CHANGING PERCEPTIONS of WILD HORSES in the AMERICAN LANDSCAPE a Dissertation Submitted to the Gradu

RUNNING WILD, RUNNING FREE?: CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF WILD HORSES IN THE AMERICAN LANDSCAPE A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the North Dakota State University of Agriculture and Applied Science By Andrea Lynn Mott In Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major Department: History, Philosophy, and Religious Studies May 2014 Fargo, North Dakota North Dakota State University Graduate School Title Running Wild, Running Free: Changing Perceptions of Wild Horses in the American Landscape By Andrea Lynn Mott The Supervisory Committee certifies that this disquisition complies with North Dakota State University’s regulations and meets the accepted standards for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: Thomas D. Isern Chair Angela Smith Cynthia Prescott Kevin Sedivec James F. Hoy Approved: July 11, 2014 John Cox Date Department Chair ABSTRACT Since the 1930s, wild horses have become a subject of public concern. They are often showcased as symbols representing the historic past of the western United States. More recently they have become symbols of a mythic, or imagined, west. Writers, scholars, politicians, advocates, ranchers, and land managers are among the few groups who have taken a role in the livelihood of these animals living freely on public rangelands. The protection movement that began in the 1950s and carried over into the 1970s ultimately resulted in the passage of the 1971 Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act. This act placed all wild horses living on public rangelands under the protection of the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service. Before this legislation individuals in the West could round up wild horses without interference. Afterwards, only the federal government and appointed contractors were allowed to do this. As a result of all the policy changes people in the general public began learning more about the wild horse situation in the United States. Perceptions regarding wild horses have undergone some change since the passage of the 1934 Taylor Grazing Act. Case studies contained in this dissertation provide examples of perceptions in different parts of the country. The personal narratives gathered from these areas are analyzed as essential pieces to the wild horse dilemma. They help provide an additional lens through which scholars can examine the changing perceptions regarding wild horses. The second section of this dissertation delves into the developmental stages of wild horse protection in the United States. Advocates, activists, and politicians sometimes view the subject in varying ways and those are examined. Legislation, slaughter, holding facilities, and adoption methods are a few of the main areas analyzed within this section. iii As times have changed it has become necessary to reform and adapt under the Act of 1971. Doing this could ensure the future of wild horses living in the United States. Perceptions about them have changed, and it is still a subject wrought with emotion, but American identity is still connected to their aesthetic appeal. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people I would like to acknowledge for this work. First of all, this dissertation was pushed along by many people, and as a result specific names will not be mentioned. I owe much to those who motivated me and kept me going during the writing droughts. Secondly, thank you for supporting me, encouraging me, and nudging me along day- by-day. With much sacrifice, comes much reward. And this is mine. My family, friends, colleagues, fellow academics, committee, and horse enthusiasts . this is for you. Thank you for believing in me. v PREFACE Young girls are well known for being horse crazy. It is not a new realization. Rather, it is one I associate with on a deeper level. When I was a young girl growing up on the Great Plains, thoughts of horses, their wildness, their freedom, and their innate sense of surroundings cantered through my brain. My attention has always been drawn towards literature focusing on wild horses and their connections with humans. Walter Farley’s The Black Stallion took me to exotic places far away from the rolling landscape of south-central Kansas. The bond that the main character, Alec, had with the black Arabian stallion was mystical, and held a dream-like, other-worldly quality. Then, as I read Marguerite Henry’s books, such as Misty of Chincoteague and Star, she took me to wind-swept beaches on the eastern shores of the United States. This showed me that, despite the divide between humanity and wildness, people can make strong bonds with wild horses. Although Henry’s stories take place much closer to my childhood location, they still presented themselves like the myths of old. Today there remains a portion of the population that views wild horses through the lenses of their childhood, as I did: wild, free, tough, and legendary. As an adult, my focal point regarding wild horses has changed. Instead of viewing the subject, as emotional as it can be, in an entirely subjective way, I now look at the past and current issues they face through the historical lens of time. As a historian, one of the difficulties faced in a project such as this, particularly one that can become emotionally drenched, is removing oneself from the story: looking in rather than looking out. As a horse crazy young girl, this was not a possibility. However, as a trained historian I am able to focus on these issues, looking at the problem through a variety of lenses in order to give the history of wild horses in the United States a proper, and fitting, narrative. They were players in the creation of the United vi States. They became legends through the stories people passed on to one another. These mythic qualities grew over time. Native Americans trained them, traders bought them, mustangers caught them, and slaughterhouses paid for them. Their roles in history underwent serious transformations. Not until the mid-twentieth century did someone try to save them. That story is pivotal to the entire wild horse narrative, but it is not the only story to be told. Through the years, many others stood for and against these animals. The wild horse narrative is one of adaptation and resilience. It is because of the records that remain from these tumultuous years, as well as a variety of other records like oral histories, photographs, and maps, that I am able to write this historical narrative. Perhaps I will be able to do the wild horses, their foes, and their supporters some justice in its telling. Legend and myth often showcase wild horses as untouchable figures. American literature further romanticizes this image, particularly in re-created stories about the wildness of the American West. No matter what the tale is, wild horses, their iconic images, and the perceptions people have of them are continuously changing. This narrative winds through fact and myth and tries to portray the many viewpoints through the lens of history. Between 1934 and 1984 perceptions of wild horses underwent some transformations as a result of new legislation, individual and group efforts, and public media. This dissertation attempts to pull all of these segments together and provide a clear narrative about what it means to be a wild horse living on rangelands throughout the western United States. Myth, legend, and reality collide during these years, and wild horses are only a part of the overarching narrative. Humans, too, provide valuable perspectives on many relatable subjects including heritage, range and resource management, animal management practices, and the legislative process. The vii purpose of this work is to present an addition historical lens through which to view the wild horse situation. This work is broken into two sections. The first section consists of chapters one through four. In these chapters I focus on an episodic, or geographic, study of individual areas. Case- studies are valuable because they provide more pointed perceptions about a specific area. Chapters two through four are case studies. The last five chapters are developmental. In other words, each chapter covers a topical area, such as a specific piece of legislation, management practices, and slaughter. These are designed to lead readers along a path of awareness and understanding regarding the depth to which wild horses have become a part of American national identity. Their history is entwined within the nation’s historical threads. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.…………………………………………………………………………….….……iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………….……v PREFACE………………………………………………………………………………………...vi LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….…………....x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………………………....xi LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES………………………………………………………………..xii INTRODUCTION………………...………………………………………………………………1 FROM RESOURCE TO NUISANCE…………………………………………………………...28 NO HOME ON THE RANGE…………………………………………………………………...64 PILOTING THE HERD: WILD HORSE ROUNDUPS FROM THE COCKPIT...…………….99 THE PLEDGE TO PROTECT……………………………...………………………………….127 WHAT ELSE CAN WE DO? ………………...………………………………………………..164 OFF TO THE CANNERY……………………………………………………………………...191 WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? …………………………………………………………216 WHEN THE DUST SETTLES…………………………………………………………………241 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………...…………………………………………………….............261 Part I: General Bibliography.....................……………………………………………...261 Part II: Manuscript Collections...……………………………………….........................274 APPENDIX A: PALOMINO VALLEY WILD HORSE AND BURRO CENTER, LAYOUT MAP...................................................…………………………………………………..............284

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