assume control of all units at the scene. That is, that senior officer will become the Incident Controller. This is done by giving a radio call that gives the incident a name, and assumes the ICS “(Name of Incident) Control” call-sign.

U Z U S I 0 0 7

0 4 5 T

FULLER ROAD

1 2

Advise Firecom you are "at scene" Give an initial Sitrep • OIC names fire and assumes Control callsign • advise the details of the situation • request further assistance, if needed

Figure 166: Content of “at scene” radio message (first arriving unit).

Often this call is combined with the initial situation report (sitrep). At other times, the officer taking Control does not have enough information to give that sitrep, and asks Firecom to “standby for sitrep” when he/she assumes Control. Below is an example of a combined call that does all of the above:

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two, at scene, assuming Fuller Road Control, medium bush ﬁre threatening houses backing on to north side of Fuller Road, just east of Hill Road, make tankers six.” RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 335

In the above call, the officer in charge of Mullaby Two has assumed the role of Incident Controller, named the incident the “Fuller Road” fire, told Firecom what is happening, and asked them to call more tankers so that the total number at the incident will become six. If the Rankaroo unit arrived shortly afterwards, its arrival call would simply be:

“Sunnyville Firecom, Rankaroo Two, at scene.”

Normally the officer in charge of Rankaroo Two would speak face to face with the Incident Controller, but if the units were far apart, he/she has the option of calling the Incident Controller (“Fuller Road Control”) for instructions.

Often units of the first response arrive within a short time of each other. However, if Rankaroo Two was not likely to arrive until well after “Fuller Road Control” has been established, Firecom might instruct Rankaroo Two to call “Fuller Road Control” as they approach the scene.

Once Control (in this case, Fuller Road Control) has been established, all units at the scene will pass messages to it, not to Firecom/Base. This is because the Incident Controller is in charge of the incident, not Firecom/Base. If all messages at the incident had to be passed through Firecom there would be a lot of “double-handling” of communications.

Although changing the call-sign of the unit assuming Control might seem a bit of overkill at a small incident, it is absolutely vital for good co-ordination at large incidents. If you were to use it only at large incidents you would have very little practice at it and, under the stress of a large incident, you might forget to use it, or do it poorly. Using it at all incidents means there is only one system to remember and use.

KEY POINTS: If you are a unit of the ﬁrst response, report to Firecom when “at scene”. The senior ofﬁcer names the incident, assumes “(Name of Incident) Control” call-sign, gives an initial situation report and requests additional assistance if needed. 336 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

(g) Calls – Back-up Units Proceeding to an Incident

The majority of incidents are handled by units of the first response. Sometimes, however, the Incident Controller may judge that the incident is larger than the units of the first response can handle comfortably. In this case the Incident Controller will call for additional units as back-up.

If all of the back-up units converge on the scene of the incident it can become quite congested. In some cases the Incident Controller might want them to go to a different location; for example, to the far side of the incident. Congestion can be prevented and units can be sent directly to where they are needed if they call the Incident Controller as they approach the incident for further instructions.

One problem, however, is that the back-up units might not yet know the call-sign of the Incident Controller, or in some cases they might not know that units at the Incident are actually operating on a different radio channel. Some incidents may be so large that the Incident Controller might want back-up units to go to a particular sector or staging area.

1 Advise Firecom you are available • give call sign • give crew strength • give name of OIC

2 Copy details of incident from Firecom • note name of "Control" call sign • note when to call "Control" on what channel (if different from normal channel) 3 Advise Firecom you are proceeding to incident • give call sign • give incident type • give incident location • "Read Back" who you are to call and channel (if different from normal)

ISUZU 0 0 7

0 4 5 T

ISUZU 0 0 7

0 4 5 T

Figure 167: Content of “back-up proceeding” radio message. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 337

In practice, these problems are easily overcome. If back-up is requested, those units call Firecom/Base when they depart their station, as in (e). This time, however, Firecom/Base tells them where to go and who to call. Here’s an example of a back-up unit coming on air and being given instructions to call the Incident Controller when approaching the scene.

(Rankaroo Seven)

“Sunnyville Firecom, Rankaroo Seven, available with a crew of three, OIC is Captain Jones.”

(Sunnyville Firecom)

“Rankaroo Seven, proceed to bush alight at corner of Fuller and Hill Roads, Mullaby. Call Fuller Road Control when approaching.”

Rankaroo Seven would read back the key details and Firecom may again give a general call advising weather details when all back-up units were on the air. Notice that Rankaroo Seven has been asked to “proceed” (drive normally), not to “respond’ (use lights and sirens).

Unless the incident Controller indicates urgent assistance is needed, back-up will normally only proceed to the scene. This is because the risks to the public of high-speed responses are as great (often even greater) than the risk from the fire itself.

ISUZU 0 0 7 U Z U S I 0 0 7

0 4 5 T

1 When a minute or two away, give an "approaching" call. • call the Incident Controller (use the "Control" call sign) • give your call sign • give the direction from which you are approaching.

Figure 168: Content of an “approaching” radio message. 338 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

The Incident Controller can ask Firecom to get units to report directly to him/her at the scene, report to a staging area, or be directed straight to a sector of the incident. If no particular request is made, however, Firecom/Base will simply ask units to call the Incident Controller as they are approaching the scene.

The “Approaching” call is just a short way of saying, “We’re nearly there, where do you want us to go and what do you want us to do.” You should make the approaching call just far enough away from the incident so that the Incident Controller has time to direct you to the place where you are needed. If you think it will help, add the direction from which you are approaching. Here’s an example of an “approaching” call.

(Rankaroo Seven)

“Fuller Road Control, Rankaroo Seven, approaching from the north.”

(Fuller Road Control)

“Rankaroo Seven, assist Rankaroo Two make a direct attack on the left ﬂank of the ﬁre.”

(Rankaroo Seven – read-back)

“Assist Rankaroo Two, direct attack, left ﬂank; Rankaroo Seven.”

While it is good to have an understanding of how all of the above procedures work, in practice you don’t really have to know it in detail. All you need to know is that you call Firecom/Base as you depart to go to a call. After that they tell you where to go, who to call and which channel to use.

KEY POINTS: If you are a unit called out later as back-up; as usual you call Firecom/Base when you depart your station/shed. They will tell you who to call, where to call them and what channel to use (if different from your normal channel). Normally you would be told to call “(Name of Incident) Control” when approaching the scene. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 339

(h) Calls – Operating at an Incident

Units operating at an incident communicate with the Incident Controller, (i.e. the station with the callsign: “(name of incident) Control”), or other supervising station to whom they are reporting (e.g. a Sector Commander). Only the Incident Controller communicates with Firecom/Base.

While operating at an incident, additional radio calls may be made to give a situation report (sitrep), report completion of tasks or achievement of key objectives, ask for more or specialised assistance, and as a check that people are still safe and operating normally. Usually such calls are given at least every 30 minutes.

(i) Calls – Operating Out of Area

Sometimes you may be asked to go to another District to assist at an incident. As usual, you should make the standard initial call to your Firecom/Base when you depart your station/shed. They will give you instructions about where to go, who to call and what channel to use.

Depending on the situation, you may be asked to go direct to the incident, to a division or sector of that incident, or to a staging area. Sometimes you might be instructed to call one of them directly. At other times you might be asked to call the Firecom/Base of the District you are going to travel through on the way. Just follow the instructions from Firecom/Base. Here‘s a typical example:

(Mullaby One)

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby One, available with a crew of ﬁve, OIC is Captain Green, over.”

(Sunnyville Firecom, replying to your initial call):

“Mullaby One, Sunnyville Firecom, proceed to assist at a large bush ﬁre, in the Mortland District, FFDI is 48, HI is 6. Are you ready to copy further details?”

Assuming you acknowledge that call, they would then pass on further details, such as:

“Mullaby One, proceed to staging area at Mortland Oval, Terry Street Mortland. Call Mortland Firecom on channel 51 at Williams River. Call me again before changing channels.” 340 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

You would normally read back the key details,

“Proceeding to Mortland Oval, will call again before calling Mortland Firecom on 51 at Williams River”.

The instruction to “call again” is so that Sunnyville Firecom knows when Mullaby One leaves the District (at Williams River) and changes over to being in contact with Mortland Firecom. That way, if they need to call them, they know which channel they are listening to at the time. Once Mullaby One calls Mortland Firecom, they will then direct them where to go and who to call in their area.

(Another option for Mortland Firecom in this case would have been for them to get Sunnyville Firecom to instruct Mullaby One to go to the Mortland Oval Staging Area for a face to face briefing. Maybe they haven’t done this on this occasion because the fire situation is changing rapidly and they expect they will need to re-direct Mullaby One to go straight to a location at the incident as soon as they call at Williams River.)

1 Advise Firecom you are available • give call sign • give crew strength • give name of OIC

2 Copy details of incident from "home" Firecom • note who to call • note when/where to call them • note channel to use

ISUZU 0 0 7

0 4 5 T

4 When leaving your "home" area, 3 call the Firecom for the new area Advise Firecom of leaving • give call sign "home" district and changing channels • give crew strength • give name of OIC • advise intentions or request instructions

ISUZU

0 0 7

ISUZU 0 0 7 0 4 5 T

0 4 5 T

District Boundary

Figure 169: Content of “out of area incident” radio messages.

The general rules are that when you are going to, or returning from an incident, your communications should be with the local Firecom/Base for that area. While you are operating at an incident, your communications should be to “(name of incident) Control” or other unit with whom you RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 341 have been assigned to report. Your brigade vehicles normally should be carrying a list or a map showing the channels that are in use in your local and neighbouring areas.

KEY POINTS: Make your initial call to your local Firecom/Base as usual. Then just follow the instructions you are given.

(j) Calls – Working with Other Organisations

At large incidents you might be working with other organisations and communicating directly with them by radio. While the principles are similar, there are some differences in radio procedures. Here are some examples:

NSW FIRE BRIGADES

The NSW Fire Brigades use their station number and type of appliance as their callsign. They use numerical codes for some messages: For example, “Code 8” means “arrived at scene”. The RFS colour codes originally came from the NSWFB, but they use two additional colours. “White” is used to indicate they are reporting a fire by radio (next highest priority after “red”). “Green” is used to indicate a STOP message. That is, the fire is under control and no further assistance is needed.

INTERSTATE FIRE SERVICES

Most of the Fire Services in states and territories bordering NSW share similar standard communications procedures with each other and the RFS, designed to align with the incident control system (ICS). Two notable differences in some services is the use of “Wordback” to describe the initial sitrep, and the word “Mayday” instead of “Emergency”.

Colour codes appear to be used only in NSW and the ACT. In other states priority is indicated by key words in the initial call, such as, ‘Emergency; (same as NSW), ‘Priority’ (‘Red’ in NSW), ‘At the scene’ or ‘Wordback’ (‘Blue in NSW), ‘Sitrep’ (‘Blue” in NSW), ‘Message’ (‘Yellow’ in NSW) and ‘Fire Call’ (‘White’ in NSWFB). 342 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

AVIATION

Specialist training is provided to firefighters who communicate with aircraft. Aviation radio procedures use precise phraseology and may sound quite fast until you become used to them. Many of the principles are similar to that used in the RFS. Read-back of messages is common.

Aircraft call-signs normally consist of three letters, using the phonetic alphabet, and corresponding to the aircraft’s registration (three letters preceded by “VH-“). Aircraft assigned to firefighting activities will often use special call-signs (e.g. Firebird One). You need to have an Aviation Radio Operator’s licence to use aviation radios.

Aviation radio communications may use controlled networks, with the controlling station being a control tower, radar controller or similar, who directs air traffic and/or supplies an advisory service to aircraft. Most air- ports in rural areas, however, are uncontrolled and aircraft in the vicinity share a common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) on which they make standard “all stations” calls. If several aircraft are operating at a fire, a similar (FTAF) concept may be in use.

In aviation communications in Australia, distance is always given in nautical miles, altitude in feet, and direction in degrees (e.g. East would be 090, and said as “zero – nine – zero”). Wind is given as its direction and strength in knots (e.g. 090/25 means from the East at twenty five knots and is said as “zero nine zero at two five”).

A decimal point is said as “decimal”. So, if an aircraft were to ask you to call them on frequency 119.1, they would say that frequency as, “one, one, nine, decimal one”.

Time is given in minutes past the hour, or sometimes as hours and minutes in UTC (10 hours behind Australian Eastern Standard Time, or 11 hours behind Eastern Standard Daylight Saving Time), so 1435 Eastern Standard Daylight Saving Time (0335 UTC) would be said as “time three five” or “time zero three three five”. The word “zulu” may be added to indicate the time is in UTC.

NOTE: Be careful in western areas of NSW where Central Standard Time is in use (UTC plus nine and a half hours). There a time of given by an aircraft (in UTC) of “07” would actually be 37 minutes past the hour in local time (CST). RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 343

(k) Calls – Supplementary Information

CORRECTING MISTAKES

When sending a message, you may realise you have made a mistake. To fix a mistake the word “CORRECTION” is used. For example

“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two has a crew of six. CORRECTION, a crew of ﬁve, over.”

REPETITIONS

To provide emphasis, or to ensure the receiver understands, you may repeat a word, phrase, or a complete message using the pro-words “I SAY AGAIN”. For example:

“Mullaby Two, urgent assistance is needed in Fogarty Street; I SAY AGAIN, urgent assistance needed in Fogarty Street.”

If a message was unclear, sometimes the receiver may ask that a message, or part of it, be repeated. A receiver asks for repetition or clarification by using one of the following phrases:

SAY AGAIN SAY AGAIN word before

SAY AGAIN word after SAY AGAIN all before

SAY AGAIN all between SAY AGAIN all after

For example:

“Mullaby Two, your last message was interrupted. SAY AGAIN all after “the ﬁre has crossed..”, OVER.”

RELAYING MESSAGES

If two stations are having difficulty communicating, radio traffic can sometimes be improved by a third station acting as a relay. For example, an operator listening on a mobile may notice that another mobile is having trouble receiving transmissions from the communications centre. In this case, the operator can offer to relay messages between the stations having difficulty, provided that the person can hear both stations clearly.

Stations acting as relays assume full responsibility for passing on the correct message once they have received it. 344 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

LONG MESSAGES

A message over one minute is considered long. You should also advise anyone you are about to send a long message, with the phrase, “…ready to copy details?”

Long messages should be sent in sections each lasting no more than 30 seconds. These 30 second sections should end with the key phrase, “more to follow, standby”. The receiving station should acknowledge each section with the phrase “copied so far”.

A bad habit is to break relatively short messages (10 to 20 seconds) into several parts and constantly ask “Copy so far?” at the end of each. This uses up a lot of “air time”, is unnecessary and is not as effective as asking for read back, if needed.

SUMMARY

• Radio communications involves the transmission of messages by electronic means without the use of wires. • The radio spectrum refers to the range of frequencies used for radio communications. Fire Services generally use frequencies in the VHF and UHF bands, and may make some use of HF in remote areas. • Radio communications may use simplex systems (using a single frequency), duplex systems (using a pair of frequencies), repeater systems (using a pair of frequencies through a repeater) or trunked systems (sharing a pool of frequencies). • The RFS radio communications network uses an integrated mix of the Government Radio Network (GRN) trunked system, Private Mobile Radio (PMR) repeater systems, and simplex frequencies, some of which are shared with other agencies. • Typical controls on mobile and portable radios include an “on/off” switch, a volume control, a mute control (automatic on some sets) and a channel selector. Consult the Operating Instructions Booklet for each type of radio for further details. • Other communications systems include mobile telephones, satellite telephones, pagers, fax machines and conference call telephone systems. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 345

SUMMARY

• Care and maintenance of communications equipment includes regular checks and tests, keeping radios away from conditions in which they might deteriorate, and ensuring batteries are regularly changed or recharged. • Radio phraseology should be kept short, sharp and to the point, and use standard phrases where possible. Read back procedures are recommended to ensure messages have been received correctly. • Radio callsigns may be used for fixed stations (e.g. Firecom or Base), mobile stations (e.g. tankers and other vehicles) and stations with a key ICS role at an incident (e.g. “.. Control”). • Letters and numbers should be said phonetically on the radio. Standard radio pro-words should be used where possible. Priority colour codes and discreet message codes may be used where appropriate. Radio messages may be recorded using standard abbreviations. • When using a microphone, speak clearly across its face, keeping it at a constant, close distance from your lips. Maintain an effective rhythm, speed, volume and pitch in your voice. • The principles behind RFS radio communications procedures are quite simple. When a unit departs its station/shed, it calls its local Firecom or Base. From there, the Firecom/Base should tell it who to call next and when. When a unit arrives first at the scene of an incident, the senior officer takes charge and assumes the “(name of incident) Control” callsign. Thereafter, all units at the incident talk to “Control” (not Firecom/Base) and Firecom/Base usually directs any later arriving units to call “Control” as they approach the scene. • An initial radio call is usually designed to establish contact. To call another station, you say their callsign, followed by your callsign. • Calls not related to an incident may not be able to use standard phraseology, but should get the message across clearly and simply using “plain language”. • Calls alerting you of an incident, or calls given to report an incident should include the words “incident call”. This indicates to the receiver to be ready to copy details. 346 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

SUMMARY

• First responding units to an incident report to Firecom/Base on departure from their station/shed (giving callsign, crew strength and name of the OIC) and when “at scene”. The senior officer names the incident, assumes the “(Name of Incident) Control” call-sign, gives an initial situation report and requests additional assistance if needed. • Units called out later as back-up call Firecom/Base when they depart their station/shed. Firecom/Base advises them who to call, where to call them and what channel to use (if different from the normal channel). Normally back-up units would be told to call “(Name of Incident) Control” when approaching the scene. • Units operating at an incident communicate with the Incident Controller or other supervising station to whom they are reporting (e.g. a Sector Commander). Only the Incident Controller communicates with Firecom/Base. Units keep in regular contact with the station to whom they are reporting, (at least once every 30 minutes).

• Units going “out of area” (proceeding to outside their own District) call their local Firecom/Base when departing their station/shed. Firecom/Base will advise them who to call and what channel to use. As before, at an incident they communicate with the Incident Controller or other supervising station to which they have been assigned. When operating in another District, but not at an incident, the local Firecom/Base channel should be monitored and used.

• Differences may occur with procedures used in other Fire Services and aviation. People who communicate directly with them by radio will need to know about these differences.

• Use standard calls to correct mistakes or request repetitions of messages when needed. Assist communications by relaying messages when needed. When transmitting long messages, ensure the other station is ready to copy down the details, and break the message into sections, if needed. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 347

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. VLF radios are commonly used in the RFS.

2. In a duplex system, two frequencies are used.

3. In a repeater system, communications is possible between two stations who are not in line of sight of each other, but are both in line of sight of the repeater.

4. The GRN is a trunked radio system.

5. Fireground portable radios operate on the PMR system.

6. Normally you should read back instructions, but not information, in a radio message.

7. The radio callsign “Peatsville Seven” would mean that there are at least seven tankers in the Peatsville Brigade.

8. The radio callsign “Springvale Control” is the callsign for the incident controller at the Springvale fire or incident.

9. If you are a back-up tanker proceeding to assist other units already at a fire, you should always call the local Firecom/Base as you approach or arrive at the scene of the incident.

10. If you have been fighting a fire outside your local District and are now leaving to return home, you should immediately call your own Firecom/Base to advise them. 348 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

ACTIVITIES

1. Under supervision, examine the radios used by your brigade. Find out what type they are, how to turn them on, adjust them and turn them off.

2. Find out what channels are used in your local area and nearby. Find out what areas these cover and whether they are GRN, PMR or UHF-CB.

3. Visit your local Firecom or Base. Find out where any repeaters in your area are located, what channel they operate on and what areas they cover. Listen to radio communications at the Firecom or Base.

4. “Walk through” a typical incident. Make up appropriate radio calls that would need to be made during the incident. If possible record these calls on a cassette, listen to them being played back and discuss how your calls could be improved.

5. Under supervision, make radio calls in association with incidents, training exercises and other activities. 349

CHAPTER 9 Rural Fire Brigades

1 Introduction

While a lot of this Manual and your training will be about your firefighting role, there is much more to being a member of a rural fire brigade. Indeed, chances are you will probably spend the majority of your time with the brigade in non-firefighting activities. In this chapter, you will be introduced to:

• How Rural Fire Brigades interact with the community they protect.

• How rural firefighting is organised and structured in NSW.

• How the people in the brigade interact with it.

• How brigades acquire and look after equipment.

• How brigades members become trained.

• Non-fire/incident activities in the brigade.

• Legal issues concerning brigades.

You don’t have to know everything in this chapter off by heart. However, many problems and issues arise in brigades because members simply do not know how things are organised or supposed to work. This chapter will give you most of the information you are likely to need to be an informed member, and point you in the right direction to get further information, if you need it. 350 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

2 The Brigade and the Community

The role of rural fire brigades (formerly known as “bush fire brigades” – a title which some retain for heritage purposes) is to protect the community from fires and similar incidents. Ultimately, brigades only exist because of this need to protect the community. How your brigade relates to your community is therefore very important.

(a) Types of Brigades

Exactly how a brigade relates to a community will vary from place to place. Few realise just how diverse rural fire brigades are: They can be anything from a family on a rural property dealing with an occasional grass fire, to an urban fringe brigade responding to over 400 grass, bush, structural and vehicle fires/incidents each year. Brigades generally fall into one of three broad types:

REMOTE RURAL BRIGADES

These are more common in country areas, both on the coast and inland. They generally have a large membership; sometimes the entire adult population of the area being listed as members. They are usually equipped with mostly tank-trailers and slip-on units, positioned on member’s properties. Sometimes they are equipped with tankers, but frequently don’t have a station/shed.

(positional only)

Figure 170: Tanker-trailer on unit in grassland. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 351

Typically they attend one or two grass or bush fires each year. Members are generally of long standing, often joining in their teens and remaining members for life. The brigade is seen primarily as a mutual self-protection organisation. They rarely respond to fires outside the local area. Sometimes they do not think of themselves as “volunteer firefighters”. (“Volunteers” are seen as people who want to fight fires, rather than being in a brigade by necessity for their own protection.) About 40% of rural fire brigades are probably of this type.

RURAL BRIGADES

These occur in areas which border national parks and forest areas. Generally their membership includes only a part of the local population, and they are equipped mostly with tankers designed primarily for large- scale bush firefighting operations.

They nearly always operate from a centrally located fire station/shed. They usually attend several fires a year and occasionally participate in large “campaign” fires over several days or even weeks. They sometimes respond long distances to help fight fires out of area.

(positional only)

Figure 171: Cat 1 tanker in bushland.

Members are generally well trained, with training focussed on bush/forest firefighting. These brigades often have a core of long term members, plus a group of newer members, several of whom may be an active member for only a few years. About 10% of Brigades are probably in this category. 352 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

VILLAGE BRIGADES

These occur in numerous country villages and in town/city fringe areas. Generally their membership represents only a small part of the local population, and they are equipped mostly with multi-purpose tankers and sometimes pumpers.

Figure 172: Village brigade at motor vehicle fire.

They nearly always operate from a centrally located fire station and attend a large number and a wide variety of incidents throughout the year. (eg. typically from 20 to over 400 calls a year). Members are usually more comprehensively trained because of the wider variety of incidents to which they may be called. Again there is often a core of longer-term members leading a group of newer members. About 50% of brigades are probably of this type.

NOTE: Sometimes brigades are in a state of change, evolving from being one type of brigade into another. This situation can often be a cause of tension as the need for new types of equipment, ways of operating and training might not always be recognised by all. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 353

(b) The Service Delivery Model (SDM)

The Service Delivery Model (or SDM) is a system used in the RFS to ensure that all the different systems (e.g. operations, training, community education and so on) work cohesively together and are matched to the particular needs of the community they serve.

The SDM uses a risk management approach. That is, it works out what hazards the community faces that the RFS can deal with, and then estimates and provides resources to deal with those hazards in an appropriate priority. Three types of risks are examined in the SDM:

Core Hazards – These are hazards which the Service has a direct responsibility to manage; such as fires involving bush, structures, transport and concentrations of population.

Supplementary Hazards – These are hazards which are the responsibility of another organisation; however, the RFS may assist in dealing with them. They include situations such as storm damage, floods and land search.

Organisational (or Corporate) Hazards – These are hazards that are internal to the RFS and result from its role and current development, such as firefighter health and safety hazards.

In each case, the risks are identified, analysed and evaluated on their likelihood of happening and potential consequences if they do occur. On the basis of this information, the order of priority of risks is worked out and treatments (ways of controlling each) are determined. The whole process includes a lot of consultation with brigade members, and the actions taken to treat the risks are regularly monitored and reviewed to make sure they are still relevant. 354 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Establish the context

Identify risks Monitor and review Analyse risks

Evaluate risks

Yes

Communicate and consult Accept risks?

Treat risks

Figure 173: SDM risk assessment process.

In the case of the Core Hazards, the SDM process will determine the type and number of firefighting vehicles and equipment needed in an area to counteract the identified risks. So an area which has mainly only grass fire risks will end up with quite different equipment than one, say, with a high structural and vehicle fire risk.

Later in this chapter, you will be shown how a similar risk management approach can be used to identify, analyse and evaluate firefighter safety risks, so that appropriate treatments can be put into place to protect firefighter safety.

Most brigades have a good reputation in their community. Volunteer firefighters are usually seen as selfless, courageous, resourceful and helpful people. But it isn’t necessarily so. The level of support you get from your community ultimately depends on the level of service you give to them.

You must never forget that people will make a judgement about you and your brigade by how you act. While they might not know about fire fighting, they do know a lot about common sense and courtesy, and it’s on RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 355 those things that they will often judge you. Here’s an example of three different approaches to quality of service in a brigade. The situation is a grass fire in the late afternoon that threatens a house owned by a frail elderly person living alone.

DEFICIENT SERVICE

The brigade is slow to respond, has poorly maintained equipment, poor firefighting skills and the house ends up being damaged by the fire. After the fire the Captain comments to the owner, “We’re only volunteers, that’s the best we could do”.

EXPECTED SERVICE

The brigade responds quickly, contains the fire and prevents any damage to the house. After the fire the Captain tells the owner the fire is out and the Brigade returns home.

OUTSTANDING SERVICE

The brigade responds quickly, contains the fire and prevents any damage to the house. After the fire the Captain notices the owner is very apprehensive. The Captain talks to the owner and finds out that they are frightened the fire might rekindle while they are asleep. The Captain reassures the owner that is unlikely, but arranges for an able-bodied relative to stay with them overnight and has firefighters come back regularly to check the fire scene later on and reassure them.

Which of the above approaches do you think would earn the greater respect and support of the community? Which is more in line with being an organisation that really cares for its community? Which would make you feel more rewarded as a volunteer? 356 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 174: Firefighters at work with members of the community.

Quality of service is not a complicated concept. It really comes down to putting yourself in the position of the victim and of asking yourself, “If I was the victim of this incident, how would I need and want to be treated? And, what treatment would be beyond what I expect, but would be really appreciated?”

Most people will not understand or appreciate the strategy and tactics you use at an incident, no matter how clever. But, they will always remember if you were sympathetic, supportive, courteous and thoughtful, and even more if you were inconsiderate, abrupt, abusive, rude or foul-mouthed. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 357

3 The Rural Fireﬁghting Organisation

A frequent cause of conflict and confusion among members is a lack of understanding of how the rural firefighting movement is organised and run. For example, some members are affronted when the local Fire Control Officer (FCO) wants to inspect their equipment, not realising that the FCO is required by law to have such inspections carried out.

The aim of this section is to familiarise you with the organisation at a Brigade, Group, Local, Regional and State level. It will also mention some of the consultative committees associated within the RFS, and where you can go to get more information.

(a) Brigade Level

Brigades are usually formed by the local Council or a local group of Councils. They also determine the territory in which the brigade is to operate and appoint the officers to the brigade. Any “interested person” may request a brigade be formed and the Commissioner may form a brigade if the local authority refuses to do so. The Commissioner may also form brigades in parts of the state where there is no local Council.

Figure 175: Typical brigade station. 358 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

CONSTITUTION

Each brigade must have a constitution conforming to certain rules and covering things like the brigade name, types of membership, application for membership, termination, suspension and resignation of membership, audits, meetings, duties and so on. The RFS has a model constitution which has been adopted in many brigades. The rules for constitutions are tight enough to maintain essential uniformity between brigades, but flexible enough to allow them to be adapted and tailored to local circumstances.

FIELD OFFICERS

Field Officers include the brigade Captain, Senior Deputy Captain and Deputy Captains. They are the only people in the brigade with legal authority to carry out firefighting and similar activities. A member alone does not have that authority and can only operate under the direction of a field officer. The authority of field officers normally only applies within the brigade’s own area, but under certain conditions they can also operate outside of their own territory (e.g. if they have been called out to assist another brigade).

The field officers of the brigade are usually those persons who have been elected to those positions by active firefighting members of the brigade, within the applicable rules of eligibility. For example, in many, (but not all) brigades, a person has to have Crew Leader certification to be eligible for election as a Deputy Captain or higher.

Elections must take place at least once every three years, although it is the common practice to hold them annually. Brigade field officers have very wide powers at fires and other incidents. In electing them, you should consider the competency and maturity of each candidate to use those powers wisely. Field officers and members may be identified by their helmet and rank markings as shown overleaf: RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 359

L FI AL FIRE RA RE UR S AL FIRE U S L FIR R E R S E RA E R U R R S R E U E V R V R W R . I V W W . I C V S . I C . S W C

. E S

. I E .

C E

S N

N . N E N

Firefighter Deputy Senior Captain Captain Deputy Captain

Figure 176: Helmet and rank markings of field officers and members.

ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS

In addition to the field officers, there are other office positions in most brigades. They do not need or have the same powers as field officers, but they do have specific functions within the brigade. All members may vote in the election of administrative officers. Administrative officers may include:

• A Brigade President who presides over meetings.

• A Brigade Secretary responsible for correspondence, minutes of meetings and for keeping a register of members.

• A Brigade Treasurer responsible for administering brigade funds.

• A Brigade Equipment Officer responsible for co-ordinating the care and maintenance of brigade equipment.

• A Brigade Training Officer responsible for co-ordinating training and assessment matters in the Brigade.

In addition, and depending on needs, a brigade may include a number of specialist members, such as tanker drivers, first-aid officers, chain saw operators, breathing apparatus operators, etc. Often the field officers may also hold one or more of the offices or specialist functions mentioned above. For example, in some brigades all field officers are tanker drivers and hold a first-aid certificate. In some brigades the Captain and President may be a combined role, etc. 360 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

(b) Group Level

Brigades are usually organised into groups, each under a Group Captain and/or Deputy Group Captains. These group officers have similar powers to a brigade Captain, but can exercise them in any of the brigade areas within their group. The training for group officers goes well beyond that provided for brigade field officers, enabling them to command a firefighting operation involving several brigades, multiple crews and numerous vehicles.

Photo by Sean Davey

Figure 177: Typical group officer’s vehicle.

At larger fires, involving several brigades, it is usual for a group officer to take overall command of the incident. In this case, they will normally not issue orders directly to firefighters, but indirectly through their crew leaders (brigade level officers). Group officers do not take over because they don’t trust the local Captain or deputies, it’s because group officers generally are trained to command multi-brigade incidents, whereas brigade field officers are not. At very large fires, Group Captains and Deputy Group Captains are normally used as sector and/or division commanders (their training includes such roles). RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 361

Group officers are elected by eligible brigade members and candidates must have Group Leader certification. Outside of firefighting, the normal role of group officers is generally to co-ordinate the activities of Brigades within their group. In many areas, for example, they may have a training or safety inspection role. Group officers typically operate out of light vehicles and may be identified by their helmet and rank markings as shown below:

AL FIRE R SE U R R V L FIR I A E W C R . U S E E S R R . V N W . I

C S

E N

Deputy Group Captain Group Captain

Figure 178: Helmet and rank markings of group officers.

Most Rural Fire Districts correspond to local Council areas (except for urban areas covered by the NSW Fire Brigades). A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is negotiated between the local Council and the RFS. It is an agreement about “who looks after what” in providing rural fire fighting services in the district. In some cases the RFS does everything; in others the tasks are shared between the RFS and the Council.

A Fire Control Officer (FCO) is an employee of the RFS with the rank of “Superintendent”, appointed to be in charge of fire protection in a Rural Fire District. In many areas there are one or more Deputy Fire Control Officers (DFCO) with the rank of “Inspector”, to assist the FCO. Some Districts also employ fire hazard reduction and/or clerical support staff.

Unlike a volunteer brigade member or officer, an FCO is under a statuto- ry obligation to protect the area from fires. In many areas, several Rural Fire Districts have been integrated together to form a Zone, under an 362 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES overall Zone Manager. They are required by law to take actions to provide that service, including:

• Supervising and directing all functions of the local Brigades.

• Taking all necessary measures to provide protection from fires.

• Inspecting, or causing to be inspected, all firefighting equipment at least once each year.

The FCO and DFCO have all the powers of a brigade Captain, but can exercise them throughout the entire Rural Fire District and in certain other areas. The FCO is the person accountable to ensure the local rural fire organisation is properly equipped, organised, maintained and trained. FCOs and many DFCOs are trained to take command of large, complex fires/incidents. They may be identified by their helmet and rank markings as shown below:

FIR AL E S AL FIRE UR E R SE R R U R V R V I W C I . W C . E S E S . FCO FC .

N D O N

Figure 179: Helmet and rank markings of FCOs and DFCOs.

(d) Regional Level

NSW is divided into four RFS regions, each under a Regional Manager with the rank of Chief Superintendent. Their job is to co-ordinate, assist and audit the Districts. Each Regional Office looks after about 30 Rural Fire Districts. The regional staff includes officers who look after the Operations, Learning and Development, Bush Fire Planning and Business functions. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 363

(e) State Level

At State level, the Rural Fire Service (RFS) sets the standards and devises the systems under which the Service operates. It arranges for the design, selection and bulk purchase of equipment, the development of training and community education materials, and overall co-ordination of bush firefighting across the state. Equipment purchases are made on a state-wide basis, often in common with other services (e.g. the NSW Fire Brigades), to get the best value prices.

Figure 180: New tanker being officially handed over.

The Commissioner of the RFS is in overall charge of the Service, and reports to the NSW Minister for Emergency Services. In addition, the Commissioner also has the important role of co-ordinating all bush firefighting in the state, regardless of which service or agency is involved. Sections 44 and 45 of the Rural Fires Act provide for the Commissioner to take charge, or appoint a person to take charge, of a large fire/s which is beyond, or likely to become beyond, local control. You might sometimes hear of major fires being referred to as a “Section 44” emergency.

Funding for the RFS is raised from levying insurance companies (73.7%), State government (13.0%) and local Councils (13.3%). Funding is allocated on the basis of relative needs in different areas. Essentially, Fire Control Officers put in estimates of yearly costs, which are processed through the relevant Regional Office. 364 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 181: Inter-state liaison at incidents.

The Rural Fire Service also liaises with the Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC), which is an association of all Australian and New Zealand Fire Services. Most training material, for instance, is now developed co-operatively at a national level, making it more standardised and cheaper than if developed separately by each agency.

(f) Advisory and Consultative Bodies

The Rural Fire Service Advisory Council (RFSAC) is an advisory body to the Commissioner. Its members are drawn from organisations who have a stake in the operation of the RFS. The Co-ordinating Committee is an inter-agency body with specific functions, particularly in the area of preventing and planning for large scale bush fire emergencies. Its members are drawn from firefighting agencies and organisations with a stake in co-ordinating rural fire protection.

Membership of the RFS usually also gives you membership of the Rural Fire Service Association (RFSA). As the name implies, this is an association for members of the RFS. The RFSA has committees at District and regional level and provides representatives on Operations, Technical and Training Committees that report to the RFSAC. The RFSA run conferences, maintain their own web-site and on-line store, and are an important avenue for consultation within the Service. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 365

(g) Sources of Information

Your brigade should have a “mini-library” of publications on various aspects of the RFS. These include Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for Fireground (Operations), Communications, Training, Prescribed Burning, Aviation, Equipment Maintenance and Accident Prevention. Information booklets and pamphlets should be available about community education, equipment, training, workers compensation, insurance, rehabilitation and critical incident support services.

Figure 182: Typical set of SOPs and other publications.

Copies of the Bush Fire Bulletin and the Firefighter Safety Digest should be available, and safety posters should be displayed in the station/shed. Each brigade should also have a map showing the brigade area and features, and a set of pre-incident planning data sheets for the area. Ask your brigade secretary or Captain for more information if you are unable to find some of the above.

At a District, Zone and Regional level there should be copies of all Service Standards and SOPs, stocks of sample training materials, and usually a range of training and community education videos and similar resources. Many Districts and some brigades have a newsletter, magazine and/or web-site for members.

At a state level, the RFS maintains a library with a wide range of fire related videos, books, periodicals and other publications. The Service also has a comprehensive web-site (at www.rfs.nsw.gov.au) including all 366 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Service Standards and SOPs, bush fire safety information, employment opportunities, media releases, publications, equipment, fire restrictions and total fire bans, and numerous other subjects and links.

Figure 183: The RFS web-site home page.

If you want to know about something, the first place to ask is within your own brigade. If your question is about some specific issue, make sure you ask the right person. For example, if it’s about training, ask your Training Officer; if it’s about equipment, ask your Equipment Officer, and so on. If they are not sure, your District office should be able to clarify things for you or refer it someone who can. You can also seek out information yourself on the web-site and/or inquire with your RFSA representative. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 367

4 The People in the Brigade

While the Rural Fire Service exists to protect the community from fires, it could not exist without the people who make up its membership. This section will cover what membership means and the need for firefighter health, safety and welfare. In addition, it will describe the provisions available for taking disciplinary action against members, in the unlikely event of that being needed, and how to resolve grievances that might sometimes arise between members.

(a) Membership

Brigades are required to keep an up to date register of members. Membership is defined as being listed on such a register. New members will normally be classified as “probationary” for the first six months. Many, but not all, brigades require members to have Bush Firefighter (and in some cases also Village Firefighter) certification prior to being eligible to attend calls to incidents. Some brigades may have probationary, ordinary, life, honorary and junior members. These will normally be explained in the brigade constitution.

People can be removed from a register of members if they have died, applied in writing to have their name removed, have breached some disciplinary matter, have become mentally incapacitated, have been convicted of a serious offence, or are no longer a “fit and proper person” (in the opinion of the authority responsible for the brigade) to be a member. Provisions exist to appeal against such a decision, or the refusal to list a person as a member.

(b) Fireﬁghter Health, Safety and Welfare

Every volunteer has the right to expect that the system of firefighting and related activities ensures their health, safety and welfare. Sadly, on average, one or two rural firefighters die during some activities each year, and a few hundred receive significant injuries. One of the main responsibilities of all members of the RFS at all levels is to help prevent this toll. 368 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

HEALTH AND SAFETY RISK MANAGEMENT

One of the main ways of doing this is to apply the principles of risk management to firefighter health, safety and welfare. This involves identifying the hazards, assessing the risks, deciding how to control them, putting those controls into effect, and reviewing them regularly to make sure they are still effective. The “controls” that can be used to minimise health and safety risks include:

• Substituting the hazard with another that involves a lesser risk.

• Isolating the hazard from the people put at risk.

• Minimising the risk by engineering means.

• Minimising the risk by administrative means.

• Using personal protective equipment.

The above list is sometimes called the “hierarchy of controls”. Controls towards the top of the list are generally regarded as more effective and reliable than controls towards the bottom of the list. In firefighting, however, you often do not have much control over the “place” in which you have to fight the fire. Compared with most situations, the controls needed for safe firefighting depend less on providing a “safe place” and more on ensuring every firefighter is a “safe person”.

This risk management approach can be used at all levels. For example, the information in Chapter Two of this manual on firefighting hazards, and the precautions that need to be taken, came from such an approach, conducted at state level. At a District level there should be a group of members that meet each year to carry out a safety risk assessment and develop an action plan to implement appropriate controls within your District. A safety audit system also exists to monitor that appropriate controls are implemented at a District level. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 369

DYNAMIC RISK MANAGEMENT Every crew and each individual firefighter should apply the same basic approach before every task in firefighting. At this level it is referred to as Dynamic Risk Assessment (DRA). It is a system widely used in British and Australian Fire Services and follows the flow chart shown below:

Evaluate the situation, tasks & persons at risk

Select systems of work

Assess the Proceed Consider viable chosen systems with tasks alternatives of work

YES Are the risks proportional to the benefits? NO

YES Can additional NO Re-assess Do not proceed systems of work control measures be introduced? with tasks

Figure 184: Dynamic Risk Assessment flowchart.

Basically, Dynamic Risk Assessment asks you to think through each task before you do it, work out how you are going to do it, consider what hazards are involved, assess the level of risk they involve, apply additional controls if needed, or don’t carry out the task if it is too risky.

FIREFIGHTER WELFARE

The RFS has several systems to support the welfare of firefighters. A Chaplain service is available to all members. Critical Incident Support Services (CISS) are available when needed, and are often automatically provided if firefighters have been exposed to a critical incident, such as one involving a death or severe injury to a member of the public or a fellow firefighter. A rehabilitation service is also provided to firefighters who have been injured while serving with the RFS. 370 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

While it is not a common occurrence, occasionally a member may do something that is illegal, dangerous or contrary to the rules. In such a case, disciplinary action can be taken against them. A member is guilty of a breach of discipline if they:

• Contravene the Rural Fires Act or Regulation.

• Fail to comply with Service Standards applicable to them.

• Are negligent, careless, inefficient or incompetent in their duties.

If the person involved is a member, then disciplinary action may be taken by the officer in charge of their brigade or group of brigades. If the person involved is an officer, then disciplinary action may be taken by their Fire Control Officer. Alternatively, if the brigade constitution provides for it, the disciplinary action may be taken by a panel of persons in accordance with the constitution.

Examples of issues that might constitute grounds for disciplinary action are bullying, harassment and unauthorised use of brigade equipment. Note that in some cases, such actions may also be acts punishable by law.

Disciplinary action has to be taken in accordance with Service Standard 1.1.2. Basically this provides for the evidence of the alleged breach to be properly collected and documented, and for a fair and reasonable judgement to be made.

If the breach is proven beyond reasonable doubt, the person involved may be reprimanded or suspended from service for a specified period. Alternatively the responsible authority may be recommended to demote the officer or member, disqualify them from holding rank, or have them removed from the brigade register. Fourteen days notice has to be given of any disciplinary action, during which time an appeal can be lodged. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 371

Figure 185: Service Standards on Discipline and Grievances.

(d) Grievances

A grievance is different from a disciplinary matter. In a grievance, it is not a case of somebody doing something “wrong”, but a case of two or more people having a disagreement, or some other problem, between them.

Such problems can sometimes get out of hand if there is no clear way to resolve them. That’s what grievance procedures are designed to do. Essentially they consist of a system which lays out how a grievance should be handled, who it should be reported to, who should investigate it, what options are open for the parties concerned, how grievances can typically be resolved, and avenues of appeal if people feel they’ve been unfairly treated. The RFS procedures for resolving grievances are in Service Standard 1.1.3. 372 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

5 Brigade Equipment

Effective firefighting is not possible without the right amount of the right equipment, kept in good working condition. The equipment also needs to be distributed such that all brigades get a fair share, matched to the needs of their area. This section describes how equipment (e.g. tankers and firefighting gear) and facilities (e.g. fire stations/sheds) are selected and acquired, and how they should be maintained.

(a) Standards of Fire Cover

Brigade equipment and facilities should be matched to the fire protection needs of the community. “Standards of Fire Cover” is a system designed to do exactly that. It forms part of the Service Delivery Model (SDM) already described earlier.

Basically it consists of a survey of the area, noting down all the potential fire and similar hazards. Points are allocated depending on the severity of each type of hazard (e.g. bush, buildings, roads etc.) and the likely risk of an incident occurring. These points are then used to determine the equipment and other needs of the brigades in the area. By using a standard system it enables a fair and equitable allocation of the funds available for firefighting resources.

(b) Supply of Equipment

Equipment acquired by brigades (not to be confused with personal equipment owned wholly by individuals and used only for their own property fire protection) may be either privately purchased or obtained through the NSW Rural Firefighting Fund. Privately purchased equipment may be bought and sold by any means that are reasonable and legal, as long as the equipment meets acceptable safety standards and any local requirements. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 373

Figure 186: Examples of equipment.

Equipment available through the Rural Firefighting Fund is listed in an Equipment Catalogue which is updated each year. Equipment includes not only things such as tankers, tanks, pumps, nozzles and hose, but fire station buildings, firefighter protective clothing, communications equipment, computers and training equipment.

Each year the Fire Control Officer (FCO) in your area submits an estimate of expenses for the forthcoming year, based on the listed cost of items in the Equipment Catalogue. The system is deregulated; that is, FCOs are free to choose what they want to get. However, if their estimates exceed the available funds, the Rural Fire Service gives priority to ensuring all safety-oriented items are provided first and cuts items that are of less significance.

The Rural Fire Service Head Office purchases the ordered items in bulk to ensure the best price is obtained. The ordering system is also integrated with that of similar agencies, such as the NSW Fire Brigades. Purchasing of equipment through the Fund commences before the exact State budget is known. To reduce delays, the Rural Fire Service orders all safety equipment immediately, but waits until the budget is announced before ordering the balance of items. 374 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Figure 187: Material provided under program charges.

In addition to items ordered by your FCO, your area is also charged “program costs” for the supply of other Rural Fire Service services. Things such as training manuals and public education materials are paid for out of program costs, which are spread evenly across the State’s entire rural firefighting organisation.

Equipment needs to be well maintained so that it is in good working order when needed at a fire or incident. This is done through a maintenance program, usually co-ordinated in each brigade by an Equipment Officer.

Normally each local Council is required to take care of, and maintain in the condition required by Service Standards, any firefighting equipment vested in it. In addition, the Fire Control Officer (FCO) is required to inspect, or cause to be inspected, all firefighting equipment at least once each year. This is usually not done personally by the FCO. Rather, a maintenance system is set up and the FCO audits that system.

In busy village brigades there may be weekly inspections, while in quiet remote rural brigades such an inspection may only be needed a few times a year. Maintenance should be recorded; indicating the date, type of equipment, type of maintenance and who carried it out. These records RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 375 enable the FCO to verify maintenance has been carried out, correct faults before they become hazards, and ensure no maintenance is missed or duplicated.

The equipment/facility maintenance programme includes both breakdown and preventative maintenance. In some areas there is a system for classifying breakdowns so that those that affect critical pieces of equipment can be corrected with priority. Preventative maintenance falls into a number of levels. These include:

CHECKS

These are simple checks to ensure equipment is ready for use. For example, after a fire, checks should be carried out to ensure equipment has been replaced, refuelled, restored, replenished, secured, etc.

INSPECTIONS

Inspections are regular, usually simple visual, examinations of equipment to ensure it is OK. Examples include regular inspection of hoses to ensure there are enough on the vehicle, that they appear to be undamaged, are rolled properly and are correctly stowed.

TESTS

Tests are less frequent operations of equipment to ensure it is working properly. Examples include the testing of hose by pressurising it to 1000 kPa and checking for leaks or deterioration.

SERVICING

Servicing consists of heavy technical maintenance of equipment and is usually done by technicians or specially trained persons rather than general firefighters. An example is the overhaul of a vehicle by a mechanic. 376 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

6 Training and Certiﬁcation

Equipment alone is not enough for safe and effective firefighting. It needs to be used by people who are competent in what they do. Certification is formal recognition of that competency. Training is the most common way (but not the only way) of developing competency. Training is a way of tapping into, and sharing in, the vast knowledge, skills and experience of firefighters from across Australia and beyond.

Most training is provided at a local level by qualified volunteers. They generally use training packs developed at a state level and based on national standards for firefighters. Trainers, assessors and training co-ordinators in the RFS are required to be qualified to the relevant national standards.

More information about training can be found in the annual Training Information Booklet (two copies provided for all brigades). It includes the Service’s Code of Practice for training which summarises your “rights” as a trainee.

(a) Competency Based Training

The system of training used in the RFS is “competency based”. This means it involves ensuring people are at a standard matched to their actual needs. It does not necessarily depend on attending courses or serving time to gain skills. Existing competency from experience or other learning is recognised, and people should only be trained in the things they do not yet know or are not yet able to do.

When you apply for training, you should be given a booklet called “How to Become Qualified in (the subject’s name)”. It will take you through a process to work out whether or not you already have the needed competency, or whether you need to do training. If you are probably already competent, it will tell you how to have that competency assessed so that certification can take place. If not, it will explain the training options open to you. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 377

(positional only)

Figure 188: Practical training in progress.

(b) Training Courses

Most people who join the RFS do not have previous experience in firefighting, and so go through the standard training courses. Training Courses in the RFS are in three categories:

MAINSTREAM VOLUNTEER TRAINING COURSES

These are designed to develop members towards initial qualification as a member or officer at various levels. They include:

• Bush Firefighter (BF) - for firefighters handling bush and grass fires under supervision. • Village Firefighter (VF) - for firefighters handling village (e.g. structural & vehicle) fires. • Advanced Firefighter (AF) - for more experienced firefighters – prerequisite is BF. • Crew Leader (CL) - for brigade officers (Captains and Deputies) – prerequisite is AF. • Group Leader (GL) - for group officers (Group Captains and Deputies) – prerequisite is CL.

NOTE: Shorter versions of BF and CL have been specially tailored for members of remote rural brigades. They are called Bush Fireﬁghter Grassland (BFG) and Crew Leader Grassland (CLG). 378 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

SPECIALIST VOLUNTEER TRAINING COURSES

These are designed to develop members in specific specialist skills. They usually have one of the mainstream courses as a prerequisite and include Senior First Aid (SFA), Breathing Apparatus Operator (BAO), Chain Saw Operator (CSO), Rural Fire Driver (RFD) and many more.

Figure 189: Chain saw training in progress.

STAFF COURSES

These are for employees of the RFS and lead to nationally recognised Certificates and Diplomas. Many of the subjects in volunteer courses also link to national qualifications and can be “converted” into their nationally recognised equivalents on request.

Assessors are required to carry out assessments to strict, “applicant- friendly” procedures. For example, they are required to brief you about what an assessment involves, and the procedures for appeal if you are not satisfied with the way the assessment was conducted. Most assessments are done in a practical way, in simulated conditions. Questions may be asked about the subject and the opinion of trainers and brigade members may be sought in assessing competency. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 379

(d) Competency Maintenance

Once qualified, you need to maintain your competencies. If you are using them regularly this may be fairly simple to do. However, some important competencies may be used only infrequently and you may need to participate in drills or exercises to maintain them. Some subjects have a “shelf life” and must be re-assessed formally at regular intervals. Some may have a “recent experience requirement”. This means you need to practice them at regular intervals, but do not have to be assessed each time.

Figure 190: Drill in progress.

(e) Certiﬁcation Requirements

A frequently asked question is, “Am I required to have certification”. The answer is usually, “yes”. The RFS recommends that firefighters be qualified to the appropriate level before undertaking certain functions. These recommendations are detailed in the following table.

Exactly when these recommendations become a requirement is left up to the local District or Zone. They should be complied with as soon as possible, because they are not about what some “faceless bureaucrat” says people must have, but what virtually all firefighting organisations in Australia agree people really need to have in order to fight fires safely and effectively.

You will notice that the table specifies different standards for different sorts of brigades, and even for members with a different role within brigades. This enables the standards to be tailored to local needs, while maintaining a state-wide consistency. 380 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Minimum Recommended Firefighting Role of member in their Brigade RFS Qualifications (Equivalent Standards of Fire Cover Brigade Classification) Property Wildland Village Vil. + BA (Rural Remote) (Rural) (Village 1) (village 2) Minimum standard BFG BF VF VF recommended for or BAO responding to incidents BF SFA Minimum standard not AF VF VF recommended for working at specified AF AF incidents without continuous BAO direct supervision SFA Minimum standard CLG* CLW* CLV* CLV* recommended for leading or CLS* CLS* CLS* a crew of firefighters CLW* BAO

* (Note: Old format CL certification SFA is also acceptable for items marked *)

Minimum standard GL GL GL GL recommended for leading a group of crews Plus specialist qualifications (e.g. Chain Saw Operator - Fireline Tree Falling) where applicable, according to the local District’s risk management plan.

EXPLANATIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS:

Property = Members who protect only their own/neighbour’s rural property. Wildland = Members who protect public forests and/or parks. Village = Members who protect villages (e.g. structural and vehicle fires). Vil. + BA = Members who protect villages and use breathing apparatus. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 381

NOTE: that some members might have more than one firefighting role (e.g. “Wildland” and “Village”). In such cases the combined qualifications listed are recommended.

BF = Bush Firefighter certification. BFG = Bush Firefighter (Grassland) certification. VF = Village Firefighter certification. AF = Advanced Firefighter certification. CL = (Old format) Crew Leader certification. BAO = Breathing Apparatus Operator. SFA = Senior First Aid certificate. CLW = Crew Leader - Wildfire segment (Bush, grass and crop fires, etc.). CLV = Crew Leader - Village segment (Structure fires, vehicle incidents, etc.). CLS = Crew Leader - Safety/ICS segment (Incident Control System etc.). CLG = Crew Leader – Grassland (short version of CL for rural grassland areas). GL = (Old format) Group Leader. GLA = Group Leader (Analysis). GLC = Group Leader (Command).

In many Districts, having the appropriate certification has been a requirement for many years. But in some areas there are simply not enough, say, qualified Crew Leaders, to enable Crew Leader certification to be made a requirement for election as a brigade officer. In such cases, the District has to include in their training plan how they will achieve that requirement in the future.

NOTE: The requirement for certiﬁcation does not necessarily mean people will need to undergo training. If they can show they are already competent to the required standard (e.g. as a result of experience) they can be assessed and certified without attending a course. 382 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

(f) Certiﬁcation Badges

Members who have achieved a mainstream certification level will usually wear a badge to indicate the highest level achieved. The badges are shown below. Apart from a badge which may be worn to indicate a person has a senior first aid certificate, badges are not worn to indicate specialist qualifications.

GL CL + AF BF VF

Figure 191: BF, VF, AF, CL GL and SFA certification badges. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 383

7 Non-Fire/Incident Activities

Brigades are often involved in activities apart from firefighting. In this section typical brigade administration and brigade involvement in public education, hazard reduction, bush fire precautions, pre-incident planning, community activities, fund raising and social events will be described. The level of involvement in each of these areas varies between brigades, depending on the level of need, and the time and resources available to do it.

(a) Administration

Administration covers such things as conducting brigade meetings, maintaining minutes of those meetings, keeping members informed of upcoming events and developments, brigade correspondence, brigade finances, liaison and meetings with other Brigades and organisations in the area, keeping records, submitting reports and general correspondence. These functions are often carried out by specific officers such as the President, Secretary and Treasurer.

In many brigades, particularly in rural areas, the Secretary has a key role in the Brigade, with duties often including calling out the brigade for fires. In village type brigade there may not be a separate President, Secretary or Treasurer; these functions being included as part of the duties of the Captain and other field officers. Check your brigade constitution and local SOPs for more information about the arrangements that apply in your area, if needed.

(b) Public Education

In many ways, fire prevention and public education are probably the most important aspects of brigade activities. The best way to protect the community against fire is to not have fires at all. Some authorities go as far to suggest that firefighters should develop an attitude that going to fires is not something to boast about, but something of which to be almost ashamed. Every fire, in their view, represents a failure of the organisation to protect the community through fire prevention. Fire prevention covers a very broad area and is explained in greater detail in a more advanced training program. Enquire with your Captain or Fire Control Officer for further information about the fire prevention programs and community education materials available in your area. 384 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Figure 192: Samples of community education materials.

A key fire prevention initiative in the Rural Fire Service is “Firewise”. Instead of just relying on giving people basic fire prevention information, Firewise organises people into community groups to develop strategies to cope with their local fire threat. Firewise emphasises the whole community taking responsibility for its fire protection, not just leaving it to the “people in the red trucks”.

Hazard reduction is the removal or treatment of bush fire fuel so as to reduce the fire hazard it poses. This can be done by mowing, slashing, bulldozing, grading, physical removal of the fuel or by prescribed burning. Prescribed burning can also be used for other purposes (e.g. for creating a specific environmental effect in an area).

Rural fire brigades often participate in prescribed burning activities. These are highly controlled activities planned and implemented to achieve a specific effect (i.e. the fuel is burnt to a “prescription”). It does not consist simply of setting alight to the bush at any time or in any way. See the chapter on Hazard Reduction for more details. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 385

(d) Bush Fire Precautions

Bush fire precautions in NSW include the declared Bush Fire Danger Period, Total Fire Bans, Permits to Burn and No-Burn Days.

The declared Bush Fire Danger Period normally runs from the beginning of October to the end of March each year, although it may be varied in some years and/or in some areas. Permits to light fires for agricultural purposes or to reduce fire hazards are needed during this period. Only authorised persons can issue these permits, such as the Fire Control Officer and specifically authorised officers of Rural Fire Brigades.

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 193: Fire danger sign.

A total fire ban may be declared on days when weather conditions are forecast that would make the control of fires very difficult. On these days no fires in the open are permitted, with few exceptions. Total fire bans are usually well publicised. In some brigade areas there may be roadside signs indicating the current bush fire danger and whether a total fire ban is in force. “No Burn” days are different from total fire bans: They are declared by the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) to reduce air pollution when needed. 386 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

(e) Pre-Incident Planning

Pre-incident planning activities consist of gathering information that can assist with controlling an incident, before an incident occurs. For example, brigade members may visit a high fire risk location, talk with occupiers, and make a map or sketch of the area. They may also find out and note down how to get access to the area, how many people may be in the area, the hazards that are present, and any fire protection features (e.g. sources of water supply). The collected information is often kept in a standard format in a folder in the brigade’s main vehicle.

Pre-incident planning has several benefits. First, it is a form of training and familiarisation for the members that carry it out. Second, the collected information can be used by brigade members at actual incidents. Third, the information can be used as the basis for “table-top” exercises and discussions about how to handle incidents in the brigade area. Finally, the contact with occupiers of properties in the brigade area can give a positive brigade image and an opportunity to spread the fire safety message. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 387 PRE-FIRE DATA Anytown @ 31.7.03

Oval

BOARDING Northern Rd SCHOOL

300 Students and staff Man-made Dam

Water Treatment Chemicals

FOREST Large Crowd in Evenings

Railway Bulk Grain Bush Fire CLUB Grain Store Prone Area East Road

Railway Electrical Station Substation High Voltage R.F.S.. Station

Pesticides and Agric. MOTEL West Road Chemicals Accommodation (up to 50 beds) Power Lines

3 Flammable Liquids and Gases

WHEAT FIELDS Coast Road

Figure 194: Typical pre-incident planning data. 388 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

(f) Community Events

Brigades quite frequently may be involved in community events such as local parades, fetes, providing transport for Santa Claus etc. These can be a valuable way of relating with the local community, and within the bounds of safety, common sense, and being able to maintain a fire protection service while the event is in progress, are encouraged.

What is important is to ensure the Brigade’s involvement is an “approved brigade activity” with your Fire Control Officer (FCO). As long as that is the case there is no problem or doubt about the usual insurance and Worker’s Compensation arrangements extending to the event. If the activity has not been advised to and approved by the FCO, there may be doubt as to whether it is a brigade activity or simply some members doing something privately and apart from the brigade.

Figure 195: Brigade involvement in a community event.

(g) Fund Raising

Rural Fire Brigades do not need to have an authority to fundraise under the Charitable Fundraising Act. However, they are required to observe other provisions of that Act relating to the manner in which fundraising is conducted, the keeping and auditing of accounts, maintenance of records and release of information to the public on request. Further information is available from your Fire Control Officer. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 389

(h) Social Activities

Social events may include general get-togethers, barbecues, parties, etc. These may often be conducted at the conclusion of training days or at particular times during the year. If a brigade has no “social life” it’s going to be pretty dull. On the other hand if it becomes nothing more than a “social club” it’s not going to be a great asset for protecting the community. A common sense approach is needed to achieve the right balance.

8 Legal Issues

Many of the hassles that occur in brigades are a result of people being misinformed or misunderstanding legal issues. A typical problem occurs, for example, when people are falsely told that unless they follow safety rules they are not covered by compensation if they have an accident. To understand a little about legal matters you first need to understand that there is more than one type of law. The two basic types of law are common law and statute law.

(a) Common Law

Common Law is not written by politicians and is not written down in Acts of Parliament. Common law has developed over several hundred years and consists of principles and precedents applied by judges in making decisions in various cases

In common law it is usually one citizen or corporation versus another. One type of common law case is that of negligence. In this situation somebody believes they have been injured or have suffered a loss as a result of the negligence of another party. They believe that party owed them a duty of care in some way and have failed in that duty. The court may award damages to the injured party in negligence cases if their case is proven.

(b) Statute Law

Statute law is written law. It is developed by politicians and enacted by the Governor (State Law) or the Governor-General (Federal Law). Examples include the Rural Fires Act, the Occupational Health and Safety Act, the Workers Compensation Act and the Crimes Act. 390 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

When laws are passed by Parliament they often contain penalties for non-compliance and specify who is responsible for policing them. For example the Rural Fires Act is policed by the Rural Fire Service and local Councils; and the Occupational Health and Safety Act is policed by the WorkCover Authority.

Figure 196: Rural Fires Act and Regulation.

If you break a statute law you may be penalised under the provisions given in that law. For example if you exceed the speed limit in your car you may be fined under the Traffic Act and Motor Traffic Regulations. In such cases the law provides that you have to prove you are innocent to avoid the penalty. However, in criminal law, innocence is assumed and guilt has to be proven beyond reasonable doubt.

The Rural Fires Act is statute law designed to empower you and others to protect people against fires in rural areas. Captains and Deputies of Brigades and Group Officers have very wide powers under the Act, enabling them to do some things that might normally not be legal for an individual citizen. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 391

Section 44 of the Act also empowers the Commissioner, or a person appointed by the Commissioner, to co-ordinate all agencies involved in the control of large and/or complex rural fires that are, or may become, outside local control. You might sometimes hear of a major fire being referred to as a “Section 44 Emergency”.

The Rural Fires Act also allows Rural Fire Brigades to be formed, defines the functions and powers of Fire Control Officers, and grants powers to prevent bush fires. It also has a section that protects officers of Brigades from prosecution or from being sued for anything done in good faith under the Act. Basically this means you are protected as long as you are acting in a “fair dinkum” way. For example, you would be protected against being sued for removing someone’s property from a house to protect it from being burnt, but you would not be protected if you removed it at a fire in order to steal it. Stealing would not be regarded as being in “good faith”.

Just in case there is a “loophole” in the legal protection provided to members there is also an insurance scheme to protect you against any legal liability that may arise under common law during rural firefighting and associated activities. Your FCO has further information, if needed.

The NSW Fire Brigades work under a similar Act of Parliament. Essentially it gives them control of all fires within declared Fire Districts (i.e. cities and large towns), combat of hazardous materials emergencies throughout the state, and various fire prevention functions.

(d) Compensation for Injury

Employees at a normal workplace are covered against financial loss arising from work related illness or injury through the Workers Compensation Act (i.e. statute law). A special Workers Compensation Act also exists for emergency service volunteers, including rural firefighters.

As in the normal Workers Compensation system, it has a “no-fault” basis. It does not matter if you were “in the wrong” when you suffered an injury. To receive Workers Compensation all you have to do is show that the injury or loss was related to your voluntary work as a rural firefighter. Any suggestion that “you aren’t eligible for Workers Compensation if you aren’t following safety rules” is just plain wrong. Anyone saying this is either misleading you, is misinformed or has confused Workers Compensation with the “contributory negligence” principle that can apply in common law cases. About the only situation in which Workers Compensation can be refused is in the case of a deliberate fraud being discovered. 392 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

Photo by Adam Hollingworth

Figure 197: Injured firefighter being treated.

The scheme includes a rehabilitation program to help injured volunteers back to their normal work and other activities. A difference from normal Workers Compensation is that the scheme is administered through the WorkCover Authority instead of through an insurance company. All claims and enquiries should be made via your local FCO.

The scheme covers not only actual firefighting but other Brigade activities such as training, maintenance work, fire prevention and associated activities. It also covers you against damage or loss of personal items, (such as your motor vehicle, spectacles, etc.) arising from your activities as a volunteer. More information is available from your FCO.

(e) Health and Safety

The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OH&S) Act and OH&S Regulation contain the laws that relate to OH&S in most workplaces in NSW. The scene of a fire or incident certainly falls within the definition of a “workplace” in the Act, although it was not written with volunteer workers in mind. However, the parts of the OH&S Act and Regulation that detail the responsibilities of employers (such as the RFS) make it quite clear that those responsibilities extend not only to employees, but to anyone who is legally in their workplace. This obviously includes volunteers. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 393

Volunteers do not fall under the definition of “employees” in the OH&S Act, and therefore are not technically subject to its obligation for employees to take reasonable care for the health and safety of people who may be affected by their acts or omissions at work. However, it would probably be hard to justify (at least morally, if not legally) the view that because someone is a volunteer, they have no responsibility for how their actions might endanger others. After all, the main point of being a firefighter is to protect people, not to place them in greater danger.

“Persons” (obviously this includes volunteers), however, under the OH&S Act are legally obligated to not recklessly interfere with anything provided for health, safety or welfare; not to create a risk (or the appearance of a risk) in order create a disruption; and not to aid or abet a contravention of the OH&S Act.

(f) Other Legal Issues

CRIMINAL ACTIVITY

One thing that volunteers are not protected against during their brigade activities is prosecution for criminal activity. If you use your membership as an opportunity to assault, steal or commit any other crime, or if you are criminally negligent in what you do (i.e. negligence that involves recklessness to a criminal degree) you receive no special protection just because you are a volunteer rural firefighter.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES

When travelling from your home in a normal vehicle to a fire or your fire station/shed, you are subject to all the normal rules of the road. If you are the driver of an emergency vehicle, responding to a fire/incident under lights and siren, some exemptions to the Australian Road Rules apply. These are covered in detail in the Rural Fire Driving course and associated training material. Under emergency conditions you are still required to drive safely: If you are involved in a motor vehicle accident you can be charged with an offence. 394 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

SUMMARY

• Types of brigades include remote rural brigades, rural brigades and village brigades.

• The Service Delivery Model (SDM) is used to ensure cohesive working of all the systems in the RFS and that they are matched to the needs of the community.

• Quality of service is based on putting yourself in the position of the victim and, if possible, providing a higher standard of service than they expect.

• Brigades are usually formed by local Councils, have a constitution, field officers (Captain, Senior Deputy Captain and Deputy Captains), administrative officers (President, Secretary, Treasurer, Training Officer and Equipment Officer) and specialists (such as drivers, first aid officers, chain saw operators and so on).

• Brigades are usually organised into groups, under Group Captains and Deputy Group Captains. They are trained to take charge of larger incidents, or act as sector or division officers at very large incidents.

• Rural Fire Districts usually correspond to a local government area. The Fire Control Officer (FCO) is in overall charge of the District and may be assisted by Deputy Fire Control Officer/s and other staff. In many areas, several Districts have been integrated together to form a Zone, under a Zone Manager.

• There are four RFS regions, with a Regional Manager in each, assisted by Operations, Learning and Development, Bush Fire Planning and Business officers.

• At a state level the RFS sets standards, devises the systems under which the Service operates and purchases equipment in bulk. The Commissioner of the RFS is in overall charge. Funding for the RFS comes from insurance companies, the state government and local councils.

• The Rural Fire Service Advisory Council (RFSAC) is an advisory body to the Commissioner. The Co-ordinating Committee is a multi-agency body representing fire and land management agencies in NSW. The Rural Fire Service Association (RFSA) is an association representing members of the Service. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 395

SUMMARY

• Each brigade is required to keep a register of members. Membership is defined as being listed on that register. People can be removed from the register under certain circumstances, and provisions exist to appeal against any such decision. • A risk management approach is used to ensure firefighter health and safety. At a District level a group should meet each year to carry out a risk assessment and implement an action plan to control identified hazards. Dynamic risk assessment can be used at a firefighter and crew level to ensure safety. Chaplain and critical incident support services are available within the RFS. • Disciplinary action against a member can be taken, in accordance with Service Standards, if they contravene the Rural Fires Act or Regulation, fail to comply with applicable Service Standards or are negligent, careless, inefficient or incompetent in their duties. • Grievance procedures are detailed in Service Standards for resolving problems between members of brigades. • Equipment needed for brigades is determined through the Standards of Fire Cover process and can be supplied through the Rural Firefighting Fund. Fire Control Officers select appropriate equipment from the RFS Equipment Catalogue. Districts are charged “program costs” to cover the provision of Service administration, training manuals, public education materials and the like. • Equipment is largely maintained through checks, inspections and tests conducted after use and at regular intervals by members. Servicing of equipment, however, is usually done by trained technicians. • Most training is provided at a local level. The RFS uses a competency based training system that recognises existing competencies held by members. The training system includes mainstream, specialist and staff courses. • Assessment is carried out using applicant-friendly processes. Competencies need to be maintained through drills and exercises. Certification of competency is a requirement in many brigades. Badges may be worn to indicate the level of certification achieved. 396 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

SUMMARY

• The brigade secretary and treasurer often have a key role in brigade administration, including handling correspondence, minutes, reports, finances and liaison. • Many brigades participate in public education activities to help prevent fires in their community. The Firewise program is one such activity. • Many brigades participate in prescribed burning activities to reduce fire hazards. • Bush fire precautions include the declared Bush Fire Danger period, Total Fire Bans and Permits to Burn. • Many brigades are involved in community events, fund raising and social activities. These should be approved by the FCO to ensure appropriate insurance and workers compensation cover. • Common law is unwritten and has developed through principles and precedents set by judges. A common type of common law case is that of negligence. A court may award damages if a case of negligence is proven. • Statute law is written law. Examples are the Rural Fires Act and the Occupational Health and Safety Act. Statute law normally includes penalties for proven breaches. • The Rural Fires Act enables the protection of people against fires in rural areas. It allows brigades to be formed, gives powers to certain officers and provides legal protection for members when acting in good faith. • A special Workers Compensation Act exists for emergency service volunteers, including rural firefighters. It is a “no-fault” system. • The Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) Act and Regulation contain the laws that relate to OH&S in most workplaces. They specify key elements of safety management and encourage participative management of safety issues. • Volunteers are not protected against prosecution in criminal matters. They must obey normal road rules when driving their own normal vehicle to a fire or their station/shed. Emergency vehicles being driven under lights and sirens must be driven safely. RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 397

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. All rural fire brigades are virtually identical in the way they are equipped, trained and operate.

2. The Service Delivery Model is the system used to deliver models of equipment to brigades.

3. Quality of service is not expected from volunteer rural fire brigades.

4. It is mandatory to have a constitution in a rural fire brigade.

5. Only active firefighting members may vote for field officers in brigade elections.

6. All members may vote for administrative officers in brigade elections.

7. Captains wear orange coloured helmets.

8. If you are not listed on a brigade membership register, officially you are not a member of a brigade.

9. Checks, inspections and tests of brigade equipment are usually conducted by members of the brigade.

10. A person cannot be certified as competent unless they complete a training course. 398 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES

ACTIVITIES

1. Draw and label a diagram showing the hierarchy of your brigade, including the Captain, Senior Deputy Captain, Deputy Captains, President, Secretary, Treasurer, Training Officer, Equipment Officer, First Aid Officer and any other office bearers.

2. Visit your District Fire Control Centre. Tour the facility and meet the Fire Control Officer and their staff.

3. Have a look at your District’s firefighter safety risk assessment action plan for the current year. What hazards have been identified? What actions are being taken to control them?

4. Have a look at the library of Bushfire Bulletins, Firefighter Safety Digests, training manuals, Training Services Information Booklet, SOPs, public education materials, and reference publications and pamphlets at your brigade station and/or District.

5. Find out what training opportunities exist for you once you have qualified as a Bush Firefighter (BF) 399

CHAPTER 10 Local Familiarisation

1 Introduction

Becoming a firefighter involves more than simply attending a training course. You also need to adapt what you have learned to your specific brigade. In this chapter, the sorts of things you need to do to become familiar with your own brigade will be covered.

While there are a lot of similarities between brigades, they are also some important differences. For example, there are differences in the hazards and risks in each brigade area, in the type of equipment used, and in the membership of the brigade. All brigades may be a part of the ‘RFS family’, but each also has its own individual ‘personality’.

In many brigades you may become a probationary member, participate in a Bush Firefighter (BF) course shortly afterwards, and then complete familiarisation activities in your own brigade. But that might not always be the case. Sometimes, it may be a while before the next BF course is scheduled to run. In the meantime you can complete some familiarisation activities with your Brigade, (although many might make more sense once you have done the course). In other areas the brigade itself may run the BF course and integrate these familiarisation activities into it. 400 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION

2 Brigade Safety Induction

When you first start with a brigade there will be a lot of things that are not familiar to you. Some of these may be hazards to your safety. It is vital that almost the first thing that happens in the brigade is for you to receive a safety induction. A typical safety induction should include:

• The Rural Fire Service safety policy.

• Who co-ordinates safety matters in the brigade.

• Hazards around the station/shed and vehicles, and how to avoid or control them.

• Arrangements for supervision of your brigade activities.

• What activities you may (and may not) undertake while you are a trainee.

• How to report hazards, accidents and near-misses.

• What to do if an emergency happens at the station.

• How to get first aid if you are injured.

• Information about hazardous substances used by the brigade.

• Use of personal protective equipment for station activities.

• Information about workers compensation, rehabilitation and critical incident support services.

Figure 198: Copy of the RFS Safety Policy. LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 401

As a general rule, you won’t be attending any fires or incidents until you are qualified. Most of your activities as a trainee will consist of supervised training and maintenance activities. While you will, therefore, have some time to learn about hazards and safety during firefighting, you have to deal with hazards around the fire station and vehicles straight away. This is why a safety induction is a first priority when you join the brigade.

3 Brigade Constitution and Members

All brigades are required to have a constitution. It is not a requirement that you study the constitution, but it will help you understand how things are organised and run in your brigade. For example, you can find out what officer positions exist, how often elections are conducted and who is eligible to vote. You can also find out about the probationary period that applies to new members. You can either read the constitution, or have another member explain its highlights to you.

Most brigades keep minutes of their meetings, and often post them on a noticeboard at their station/shed. By reading the minutes you can often get a good idea of what issues are being dealt with by the brigade at the time. The noticeboard may also have a list of the various officer positions in the brigade and the name of each office holder.

Figure 199: A brigade noticeboard. 402 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION

An officer of the brigade always needs to be present during brigade activities, especially those involving new trainees. Over time you will probably meet most, if not all, officers of the brigade. Some brigades may hold special events, perhaps a barbecue or other get-together when there are new trainees, so that new members can have the opportunity to meet as many of the officers and members as possible.

Not all of the brigade members are necessarily active firefighters. Many brigades include auxiliary members who help in a supporting role. For example, they may assist with calling out brigade members to a fire, communications, critical incident support, and correspondence, running meetings, and caring for brigade equipment and facilities. In some cases the whole brigade may have a supporting role. For example, in catering, communications or logistics brigades.

4 Brigade Facilities

‘Facilities’ refers to the fire station/shed and any associated amenities. You should be shown around them, and told about when meetings are held, if you need to sign on/off in an attendance book and security arrangements, (such as who has keys and can set and unset any alarm system that might be fitted). You should also be shown how to open and close station doors and where to get water to refill tankers.

Many rural fire stations have amenities for making tea and coffee, and storing food and drinks. Some might have a kitchen and/or an area for sitting, meeting or training. Any rules relating to use of the amenities, payment for food or drinks available on site, and consumption or storage of alcohol should be explained to you.

Figure 200: Some brigades may have an amenities area. LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 403

Some stations may have a workbench and/or tools to help maintain brigade equipment. If so, any safety requirements and any rules relating to taking tools off-site should be explained to you. Most brigades look after their own facilities. Often there may be a schedule or roster for keeping the facilities clean and tidy.

5 Brigade Equipment and Maintenance

Brigade equipment consists of the firefighting vehicles and all the pumps, hoses and other equipment carried on them, or stored as spares at the station/shed. In most brigades there is an Equipment Officer who is responsible to ensure the equipment is maintained.

You should know the type and callsigns of each of the vehicles in your brigade. In addition, you should know how much water each carries, the type and capacity of the pump, how many firefighters it can safely carry and key pieces of equipment that are only carried on one of the brigade’s vehicles. If you are in a brigade with many vehicles, your knowledge may be limited to those vehicles on which you are likely to operate at a fire.

The Equipment Officer (or your Captain, if no Equipment Officer is assigned in your brigade) should explain the maintenance system to you. It consists of ‘breakdown’ maintenance (fixing things when they break) and ‘preventative’ maintenance (maintaining them so they are less likely to break at a critical moment). There are four levels of preventative maintenance; checks, inspections, tests and servicing, (explained more fully in Chapter 9). The preventative maintenance system should include:

• A register of equipment carried/stored.

• A schedule to tell you which maintenance is due.

• Standards detailing the maintenance needed for each piece of equipment.

• A record of the maintenance completed.

The first step in learning about brigade equipment is to get to know the names, purpose, location, use and care of each item. One way to do this is by ‘locker drill’. This consists of an officer naming a piece of equipment. You then locate where it is kept on the vehicle, fetch it and explain what it is used for and how it should be checked, inspected and tested. Many brigades have a checklist of the equipment carried on each vehicle 404 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION and where it is located. Once you have become familiar with brigade equipment, carrying out checks, inspections and tests is one of the best ways of staying familiar with it.

Figure 201: Firefighters doing locker drill. LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 405

6 Brigade Area Familiarisation

Firefighting demands a prompt but safe response. If you receive a fire call you need to be able to know where it is, what it’s likely to involve, what hazards you are likely to encounter and what precautions you need to take. To do this, you need to be familiar with your brigade area. If you’ve lived in the area for a long time you will already be familiar with much of it, but even then you may see your local area differently once you have the ‘eyes’ of a firefighter. You can build up familiarity with the area by going on a tour of it, looking in particular at:

• The boundaries of your brigade area.

• The major roads and geographic features.

• Areas of high bush fire risk.

• How to get access to off-road areas.

• Sources of firefighting water supply.

• Effectiveness of radio communications at various locations.

Figure 202: Reproduction of a typical brigade area map.

As you become more experienced, your knowledge of the area should grow. One way of doing this is through participating in pre-incident planning activities. These are described in more detail in Chapter 9. 406 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION

7 Brigade Information

In Chapter 9 you will find details of what sources of information should be available to you at brigade level. In each brigade, the secretary normally has the main responsibility for making sure members are kept informed about general issues, and the Captain is responsible for making sure members are kept informed about operational matters. However, this responsibility is often delegated to others. For example, it may be the Equipment Officer who informs people about a new piece of equipment.

8 Brigade Training

In Chapter 9 you will find an outline of the training system used in the RFS. Most brigades usually have a Training Officer and usually they are a qualified trainer. If there is no appointed training officer, this function is carried by the Captain.

The Training Officer is responsible to make sure the members are kept informed about training and assessment matters. Many brigades have regular training sessions. These are usually scheduled well in advance and run at times convenient to most members. Many brigades also offer one-on-one instruction to members (especially newer members), at any mutually convenient time.

Figure 203: Brigade level drill. LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 407

In most areas, most of the training courses are run at a local district level. There are usually better training facilities at a district level and you also have the opportunity of mixing and training with members of other brigades. There should usually be a notice in your fire station/shed about training being run at a district level.

More advanced types of training are run at a Regional and State level. The latter are listed in the RFS Training Services Information Booklet. This is published each year and distributed around March (the beginning of the “training season” in most areas). There should be a copy in your station/shed. If not, ask to obtain a copy as it also contains a lot of information about how training and assessment should be conducted, and outlines the content of the various courses.

9 Brigade Procedures

The RFS has standard operating procedures (SOP’s) for a wide range of activities. Most brigades have a lot in common, so most SOP’s are produced at a state-wide level. However, SOP’s may also exist at a district or brigade level. These may cover issues not dealt with in the state level SOP’s or explain how to apply the state level SOP’s to a specific local situation.

For example, there is a (state-wide) Fireground SOP giving general procedures for calling out brigades to fires and other incidents. At a district level there may be an SOP that clarifies how it is applied to that particular district. At a brigade level there may be an SOP for how that particular brigade responds to a fire call.

Fireground S.O.P.s (1999 Edition)

THE NEW SOUTH WALES GOVERNMENT

Figure 204: Cover of Fireground SOPs. 408 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION

There isn’t a requirement to have written SOP’s at a brigade level. However, many have them so that there is a consistent understanding between the members about how certain tasks should be done. Part of your brigade training should include any relevant local procedures that may exist.

10 The Local RFS District

So far you will have looked at your brigade by itself. However, your brigade is part of a larger district organisation. If possible, your brigade familiarisation should also include a visit to the local district office. In many cases your BF training may be run at a district level and will include such a visit.

Most districts are based on a local government area. Many districts are combined to form an RFS zone. Within each district, brigades may also be organised into groups. A good way to get an overview of the district is to look at a map showing the brigade and group areas, the location of fire stations/sheds, the general area, and areas located within neighbouring NSW Fire Brigade and RFS districts. Most district offices have such a map.

Figure 205: A typical Firecom. LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 409

The district office will usually include a Fire Communications Centre (Firecom) and often has an equipment store, a training facility and/or a facility for managing large fires attached to it. Take the opportunity to have a look at these facilities. In most cases a visit to the district office will also allow you to meet the local Fire Control Officer and their staff, and possibly some of the Group Captains and Deputy Group Captains from the area.

11 Other Bush Fireﬁghting Organisations

Other organisations involved in bush firefighting include the NSW Fire Brigades (NSWFB), NSW State Forests (SF) and the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS).

The NSW Fire Brigades provide fire protection in cities and major towns. They are in charge at virtually all fires and similar incidents inside their fire districts. They are in charge at all hazardous materials incidents at virtually any location in the State. While the RFS is in charge at structure fires inside rural fire districts, the NSWFB will often respond and provide the Operations Officer at such incidents.

While they do have some bushfire tankers, NSW Fire Brigade equipment is mainly designed for structural firefighting. Their pumpers are usually not suitable for rough off-road work and do not carry as much water as many RFS tankers. At bush fires they often focus on protecting houses and other property from the impact of fires. In larger towns and cities, NSWFB crews consist of full-time, career firefighters. In smaller towns they are retained (part time, paid) firefighters. In some areas, some crews may be a mix of both.

Figure 206: A NSW Fire Brigade pumper. 410 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION

NPWS and SF operate firefighting vehicles similar to RFS tankers and have similar equipment. Their field staff have training based on that provided by the RFS. They are responsible for fires inside or threatening national parks and forests respectively, but will usually need the support of the RFS for large fires.

Photo supplied by State Forests NSW

Figure 207: A State Forests firefighting unit.

The Commissioner of the RFS is also responsible for co-ordinating the various organisations involved in bush firefighting in NSW. At a large bush fire emergency, the Commissioner may appoint a suitable officer from any of these organisations to be in overall charge of an incident. Because this is done under Section 44 of the Rural Fires Act, such incidents are sometimes referred to as a “Section 44” and the officer in charge as a “Section 44 Controller”.

As part of your training, you should be familiar with other organisations with whom you might operate. Sometimes an officer from one or more of those organisations might present a session during your training or you might visit one of their facilities. All of the above organisations share in a common (national) incident control system (ICS) and national training system, which makes smooth, co-ordinated, multi-agency firefighting possible. LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 411

SUMMARY

• Becoming a firefighter may not only involve a training course, but adapting what you have learned within your own brigade environment. • A safety induction should be one of the first things you receive when you join a brigade. • Each brigade is required to have a constitution outlining how the brigade is organised and run. • You should familiarise yourself with who holds the officer positions in your brigade and take the opportunity to meet them when it arises. • You should be shown around your brigade station/shed and its facilities, and have any rules relating to their security and use explained to you. • Carrying out locker drill is an effective way of learning about the equipment carried by your brigade, what it is used for and how to care for it. • You should know the type, callsign and characteristics of vehicles used in the brigade. The Equipment Officer should explain the equipment maintenance system to you. The four levels of maintenance are checks, inspections, tests and servicing. • You need to be familiar with your brigade area. You can develop this familiarity by touring the area. You can maintain and deepen it through pre-incident planning activities. • The brigade secretary normally has the main responsibility for keeping members informed. • Most brigades have a training officer, who is responsible to ensure members are kept informed about training and assessment matters. They are usually a qualified trainer and may provide brigade training sessions. • Most training is conducted at a district level, with more advanced courses at regional and state level. More information about training is published in the annual Training Services Information Booklet, supplied to all brigades. • Some brigades may have local procedures to supplement state and district SOPs. 412 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION

SUMMARY

• Most RFS Districts are based on local Council areas. Several districts may be consolidated into zones. Brigades within districts may be organised into groups. • The NSW Fire Brigades (NSWFB), State Forests (SF) and National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) are also involved in bush firefighting. The Commissioner of the RFS is responsible for co-ordinating bush firefighting by all services.

Self-Check Questions

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F

1. A safety induction is normally not given until you are a qualified firefighter.

2. Information about how brigade officer elections are to be conducted can be found in your brigade’s constitution.

3. You should know the water carrying capacity of the firefighting vehicles you will work with in your brigade.

4. Brigade training officers are always qualified trainers.

5. The Commissioner of the RFS is also responsible for co-ordinating the bush firefighting activities of the NSWFB, SF and NPWS. LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 413

ACTIVITIES

These activities form the post-course practice for the BF course and each is explained in greater detail in the BF Workbook. If you are already familiar with any of these activities, you might be exempted from some or all of them. They are not included in the Bush Firefighter Grassland (BFG) or Bush Fire Support (BFS) courses. 1. Brigade familiarisation – Complete a brigade safety induction (if one has not already been conducted) and be familiarised with your fire station/shed and its associated facilities and brigade procedures. 2. Locker drill – Participate in an activity to become familiar with the names of all pieces of brigade equipment, where they are located on the vehicle/s, what each is used for and how to care for each. 3. Maintenance – Participate in checks, inspections and tests according to the brigade equipment maintenance system. 4. Hose drills – Participate in drills to develop safe intuitive hose work skills, starting from simple hose drill, working through adding and replacing hose lengths, to setting up hoses for typical attacks on fires in a range of conditions. 5. Pump drills – Participate in drills to develop safe intuitive skills in starting and operating vehicle mounted and portable pumps; including working from tank, pressurised and open water supply sources. 6. Ancillary equipment drills – Participate in drills to develop safe intuitive skills in the use of ladders, ropes and knots, hand tools and other ancillary equipment. When ready, do drills combining the use of hoses and ancillary equipment in simulated fire fighting scenarios. 7. Area familiarisation – Participate in a tour of the brigade area, noting high-risk areas, hazards and fire protection resources. Include a visit to the District Firecom and fire control centre. Participate a typical pre-incident planning activity. 8. Exercises – Participate in exercises simulating actual bush fires, starting from the fire station/shed and including departure procedures, communications, en-route briefing, actions on approach and arrival, safeguarding people, use of equipment, working in co-ordination with other units, mopping up, returning to station, debriefing and equipment maintenance. The exercises should cover a range of scenarios from small, low intensity fires to large, serious fire situations. 414 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION

Answers to Self-Check Questions

Chapter Question Number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 T T F F T T T T T T

2 T F T T T F F T T F

3 F T T T T F F T F T

4 F F T T F T F T T T

5 F F T T F T T T T T

6 T T T F T F T T T T

7 T F T T F T F T T T

8 F T T T F T F T F F

9 F F F T T T F T T F

10 F T T F T - - - - - 415

Extinguisher Colour and Pictogram chart.

CLASS OF A B C (E) F FIRE

Ordinary Flammable Flammable Fire Fire combustibles and gases involving involving TYPE OF FIRE (wood, paper, combustible energized cooking oils plastics etc.) liquids electrical and fats equipment

INDICATING TYPE OF COLOUR EXTINGUISHER EXTINGUISHER SUITABILITY

WATER YES NO NO NO NO Most suitable

WET YES NO NO NO YES CHEMICAL Most suitable

ALCOHOL YES Most suitable NO NO NO RESISTANT YES for FOAM alcohol fires YES NO NO NO AFFF TYPE YES Most suitable FOAM except for alcohol fires AB(E) DRY CHEMICAL YES YES YES YES NO POWDER B(E) DRY CHEMICAL NO YES YES YES YES POWDER

CARBON DIOXIDE YES YES NO YES YES (CO2 )

HALON (1211)BCF Vapourizing liquid (fumes YES YES YES YES NO may be dangerous in confined spaces)

Halon substitute extinguishers may be coloured red with a yellow band. 416

Summary of changes to BF - (2003) Bush Fireﬁghter Manual Version 1.1

Insert inner title page between inside front cover and table of contents.

Page 39 - Insert new paragraph to section (b) Types of Fire, Buildings and Bush Fires (replaces old paragraph on fires re-burning through burnt vegetation).

Page 149 - Insert new paragraph to section (e), Defensive Strategy - People/Property Protection, about defending buildings during bush fire impact.

Page 302 - Insert conversion chart of common simplex channel names/numbers between different agencies.

Page 321 - Insert new section (g) Readability Scale.

Page 415 - Insert Extinguisher Colour Chart.

Various minor corrections to graphics and text. 417

Acknowledgements

Source Texts

Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC) Queensland Fire & Rescue Service / Rural Fire Service

Original Text and Editing

Phil Robeson

Graphics

Amanda Layton (Savvy Design), Peter Carter

Additional Photos

Amanda Layton, Cameron Wade, John Winter, Peter Carter, and as noted on individual photos

Publishing and Layout

Amanda Layton (Savvy Design)

Assistance from

NSW Fire Brigades, State Forests NSW