DND photo 8977 THE GREAT WHITE NORTH THE GREAT Canadian Rangers travel by in the winter and all terrain vehicles in the summer. Road access is limited in many areas and non-existent in others. THE CANADIAN RANGERS: A “POSTMODERN” THAT WORKS

by P. Whitney Lackenbauer

The Centre of Gravity for CFNA is our positive While commentators typically cast the Canadian relationship with the aboriginal peoples of the North, Rangers as an force – a stereotype perpetuated in this all levels of government in the three territories, and article – they are more accurately situated around the fringes all other government agencies and non-governmental of the country. Their official role since 1947 has been “to organizations operating North of 60. Without the provide a military presence in those sparsely settled northern, support, confidence, and strong working relationships coastal and isolated areas of Canada which cannot with these peoples and agencies, CFNA would be conveniently or economically be provided by other components unable to carry out many of its assigned tasks. of the Canadian Forces.” They are often described as the military’s “eyes and ears” in remote regions. The Rangers – Colonel Kevin McLeod, also represent an important success story for the Canadian former Commander Canadian Forces Forces as a flexible, inexpensive, and culturally inclusive Northern Area1 means of “showing the flag” and asserting Canadian sovereignty while fulfilling vital operational requirements. anada’s vast northern expanse and extensive They often represent the only CF presence in some of the coastlines have represented a significant least populated parts of the country, and serve as a bridge security and sovereignty dilemma since between cultures and between the civilian and military realms. the Second World War. With one of the lowest The Rangers represent an example of the military successfully population densities in the world, and one integrating national security and sovereignty agendas with Cof the most difficult climatic and physical environments community-based activities and local management. This to conduct operations, a traditional military presence force represents a practical partnership, rooted in community- is prohibitively costly. As a result, the Canadian Rangers, based monitoring using traditional knowledge and skills, a little-known component of the Reserves, have played which promotes cooperation, communal and individual an important but unorthodox role in domestic defence empowerment, and improved cross-cultural understanding. over the last sixty years. This component of the CF Reserves, managed on a community level, draws The current roles and structure of the Canadian Rangers on the indigenous knowledge of its members, rather than retain a strong connection with their original, early “militarizing” and conditioning them through typical Cold War conception. Nevertheless, the Rangers embody military training regimes and structures. Embodied in its communities and peoples in isolated areas, the Canadian Forces continue to benefit from the quiet P. Whitney Lackenbauer, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of History existence of the Rangers. at St. Jerome’s University, University of Waterloo.

Winter 2005 – 2006 ● Canadian Military Journal 49 through positivist, social scientific methods.5 In this light, even though the Rangers were designed during the “Last Modern” or Cold War age, this analytical model can be useful to understand their form and contributions.

This article draws mainly upon examples from the territorial north, where most media and official attention to the Rangers has focused.6 The author has met with headquarters staff, instructors and Rangers with 1 Canadian Ranger Patrol Group on several occasions since 2000, and participated in an annual training exercise with the Ross River, patrol in winter 2004. This article is also informed by theoretical discussions about arctic sovereignty and security that link northern development

FOC photo P0002398 from www.mar.dfo-mpo.gc.ca issues with military, economic and political security considerations, Majestic ice flow in the Beaufort Sea. as well as Aboriginal values and traditions. Political scientists have several “postmodern” characteristics described by military observed that post-Cold War arctic strategies are less sociologists – although in potentially unexpected forms. state-centric and military-focused, and that debates about Military socialization has historically been designed to the proposed demilitarization of the Arctic region have eradicate individual difference and to instil a paramount illuminated the legacies of military activities on northern commitment to unit and nation-state. By contrast, peoples and ecology. Policy-makers can no longer ignore postmodernity celebrates diversity and multiculturalism the human impacts of their decisions on communities and lies at the core of Canada’s official identity. In this light, individuals, especially in an era of Aboriginal self-awareness Defence Strategy 2020 and other strategic documents have and self-government.7 Given that postmodern military theory stressed that the CF must be a “visible national institution” stresses changes to perceived threats, mission definitions, reflecting the country’s geographic and cultural diversity.2 and conventional civil-military relations,8 the North seems an Sociologists Charles Moskos and James Burk have appropriate area of operations and responsibility to assess the postulated that postmodern forces would increasingly feature Rangers’ “postmodern” attributes. sub-national social organizations, and would reflect dramatic changes in military cultures and opinions.3 In the Canadian The Canadian Rangers: An Overview case, a political emphasis on the non-assimilation of Aboriginal peoples conflicts with the typical assimilationist he Canadian Rangers were first conceived amidst the goals of mainstream military culture. This article will argue T modern realities of the Second World War and the Cold that observers would be hard pressed to contemplate a more War. The force was originally modelled after the Pacific inclusive and flexible force than the Rangers. Coast Militia Rangers (PCMR), a home guard established along the West Coast in 1942 to meet potential Japanese The following analysis, using theoretical traits incursions. The PCMR was predicated on the idea that associated with “postmodern” military formations, helps to unpaid volunteers, often too old or too young to serve explain the vitality and success of the Canadian Rangers in overseas, could perform useful military functions while recent years. It highlights the permeability between civil carrying out their everyday civilian lives on the land and and military structures, the “erosion of martial values,” and sea. Given their intimate knowledge of local areas, they increasing democratization driven by internal rather than could provide intelligence, act as guides, and delay an external considerations.4 Rather than wading into the enemy advance using guerrilla tactics. All told, more than tumultuous debate on the precise meaning of postmodernism, 15,000 British Columbians served in the PCMR before it this article accepts the functional definitions put forward was stood down in late 1945.9 by sociologists Bradford Booth, Meyer Kestnbaum, and David R. Segal. At its core, “postmodernism is not a By 1947, chilly superpower relations and a new focus on developmental construct, but is essentially a mode of northern security, coupled with renewed sovereignty discourse” designed to deconstruct basic assumptions concerns related to a US military presence in the North, led rather than to uncover cause and affect relationships the government to establish the Canadian Rangers as a

50 Canadian Military Journal ● Winter 2005 – 2006 Corps of the Reserve Militia. This force not be entirely military oriented, it is would be unpaid, provided with armbands, “Traditional military genuine and perhaps it is an excellent a .303 rifle, and 200 rounds of ammunition institutions are opportunity to seriously consider realistic a year. In war, they would serve as and practical improvements in the quintessentially coast watchers and guides to regular Ranger force.”14 Beginning in the late troops, assist authorities in reporting and hierarchical 1980s, explicit government statements apprehending enemy agents and saboteurs, and bureaucratic.” increasingly stressed the socio-political provide local defence against small enemy benefits of the Rangers in Aboriginal detachments, and undertake ground search communities and the force underwent and rescue (GSAR) operations. Their peacetime roles were remarkable growth during a general era of fiscal and similar, focusing on guiding troops on exercises, collecting personnel downsizing in the Canadian Forces. The detailed information about their local areas and reporting any Rangers were politically and publicly marketable as unusual activities, and providing GSAR parties when tasked. a military success story. They were recruited from local areas, commanded by civilian leaders from their communities, and carried on their There are currently 4000 Rangers in 165 patrols daily lives.10 across Canada. Overall command is centralized at National Defence Headquarters, administered by the The Rangers survived the oscillating cycles of military DCDS, while operational and administrative control concern about the North through the second half of the of Canadian Rangers in the field is delegated to 20th Century.11 Military and political interest in the the Commander of Canadian Forces Northern Area (CFNA)

Rangers diminished by the late 1950s, when technological and to the Commander of Land Force Command (LFC).15 WHITE NORTH THE GREAT solutions like the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line were In 1998, five Canadian Ranger Patrol Groups (CRPGs) conceived to secure the continent. Although the Rangers were formed to co-ordinate the activities of Ranger patrols were left to “wither on the vine,” they did survive – in their respective areas of responsibility. Until 1998, the largely because of the extremely small price tag attached Rangers existed as a subcomponent of the reserves. to them.12 During the 1970s the “Northern” Rangers Reorganization into CRPGs made them a total force unit, enjoyed some growth as a sovereignty-bolstering measure with each Patrol Group commanded by a major (CO) and but it was not until the mid-1980s, when the voyage of the a captain (DCO).16 U.S. Coast Guard vessel Polar Sea renewed sovereignty concerns related to the Northwest Passage, that the Rangers underwent dramatic growth.13 By 1992 the national strength of the force rose to 3200 (and doubled in the territorial north).

The Rangers grew “North of 60” after 1970 because the basic structure already existed and was very inexpensive, but also because a “new security discourse” emerged. Military activities in the arctic could not longer be divorced from domestic socio-economic, cultural, and environmental health issues. Aboriginal leaders repeatedly called for the demilitarization of the arctic on social and environmental grounds, and construed the military presence as a threat to their peoples’ security. These pressures encouraged program assessment using both state-centred security and broad social criteria. Military officers

noted that the public and Native DND photo 8856 leaders took great interest in the Rangers, and that “while their Military sovereignty patrols travel in very austere areas in extreme conditions to assert Canadian motivation and enthusiasm may sovereignty.

Winter 2005 – 2006 ● Canadian Military Journal 51 The Rangers as a “Postmodern” The core concept is that citizens Military Formation in isolated and coastal communities, far from the main southern belt of raditional military institutions population, can serve as the military’s T are quintessentially hierarchical “eyes and ears” during the course and bureaucratic. Charles Moskos, of their everyday lives. Rather than J.A. Williams, and David Segal asking these individuals to leave their theorize that postmodern forces would communities to join the Regular be predisposed towards decentraliza- Forces or Primary Reserves,19 they can tion, and ascribe five fundamental make meaningful contributions to organizational characteristics to their country at home. postmodern militaries. First, they feature structural and cultural The perceived value of individual interpenetration of the civilian Rangers is directly linked to their and military spheres. Second, less civilian experiences and practices. emphasis or differentiation is placed First and foremost, a Ranger has on service, rank, and specialization. usually lived in an area for a long Third, missions will focus less on time and is intimately familiar with warfighting and more on low-intensity the local people, terrain, and weather humanitarian and constabulary conditions. Second, he or she is, missions. Fourth, theorists suggest Cadets are very much a manifestation of ideally, at least, working on or near northern citizenship. that postmodern forces will carry out the land or sea, and thus in a position missions with multilateral rather than to observe unusual incidents. Third, a unilateral authorization. This idea extends to the fifth Ranger possesses certain skills and expert local knowledge characteristic: that there will be an internationalization that supports the force’s role in the CF.20 Correspondingly, of military forces themselves.17 membership in the Canadian Rangers is distinct from the regular force and other reserve force units. The only formal The following discussion interprets the Canadian entry criteria is that men and women who join are over Rangers using these general categories as guidelines for eighteen years of age, are Canadian citizens or landed critical analysis. The Ranger organization, managed on a immigrants, in good health, and willing to be members of the local/community level, relies heavily on the indigenous Canadian Forces. There is no upper age limit. So long knowledge of its members, rather than assisimationist as an individual can still perform his or her duties, he or she “militarizing” and conditioning through the regularized training can remain a Ranger. Some anecdotes are truly amazing – regimes akin to traditional, modern military formations. The 74-year-old Ranger Peter Kuniliusie of Clyde River, recent focus on local humanitarian and surveillance needs , retired in November 2004 after 52 years clearly prioritizes sovereignty assertion over preparations to of continuous service with the force.21 Indeed, it is engage enemy insurgents. The force has also proven to be a accommodation and acceptance of social diversity and sustainable way to accommodate , , and experience that makes the Ranger concept unique Métis people in the military, providing a positive, practical and feasible. connection between the CF and Northern communities. Apart from annual Ranger training exercises conducted 1. Inter-penetration of Civilian and Military by Regular or Reserve Force instructors, ongoing Ranger Spheres activities are often indistinguishable from civilian practices. An excellent example is ground search and rescue (GSAR). he idea of the “citizen-soldier” lies at the heart of the Rangers often participate in ground searches for lost T Rangers. One officer wrote, during the discussions that individuals or groups without the prior knowledge of their led to the creation of the force in 1947: group headquarters. As the only organized group in many isolated communities, the Rangers are singularly We don’t want, and we don’t need, further organized equipped to assist SAR specialists, and their contributions military bodies supplementing Active and Reserve generate significant media attention. In 1999-2000, for Forces but what we need is that small groups of example, Rangers and personnel from 1 CRPG took part in specially adapted people take an interest in the 164 volunteer GSAR missions, one medevac, and one defence of their country in order that we may derive emergency rescue.22 Without official direction, however, the the greatest benefits from their knowledge and Rangers, even if they are wearing their uniforms, are not particular facilities and it is necessary that they be performing the task as Canadian Rangers per se; they are act- organized to some extent; but I am afraid that if we ing as private citizens and are not paid. Although this blurred try to make them too military we will certainly stand line between their “civilian” and “military” identities remains to lose by it... . If the ... interest [is] taken by the vague, in emergencies individual Rangers act first and respective Commanders, ... and a great deal of foremost as community members.23 The Rangers also benefit will accrue to the [Canadian] Forces and represent an important means of sharing knowledge within the country in general.18 Northern communities. The potential loss of traditional

52 Canadian Military Journal ● Winter 2005 – 2006 skills, which are inextricably linked to over a territory and within a given territory. Aboriginal identities, is a persistent “Traditional military As the “parergonal divide” between the but growing worry amongst Northern institutions are international and the domestic spheres peoples and policy-makers.24 The become “increasingly blurred,” phenomena quintessentially quasi-urbanization of the territorial north are increasingly difficult to classify as since the mid 1950s means that younger hierarchical either inside or outside of the state.27 people have not had the same level of and bureaucratic.” In terms of “inter-nationalization,” exposure to traditional activities on the M.J. Morgan explains, postmodernists do land as their elders. In a constructive way, not view “difference or plurality ... as a the Ranger program facilitates the transfer of indigenous state to be tolerated on the path to some unified ideal; knowledge amongst members of a patrol, and thus supports on the contrary, postmodernism calls for a promotion of the retention of traditional knowledge within communities. difference, an recognition that difference is an abiding (and desirable) existential quality.”28 As the conceptualization The creation and expansion of the Junior Canadian of Canada has shifted to a multicultural mosaic enriched Rangers (JCR) over the last decade fulfills a similar function. by gender, sexual, and other social identities, the political The JCR is a structured youth program designed “to salience of distinctiveness has influenced military promote traditional cultures and lifestyles by offering a personnel policies. variety of structured activities to young people living in remote and isolated communities.” The Rangers’ The emergence of Aboriginal self-government, visibly responsibilities with the JCR program support national goals, embodied in the new territory of Nunavut, blurs the lines and allow DND, in partnership with other government between governmental and “national” jurisdictions within WHITE NORTH THE GREAT departments, to make a meaningful contributions to the the country. The Canadian Rangers overarch this reality. quality of life for young in isolated areas. Mary Simon, speaking as a representative of Inuit Tapirisat “The greatest asset of the [JCR] Programme is its flexibility,” of Canada in 1994, emphasized that “the Inuit agenda official DND statements explain. “It is a community-based for the exercise of our right to self-determination is not and supervised programme that receives little direction from to secede or separate from Canada but rather that we external sources. In this way, [it] helps preserve the culture, wish to share a common citizenship with other Canadians traditions, and activities that are unique to each community.” while maintaining our identity as a people, which An adult committee works in partnership with a local Ranger means maintaining our identity as Inuit.”29 When Inuit patrol to set curriculum: 60 percent is at the community’s members of the Rangers in Nunavut set out on exercises, discretion, and 40 percent (the Rangers Skills component) they are members of their local and regional communities is directed by the Canadian Forces. In short, local as well as representatives of the Canadian Forces. Their Rangers instruct and supervise Junior Rangers in close self-administering, autonomous patrols, rich in traditional cooperation with community leaders. The meteoric growth knowledge and culture, allow them to represent both their of the JCR across the North demonstrates the appeal and peoples and Canada simultaneously. success of this approach.25

2. Multilateralism and the Inter-nationalization of Military Forces

he norm for Western military “Tdeployments is now to participate with the armed forces of other nations in coalitions wherever possible,” Booth, Kestnbaum and Segal explain, “in order to promote public support and display the unity of the international community.”26 If Canada is conceptualized as a multicultural society, than this logic can be applied to the Rangers, even though the force is not designed for deployment outside of their local areas of responsibility. After all, multiple “imagined communities” can occupy the same space simultaneously. In

A Genealogy of Sovereignty, Jens DND photo 9130 Bartelson explained that sovereignty has both external and internal The Operation Kigliqaqvik team stands proudly on Ellef Rignes Island after spending over two weeks dimensions – it can signify something in some of the most extreme winter conditions.

Winter 2005 – 2006 ● Canadian Military Journal 53 Media photo Welcome Aboard by Joanna Mackenzie Media photo Welcome

Welcome Aboard. Canadian Rangers from Arviat took part in Exercise Hudson Sentinel, August 2005.

Given the rising profile of Aboriginal issues since the result, they need to be treated as partners directly engaged 1970s, the media tends to highlight the high proportion of in practical stewardship.32 Rangers of Aboriginal descent, often referring to it as an Aboriginal force (usually comprised of Inuit). This article Furthermore, political scientist Andy Cooper has paints a similar picture. This characterization, which identified Indigenous Peoples’ rights as an area of excludes or downplays non-Aboriginal membership, is state-societal tension in terms of territory and the “politics of telling in itself.30 After all, there are salient political reasons identity and loyalty.” He noted that the unofficial security to trumpet Aboriginal participation in the Rangers. First and discourse has shifted from the defence of the integrity of foremost, Canada’s sovereignty claims in the North rely the nation state to the protection of the essential rights partially on the idea of Inuit historic and contemporary use of of individuals and groups.33 The federal government’s the land and sea. “Canada is an Arctic nation,” former application of the phrase “human security” to the North in Secretary of State for External Affairs Joe Clark explained in key foreign policy statements34 suggests that it has now 1985, and “Canada’s sovereignty in the Arctic is indivisible. become the official discourse, and supports his observations. It embraces land, sea and ice.... From time immemorial So too does scholarship that stresses how “sovereignty and Canada’s Inuit people have used and occupied the ice as they security policy decisions, in their immediate impact, have have used and occupied the land.... Full sovereignty is vital been and continue to be disproportionately costly to northern to Canada’s security. It is vital to the Inuit people. And indigenous peoples.”35 Southern-directed “mega projects,” it is vital to Canada’s national identity.”31 Accordingly, such as the DEW Line, disrupted socio-economic and political scientist Franklyn Griffiths has pointed out that it is cultural patterns and left toxic legacies. Furthermore, the hypocritical to rely on the Inuit without giving them both military’s track record of activity was less than impressive, a say and a meaningful role in exercising control and marked by reactive promises in the face of perceived national enforcement in their homeland. They reside there, have an threats that were seldom matched by practical commitments. immediate and superior knowledge of the environment, are If this negative appraisal is correct, the Canadian Rangers on the front lines of changes that affect the North, and have appear to be an important exception in that cooperation and practical daily attachments to the land and sea. As a mutual goodwill continue to prevail.

54 Canadian Military Journal ● Winter 2005 – 2006 Northern communities and peoples 3. Less emphasis on service, that strongly oppose other forms of military “Northern communities rank and specialization operations in the North readily accept and peoples that land-based Ranger patrols. The federal strongly oppose ilitaries tend to represent the government has elaborated reasons why it Mquintessential models for rigid, is not in the ‘national interest’ to push for other forms of military bureaucratic organization. Systems of rank demilitarization of the Arctic region: operations in the and promotion, uniforms, and standardized North readily accept training and operating procedures all serve Demilitarization of the Arctic would to reinforce collective identities and make it more difficult, and perhaps land-based hierarchies. “While the postmodern even impossible, for our military Ranger patrols.” celebrates the diverse and the ephemeral,” personnel to provide defence services Booth, Kestnbaum and Segal observe, available to Canadians in other parts of traditional military socialization “aims to the country. The Canadian Forces, for example, eradicate individual difference, and to imbue a sense of would be unable to conduct operations to protect our tradition and the importance of commitment to the unit, to sovereign territory ... or to provide humanitarian the nation, and to national symbols.”40 In recognition that assistance.... Additionally, the cultural inter-play of externally-imposed norms are disruptive and generate service people serving in our North has an intangible resentment in the North, Ranger service is voluntary, flexible benefit in promoting a sense of national awareness and predicated on what someone can bring to the force more among the military and those northern residents who than what he or she can be taught. The military has come to come in contact with the military. A military presence recognize that the “normal” army way of doing things is not WHITE NORTH THE GREAT in the North also provides Canada’s Aboriginal necessarily appropriate in the North, particularly amongst peoples with an opportunity to serve their country Native peoples. and community through participation in the Canadian Rangers.36 A Ranger patrol is rooted in its community, and operates on a group (rather than individual) basis. Each Ranger patrol Canadian Ranger patrols, by virtue of their locations is led by a sergeant, who is seconded by a master corporal, and largely Aboriginal composition, are representative both of whom are elected by the other members of the elements of the CF in this respect.37 patrol. So too are Ranger corporals, who command sections of a patrol at a 1:10 ratio. Elections are held in patrol All members of the Canadian Rangers are Canadian communities on an annual basis and exemplify the citizens. Nonetheless, their diversity embodies the country’s self-administering characteristics of the Rangers. Patrol multicultural identity. Although there are no official leaders are the only members of the CF who are elected to statistics generated, the 1 CRPG patrols are representative their positions, and therefore are directly accountable of the diverse ethnic composition of the North. The to their “subordinates” in a unique way. Furthermore, while majority of Rangers in the Yukon are “White” (as is the “hierarchical” on paper, Ranger “command” can be less rigid population itself). In the Northwest Territories the patrols in practice. Decision-making in arctic communities is based reflect the geographic and linguistic dispersion of upon consensus, and this is reflected in the patrols Northern peoples. Most of the Rangers patrols south themselves. For example, instructors explained that when of the tree line are comprised of members of Gwich’in, they ask a Ranger sergeant a question in some Nunavut Dene, Métis, and “White” communities. North of the communities, he or she will turn to the elders in the patrol tree line, most of the patrols are Inuit. In Nunavut, for guidance prior to responding. In this sense, while the the Rangers are almost entirely Inuit and most operations sergeant is theoretically in charge of a patrol, the practical are conducted in Inuktitut.38 “power base” may lay elsewhere. As a result, instructors must be prepared to present their plans to the entire The Rangers embody a partnership between peoples patrol: the best way to approach any challenge is and ensure that Northern residents are represented on to sit down and discuss it with a patrol, offering more the front lines of Northern military operations. In a explanation than would be typical in the south. Warrant 2002 speech, Sheila Watt-Cloutier, president of Inuit Officer Kevin Mulhern suggested that the “mission-focus” Circumpolar Conference (Canada), stressed, “Inuit are mentality should be reversed when dealing with the proud Canadian citizens and our commitment to the Rangers: it was often better to explain what the military country is enduring; and Inuit will hold up the Canadian wanted to accomplish with the Rangers, and then figure flag.” She used the Rangers as the prime example of out with them what should be done in terms of a how instrumental her people had been in exerting sovereignty mission. In practice, patrols are not tasked out of an in the arctic. The Inuit would not tolerate being seen expectation that each individual can do everything, or treated, and would certainly not act, “as powerless or that a leader possesses the strongest skill set, victims of external forces over which we have no but that someone in the patrol has the skill set to conduct control.” They were engaged, from the local to the the patrol while it completes a given activity. As a international.39 The Rangers fittingly represent that the result, individual testing is limited as an indicator CF in the arctic also has an indigenous face, and that of a patrol’s competencies. These units tend to respond security and sovereignty are priorities for all Canadians. better to communal efforts.41

Winter 2005 – 2006 ● Canadian Military Journal 55 unquestioning and immediate responses. There are cases where longstanding Rangers, and even Ranger sergeants, have quit on the spot when faced with an over-zealous and insistent instructor.42

In short, Ranger patrols cannot be compartmentalized into narrow categories of service, rank and specialization, given the diversity of the North and the special skill set that each individual brings to the force. Ranger sergeant Cory Bruneau explained that the patrol includes mushers, diving instructors, air search and rescue specialists, a master sniper, and a gunsmith – and nearly all of the Rangers worked more than one civilian job.43 Although a vertical hierarchy exists for administration and training, practical activities are pursued in a more horizontal approach, exploiting individual strengths rather than formal networks arrayed by rank. Indeed, a Ranger’s local status and competency cannot be defined narrowly by rank: respected elders, chiefs and mayors often serve in Rangers, but generally not as sergeant, yet their influence is unmistakable. All members share a collective identity borne on the crest on their red sweatshirts, but this does not encourage them to suppress their individuality. Their diversity is a force multiplier, given their non-traditional role, mission and tasks within the Canadian Forces.

4. Less focus on warfighting and more non-traditional missions

he 1995 report of the Special TCommission of the Restructuring of the Reserves stressed that the fundamental role

Photo by Jan Curtis, from www.geo.mtu.edu of the Reserves is to provide a mobilization base for war. This role does not apply to the Canadian Rangers, who are not expected to The military’s acceptance of such practices, which serve overseas: they are not even trained to be “deployable” seem rooted in Aboriginal values and diverge with general outside of their communities or regions. Ranger roles are depictions of a rigid, unbending military culture, shows entirely oriented towards support for domestic operations. a capacity for flexibility and accommodation within the So how do they contribute to the Defence mission? The CF that is seldom acknowledged by the media and by government’s recent statement of international policy scholars. Regular and reserve force instructors who stresses that the defence of Canada is the CF’s “first undertake annual training with Northern patrols understand priority,” and that the arctic is a region of particular concern: the uniqueness of the force. A flexible, culturally sensitive approach based on mutual learning, credibility, and trust is The demands of sovereignty and security for the crucial to effective relationships. When stationed with Government could become even more pressing as southern regular force units, army sergeants are trained to activity in the North continues to rise. The mining of have their commands met without debate, when they demand diamonds, for example, is expanding the region’s it. There is an inherent rigidity in the philosophy of command economy and spurring population growth. Air traffic and strict obedience. But this “hard army” approach does not over the high Arctic is increasing, and climate change work with the Rangers. Instructors cannot yell at patrols could lead to more commercial vessel traffic in our according to standard drill techniques, “dress down” and northern waters. These developments will not result embarrass individuals who make mistakes, or demand in the type of military threat to the North that we saw

56 Canadian Military Journal ● Winter 2005 – 2006 during the Cold War, but they could have long-term d. Conduct North Warning Site patrols as tasked. security implications. Although the primary Individual patrols inspect these radar sites responsibility for dealing with issues such as periodically to ensure they have not been sovereignty and environmental protection, organized vandalized or damaged by wildlife. These crime, and people and drug smuggling rests with patrols also expand CFNA’s sovereignty other departments, the Canadian Forces will be presence because Rangers conduct surveillance affected in a number of ways. There will, for as they transit the ground to more remote example, be a greater requirement for surveillance sites.49 and control, as well as for search and rescue. Adversaries could be tempted to take advantage of e. Collect local data of military significance, new opportunities unless we are prepared to deal allowing military commanders to have a grasp with asymmetric threats that are staged through of local assets available to conduct operations the North. in a given area.

The absence of perceived conventional military Type 1 Ranger Training Annual standard threats is striking. The CF’s “new approach” to domestic Patrol training for each patrol, defence will include “familiar” but non-traditional consisting of classroom military roles, such as Search and Rescue (SAR), disaster and field exercises. relief, and support to other government departments. It will also fit into the government’s strategy to Type 2 Ranger North Inspections of NWS protect against the terrorist threat. In this direction, Warning System installations by WHITE NORTH THE GREAT the government committed to “increase their efforts to (NWS) Patrol individual patrols. ensure the sovereignty and security of our territory, airspace and maritime approaches, including in the Type 3 Ranger Mass Collective training Arctic,” improve intelligence gathering and analysis, Exercise exercises conducted and “dedicate specific resources – people, training and by two or more patrols equipment - to enhance their ability to carry out (i.e. Operation Skookum domestic roles.”44 Elan II, Quiet Lake, Yukon, March 2004). The Rangers are seen as an integral component of Type 4 Ranger Sovereignty Patrols tasked by CFNA the government’s strategic vision. Their official task Patrol (SOVPAT) HQ as part of the CFNA 45 list includes the following: Surveillance Plan.

1. Conduct and Provide Support to Sovereignty Type 5 Ranger Enhanced A long-range patrol Operations: Sovereignty Patrol tasked by CFNA HQ (ESOVPAT) to a remote part of area a. Conduct surveillance and sovereignty patrols of responsibility. One (SOVPATs) as tasked (see Table 1). In 2003-04, for ESOVPAT is conducted example, the Rangers conducted over 162 patrols of each year, involving various types in the arctic, which contributes to 1 CRPG HQ personnel CFNA’s mandate to provide surface surveillance in and representatives its area of operation. SOVPATs also confirm that from various Ranger Ranger patrols can successfully plan and complete patrols (i.e. Operation relatively complex tasks without direct supervision Kigliqaqvik Ranger III by a Ranger instructor. Therefore, they help to build to Eureka, April 2005). confidence for patrols.46 Table 1: Types of Ranger Patrols.50 b. Participate in CF operations, exercises and training. Rangers help other CF elements 2. Conduct and Provide Assistance to CF Domestic prepare for arctic exercises or operations, provide Operations: local guidance, and teach traditional survival skills. Ranger participation in sovereignty a. Conduct territorial, coastal and inland water operations contributes directly to re-establishing surveillance as required/tasked. the diminishing Land Force operational capabilities in the North.47 b. Provide local knowledge and expertise. Rangers have recently acted as observers c. Report suspicious and unusual activities that are out and guides during West Coast operations of character with the routine of an area. For to counter illegal immigration, and served example, Rangers have reported several submarine as advisers during Exercise Narwhal sightings since 1997 that have drawn significant around Pangnirtung and Cumberland Peninsula media interest.48 in August 2004.

Winter 2005 – 2006 ● Canadian Military Journal 57 c. Provide assistance to other ensuring that the CF is not socially government departments. “A flexible, culturally isolated or structurally separated sensitive approach from Northern societies.53 d. Provide local assistance and advice to Ground Search and based on mutual Conclusions Rescue operations. learning, credibility and trust is crucial riticisms about the lack of DND/CF e. Provide support in response to C presence and capabilities, foreign natural disasters and humanitarian to effective submarines prowling under the sea ice, operations. Although not intended relationships.” and foreign claims to Canadian waters as a “force of first resort,” such dominate recent media coverage of the as police, fire and medical Canadian arctic – and scholarly debate.54 specialists, Rangers continue to support their Seldom do we hear about CF “success stories,” particularly communities in cases of domestic emergency. in the North. This brief article suggests that the Canadian In 1999, members from eleven of the fourteen Rangers represent an example of how the military Canadian Ranger patrols in Nunavik (northern has successfully integrated the promotion of national Quebec) arrived in Kangiqsualujjuaq in response to security and sovereignty agendas with community-based the massive avalanche. The extraordinary display of activities and local management. It represents practical Ranger co-operation resulted in Chief of the partnership rather than shallow “consultation,” rooted in Defence Staff awarding a Canadian Forces Unit community-based monitoring using traditional knowledge Commendation to 2 CRPG. Potential emergencies and skills. It also promotes cooperation, communal and that Rangers prepare to encounter include a major individual empowerment, and improved cross-cultural air disaster or a cruise liner running aground.51 understanding. To contribute to a safer and more secure world, the recent International Policy Statement noted, Several omissions are worth noting. Although the “military force is often required, but so too are negotiation, original 1947 list of Ranger tasks included tactical actions to compromise, and an understanding of other peoples and delay an enemy advance, this expectation has been officially cultures.” Indeed, the flexible and capable approach that dropped. The CF no longer expects the Rangers to engage the CF hopes to project abroad is also applicable at home.55 with an enemy force: indeed, they are explicitly told not to assist “in immediate local defence by containing or observing The Rangers’ “postmodern” characteristics seem small enemy detachments pending arrival of other forces” particularly appropriate in light of the government’s recent nor to assist police with the discovery or apprehension of International Policy Statement and concerns expressed enemy agents or saboteurs. Presumably, such tasks would put by Northern indigenous groups about the potential impacts of the Rangers at excessive risk given their limited training. climate change and concomitant sovereignty and security Furthermore, the Rangers cannot be called out in an Aid to responses. The Canadian Rangers have garnered media the Civil Power capacity, given training limitations and the accolades for more than a decade, and enjoy tremendous civil-military identities embodied in the force.52 Given the public and political support in Northern communities. If positive working relationship that the Rangers embody broader definitions of security can accommodate measures between the CF and Aboriginal communities, for example, a of military utility as well as community development and situation resembling the Oka Crisis could place the Rangers Aboriginal-military relationships, then the Rangers represent in a confrontation with Native militants and would have a success on several levels. By answering both military a severe, deleterious impact on their credibility. and societal security needs in a flexible, inexpensive, and culturally inclusive manner, the force represents a symbolic The final Ranger task is the most general and basic – to and constructive working relationship with Canadians maintain a CF presence in the local community. This is who would not otherwise be drawn into CF service. While fundamental, given the reductions in Northern military allowing the military to maintain an inexpensive presence in operations over the last several decades and the DND’s remote regions, and serving as highly visible expression of commitment to having a “footprint” in communities across Canadian sovereignty in the arctic, the Rangers fulfill the country. The Rangers represent more than 90 percent operational requirements vital to the Canadian Forces. These of CF representation north of the 55th parallel, and provide a contributions, however, are only part of the greater picture. special bond with their host populations. They are far more The organization also contributes to capacity building in than the military’s “eyes and ears”; they are an organized the North by helping to create political self-determining, group that communities can turn to for numerous activities. sustainable communities. As identities are recognized and Unorthodox roles, such as breaking the Yukon Trail for dog created through political changes in the “postmodern” North, mushers, ensuring that polar bears do not attack unsuspecting it is imperative that the Canadian military and Northern trick-or-treaters in Churchill, and welcoming dignitaries, communities are constructively engaged and foster the spirit bring favourable media attention. Their participation of mutual cultural awareness. in Remembrance Day parades reinforces the intimate and continuing, positive military presence in Canadian life. They As the Rangers evolve with their communities, there will are simultaneously citizen soldiers and citizen servers, be pressures to move along a continuum from a relatively intimately integrated into local community activities, informal, voluntary organization towards more formal and

58 Canadian Military Journal ● Winter 2005 – 2006 standardized structures. Their community waters. They are not “combat-capable” roots mean that any transformations “The final Ranger task in a conventional sense, and therefore must be carefully monitored to ensure that is the most general can only represent a piece in the larger institutionalization does not corrode the puzzle of northern sovereignty assertion. and basic – to maintain local foundations upon which the Rangers Nonetheless, the Rangers support the have been built. Intensified administration, a CF presence in CF’s domestic operational tasks in a if coupled with escalating expectations and the local community.” symbolic, cost-effective, and practical sporadic resource commitments, could way. The Ranger concept is rooted in a undermine the indigenous strengths of partnership between the military and the force. The danger of overstretch is always a critical northern communities – the CF’s “centre of gravity” in consideration. Trust is integral to the entire Ranger Northern Area – and the force’s “postmodern” characteristics organization, as it is to all relationships in the North, and the highlight that military activities designed to assert DND/CF must deliver on promises, now and in the future. sovereignty need not cause “insecurity” for Northern peoples. All of these variables are critical for sustainable, Sociologists Booth, Kesterbaum and Segal have integrated management of Canada’s sovereignty and security cautioned that the transition to postmodern military in an era of much speculation and uncertainty. forms should be as “modern” as possible: it should represent rational calculated adaptation. National military Thanks to Jennifer Arthur, Rob Huebert, and the staff organizations should reflect continuity of the modern and instructors at 1 CRPG, particularly Captain military with an openness to innovate and adapt to Conrad Schubert and Sergeant Denis Lalonde, for societal change.56 In this light, the Rangers should be their comments and insights. WHITE NORTH THE GREAT viewed as a stable, integral part of a comprehensive means of detection and control over Canadian lands and

NOTES

1. CFNA, Operations and Training Directive 2002/03, 9. See Kerry Steeves, “The Pacific Coast Militia 17. C.C. Moskos, J.A. Williams, and D.R. Segal, p. 3. June 02, file NA 4500-1 (Comd). Rangers, 1942-1945” (MA thesis, UBC, 1990); 18. Keale to Chesley, 9 July 1947, (H.S.) 2. Defence Strategy 2020 quoted in DGRC, P.W. Lackenbauer, “Guerillas in our midst: 112.3M2 (D49), quoted in Hitsman, “Canadian “CAN RAN 2000: A Review of the Canadian The Pacific Coast Militia Rangers, 1942-45,” Rangers,” p. 4. Rangers and of the Junior Canadian Rangers,” paper to the Canadian Historical Association, 19. On the problems of recruiting Inuit youth away 27 Jan 00. University of Western , 31 May 2005. from northern communties, see K. Eyre, “Custos 3. Charles C. Moskos and James Burk, “The 10. For a basic overview of the early years, see Borealis: The Military in the Canadian North” Postmodern Military,” in The Adaptive Military: J. Mackay Hitsman, “The Canadian Rangers,” (Ph.D. thesis, King’s College, 1981), pp. 288-89. Armed Forces in a Turbulent World, 2nd Edition, DND, Army Headquarters, Historical Section, 20. Major DI Hay, “The Canadian Rangers,” James Burk (ed.) (London: Transaction Report No. 92 (1 Dec 1960). 8 February 1991, MARP 1901-2 (RGRS). Publishers, 1998), pp.163-82. 11. See K. Eyre, “Forty Years of Defence Activity 21. Capt J. Campbell, “Saying Goodbye to a Canadian 4. C.C. Moskos, J.A. Williams, and D.R. Segal, in the Canadian North, 1947-87,” Arctic 40/4 Ranger,” Maple Leaf, 1 December 2004, p. 3. “Armed Forces after the Cold War,” in The (1987), pp. 292-9 22. CAN RAN 2000, p. 11. See also Lackenbauer, Postmodern Military: Armed Forces After the 12. On this period, see Robert Taylor, “Eyes and “Media Coverage,” pp.102-53. Cold War, Moskos et al (eds.) (New York: Oxford Ears of the North,” Star Weekly Magazine, 23. CAN RAN 2000; CDS to VCDS et al, “Role, University Press, 2000), pp.6, 9. 22 Dec 56, pp. 2-3. Mission, Tasks of the Canadian Rangers,” 5. Bradford Booth, Meyer Kestnbaum, and David R. 13. RJ Orange, House of Commons, Debates, 20 April 2004, released under AIA. Segal, “Are Post-Cold War Militaries 21 May 1971, p. 6065; Canadian Forces 24. See, for example, CFNA FY 2004/2005 Level 1 Postmodern” Armed Forces & Society 27/3 Northern Region (CFNA), Northern Region Business Plan, 27 October 2003, pp. 1-2. (2001), p. 333. See their discussion distinguishing Information (n.d.), pp. 16-18, CFNA 25. Backgrounder, “The Junior Canadian Rangers between postmodernity and postmodernism, Headquarters (HQ), Yellowknife, File NA 1325-1 Programme,” 17 March 1999. The JCR have 323-24. (PAffO); Northern Region Headquarters (NRHQ), grown from 1620 in 54 patrols in FY 99-00 to 6. See P.W. Lackenbauer, “The Canadian Rangers: Untitled Historical Booklet, entries 31 Jul 71, 2893 in 102 patrols in FY 03-04: an increase of A Survey of English-Canadian Media Coverage, 18 Nov 71, 13 Jan 72, CFNA HQ, File 79 percent in four years. D Res, Annual 1995-2004” (2004). Copy available from the NA 1325-1 (PAffO); NRHQ Historical Reports Report #4, FY 03-04, CAN RAN 2000, author. The exception is in The Maple Leaf, where 1983, p. 5; 1984, p. 6; DGRC for CDS, “Canadian August 2004, p. 11. professional journalist Sgt. Peter Moon has drawn Rangers Enhancement Project,” 30 May 1995, 26. Booth, Kestnbaum and Segal, “Postmodern?” significant attention to the Rangers in northern p. 1, NDHQ f.1901/260/4 (DGRC). p. 327. Ontario. 14. Major S.J. Joudry, NRHQ Study Report – 27. Jens Bartelson, A Genealogy of Sovereignty 7. See, for example, R. Huebert, “Canadian Canadian Rangers, 27 May 1986, NR 5323-2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), Arctic Security Issues: Transformation in the (SSO R&C), p. 12. Acquired through AIA. pp. 30, 247. post-cold war era,” International Journal (1999), 15. CDS to VCDS et al, “Role, Mission, Tasks of the 28. Morgan, “Reconstruction of Culture,” pp.381-82. pp. 203-29; “Climate Change and Canadian Canadian Rangers,” 20 Apr 04; DND, “Canadian 29. Mary Simon, testimony before the Special Joint Sovereignty in the Northwest Passage,” Isuma 2/4 Rangers 2000,” Draft 1, 15 November 1999 Committee of the Senate and the House of (2001), pp. 86-94; Andrew Wylie, “Environmental (hereafter “CAN RAN 2000”), p. 17; SCRR Commons on Reviewing Canadian Foreign Security and the Canadian Arctic” (M.A. thesis, Report. The LFC commander, in turn, has delegated Policy, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, University of Calgary, 2002). On indigenous this authority to Land Force Area commands. 9 June 1994, p.36:30. peoples and security, see also J. Marshall Beier, 16. Personal interview, Captain Don Finnamore, 30. For a census of national and local media attention International Relations in Uncommon Places Deputy Commanding Officer, 1 Canadian Ranger on the Rangers, see Lackenbauer, “Survey of (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). Patrol, FOL Yellowknife, 20 March 2000; English-Canadian Media Coverage.” It reveals that 8. See Harry Bondy, “Postmodernism and the Dwayne Lovegrove, Speech, Parade of 1 CRPG, media coverage of predominantly non-Aboriginal Source of Military Strength in the Anglo West,” Official Ceremony, 2 April 1998, transcript held units in Newfoundland and is Armed Forces & Society 31/1 (2004), pp. 31-61. at CFNA, no file listed. sparse – they are obviously seen as less “special.”

Winter 2005 – 2006 ● Canadian Military Journal 59 31. House of Commons, Debates, 10 September 1985, 38. Interviews, Colonel Pierre Leblanc, Finnamore, Major A.D. MacIntosh, Briefing for MND: pp. 6462-4. and Sergeant David McLean, Ranger Instructor, Canadian Forces Sovereignty Operations and 32. Franklyn Griffiths, “The Shipping News: 22 March 2000; Backgrounder, “Canadian Activities in the Canadian Arctic, 15 April 2005. Canada’s Arctic sovereignty not on thinning Rangers in Nunavut.” See also linguistic profiles 47. CFNA Annual Report, 2002, NA 1630-2 ice,” International Journal 58/2 (2003), at Reserves & Cadets, VCDS, DND, “Canadian (Comd), p. 4. pp. 278-82. Rangers: Statistics,” [http://www.rangers.dnd.ca/ 48. D. Pugiliese, “The X-Files Come North,” Ottawa 33. A. Cooper, Canadian Foreign Policy: Old rangers/stats_e.asp]. Citizen, 18 August 2002, p. A1. For declassified Habits and New Directions (Scarborough: 39. Sheila Watt-Cloutier, “Inuit, Climate DND reports, see ATIP A-2004-00327. Prentice-Hall, 1997). Change, Sovereignty, and Security in the 49. CFNA Annual Report to CDS, 27 June 2002, 34. See, for example, Department of Foreign Canadian Arctic,” remarks to Canadian NA 1630-2 (Comd). Affairs and International Trade, The Northern Arctic Resources Committee Conference, 50. Commander’s briefing, CFNA HQ, Dimension of Canada’s Foreign Policy Ottawa, 25 January 2002, available online at 27 February 2004. (June 2000); Remarks by Ambassador [http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com]. 51. Annual Report #4 CAN RAN 2000, 12-13; DND Shirley Wolff Serafini at the Human Security 40. Bradford Booth, Meyer Kestnbaum, and Backgrounder, BG-00.005, “The Canadian in the Arctic Seminar on 3 May 2004, David R. Segal, “Are Post-Cold War Militaries Rangers,” 8 February 2000; K. Davis, Tromsø, Norway. Postmodern?” Armed Forces & Society 27/3 “CFNA CO sees North transform,” Maple Leaf, 35. F. Abele, “Confronting ‘harsh and inescapable (Spring 2001), pp. 330-31. 6 April 2005, p. 15. facts,’” in Sovereignty and Security in the Arctic,. 41. Interviews, Warrant Officer Kevin Mulhern, 52. CDS to VCDS et al, “Role, Mission, Tasks EJ Dosman (ed.) (London: Routledge, 1989), 1 CRPG, 26 February 2004; Captain Don of the Canadian Rangers,” 20 April 2004, p. 189. This generalization rests on the idea Finnamore, DCO 1 CRPG, 20 March 2000; Fax, released under AIA. that militarization inherently threatens Native “Rangers Enhancement Program,” 30 November 53. See, for example, “Patrol protects trick-or-treaters livelihoods and homelands – a prime example 1995, p. 14. from polar bears,” K-W Record, 26 October 2004; would be the controversy over low-level flying in 42. These conclusions are made based upon Dan Davidson, “Nourish respect for veterans, Labrador and northern Quebec. Furthermore, interviews with Rangers and instructors in mayor advisers,” Whitehorse Star, 13 November much-publicized confrontations between the the north and in British Columbia in 2000, 2002, 2001, p. 4; and Lackenbauer, “Survey of military and Native Canadians at Oka, Ipperwash 2004 and 2005. English-Canadian Media Coverage.” and Gustafsen Lake created the image of 43. Interview, Ranger Sergeant Cory Bruneau, 54. Huebert, “Canadian Arctic Security Issues” and perpetual conflict during the 1990s. 1 March 2004. “Climate Change and Canadian Sovereignty”; 36. Government Response to Standing Committee 44. Canada’s International Policy Statement: A Role Griffiths, “Shipping News” and “Pathetic on Foreign Affairs and International Trade of Pride and Influence in the World – Defence Fallacy: That Canada’s Arctic Sovereignty Report, “Canada and the Circumpolar World: (Ottawa, 2005), pp. 17, 20. is on Thinning Ice,” Canadian Foreign Meeting the Challenges of Cooperation into the 45. This overview is based primarily on Policy 11/3 (2004), pp. 1-16. Twenty-First Century” (1999). CDS, “Role, Mission, Tasks of the Canadian 55. International Policy Statement, Summary – 37. Recent CF recruitment initiatives to increase Rangers.” Defence, p. 7. the number of Aboriginal members attest to the 46. Arctic Capability Study 2000, 1 Dec 00, 56. Booth, Kestnbaum and Segal, “Are Post-Cold importance of this representation. NA 3000-1 (Comd), serial seven, p. 5; War Militaries Postmodern?” DND photo 9228

Canadian Ranger on the job.

60 Canadian Military Journal ● Winter 2005 – 2006