Where Do You Go? Searching for Context in the Music Curriculum

Title: Where Did You Come From? Where Do You Go? Searching for Context in the Music Curriculum

Author(s): Kari K. Veblen, Claire W. McCoy, and Janet R. Barrett

Source: Veblen, K. K., McCoy, C. W., & Barrett, J. R. (1995, Fall). Where did you come from? Where do you go? Searching for context in the music curriculum. The Quarterly, 6(3), pp. 46-56. (Reprinted with permission in Visions of Research in Music Education, 16(6), Autumn, 2010). Retrieved from http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme/

Visions of Research in Music Education is a fully refereed critical journal appearing exclusively on the Internet. Its publication is offered as a public service to the profession by the New Jersey Music Educators Association, the state affiliate of MENC: The National Association for Music Education. The publication of VRME is made possible through the facilities of Westminster Choir College of Rider University Princeton, New Jersey. Frank Abrahams is the senior editor. Jason D. Vodicka is editor of the Quarterly historical reprint series. Chad Keilman is the production coordinator. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning is reprinted with permission of Richard Colwell, who was senior consulting editor of the original series. Where Did You Cc-rrre Frotn.?Where Do You Go? Searching For Context In The Music Curriculu:lll

By Kari K. Veblen, Claire W. McCoy and Janet R. Barrett

ven in our increasingly mobile and and characteristic motives. Perceived simi- electronically networked society, geo- larities and differences influence how deeply E graphical origins and birthplaces con- we respond to a new piece, how likely we tinue to fascinate us. When we meet a new are to seek it out for another hearing, or how colleague or prospective friend, the conver- knowledgeably we perform it. An indi- sation inevitably turns at some point to the vidual's pool of musical encounters (his or question of home town, and the series of her personal repertoire) provides an impor- moves or circumstances that brought this tant grounding in musical context. But to person to this particular moment of the here what extent do music educators deliberately and now. During the quick autobiographical acknowledge the social and historical con- review, the participants in the conversation texts of musical works in classrooms in the often discover shared experiences, affilia- same manner that we seek information about tions, or mutual acquaintances. The process a new personal acquaintance? How is this of recognizing some connection between in- search for context central to curriculum in dividuals is gratifying, and, at the same time, music and the education of music teachers? piques our interest because of all of the pos- In practice, it often seems that the origins sible variants of personal and professional and social meanings of musical works are lives. The conversational search, far from incidental and secondary to the structural idle chatter, functions as a powerful social elements of music that receive primary em- act to establish who we are and how we are phasis. The purpose of this article is to ad- related in some fashion to the other. dress the contextual dimensions of music So it is with music. New songs or works through an introductory illustration of a are not new for long as we relate what we search for the origins and transformations of hear to all that we have heard before, search- a Southern fiddling tune, a discussion of the ing for stylistic categories, recognizable texts, implications of music's historical and social

Kari K. Veblen is a music education consultant Claire W. McCoy is an Associate Professor of based in Madison, Wisconsin. Current inuesti- Music Education at the University of Minne- gations span multicultural music education, sota. Her scholarly interests include move- sociology of music, traditional transmission, rnent and music, assessment and evaluation, and Celtic / Scandinavian ways. and curriculum. Janet R. Barrett is an Associate Professor of Music Education at tbe University of Wiscon- sin- Wbitewater. Her research interests include children's musical tbinleing, music teacber education, and curriculum development.

46 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning contexts for curriculum development and Don't you remember, don't you know teacher education, and an invitation to teach- Daddy worked a man called Cotton-Eyed Joe, ers to examine the transformation of texts Daddy worked a man called Cotton-Eyed Joe. through the common vehicle of parody songs. Had not 'a' been for Cotton-Eyed Joe, How the Search for Musical Con- I'd 'a' been married a long time ago, text Begins I'd 'a' been married a long time ago. Not long ago, one of us oanet) was transporting her But to what Down in the cotton patch teenaged percussionist to a extent do music down below rehearsal when he began to Everybody's singing the Cot- sing the Southern fiddling educators ton-Eyed Joe, tune, "Cotton-Eyed Joe": Everybody's singing the Cot- deliberately ton-Eyed Joe. Where did you come from? acknow-ledge the Where do you gal I know a gal lives down below Where did you come social and Used to see her but I don't no from? Cotton-Eyed Joe? historical contexts mo', Where did you come Used to see her but I don't no from? Cotton-Eyed Joe? of musical w-orks mo'.

If it hadn't been for Cot- in classrooms in Tune my fiddle and rosin my ton-Eyed Joe, the same manner bow I'd-a been married long Gonna make music where time ago, that w-e seek ever I go I'd-a been married long Playa little tune called Cot- time ago. information about ton-Eyed Joe. a new- personal Surprised at the sudden switch Norm Cohen notes that in repertoire from the usual acquaintance? "this ante-bellum song has Weezer or Green Day alter- been found in both White native band lyrics,janet asked and Negro tradition and Alex how he knew this song. He quickly probably originated in the replied that it was included on a new CD, Sex minstrel theatre" (1975). Other text variants, and Violins, by a Swedish technopop group such as the following collected by John and called the Rednex, and offered to play it for Alan Lomax during the 1930's, evoke a her. Surely enough, the tune was similar to starker image of the times. the Doc Watson version Janet knew, but was all dressed up in the guise of sampled fiddle, If it had not 'a' been for Cotton-Eyed Joe, I'd 'a' been married forty years ago. banjo, and vocal layers over a decidedly in- sistent percussion track. The curious trans- Cornstalk fiddle and cornstalk bow plantation of this song to a new time, place, Gwine to beat hell out-a Cotton-Eyed Joe. and technology resulted in an investigation of the musical ontogeny of Cotton-Eyed [oe, a Gwine to go shootin' my forty-fa' study that netted both history and social Won't be a nigger in a mile or mo'. commentary, carried along by the discovery of an intriguing variety of texts. Hain't seen 01' Joe since way last fall, Cotton-Eyed Joe Say he's been sold down to Guines Hall. The familiar Doc Watson version of "Cotton- Great long line and little short pole, Eyed joe" is one of many variants of a popular I'm on my way to the crawfish hole. American fiddle tune still played for square dances. This tune sets the stage for a Depres- Oh. it makes dem ladies love me so sion-era dance in the soundtrack for the W'en I come round a-ptckin' Cotton-Eyed Joe. movie, Places in the Heart (Watson, 1984).

Volume VI, Number 3 47 Hal' my fiddle an' hol' my bow, What's to be done with a prodigal son' Whilst I knock 01' Cotton-Eyed Joe. Welcome him home with open arms Throw a big party, invite your friends Oh, law, ladies, pity my case, Our boy's come back home For Ise got a jawbone in my face. When a girl goes home with the oats he's sown o Lawd, 0 Lawd, come pity my case, It's draw your shades and your shutters Fore I'm gettin' old an' wrinkled in de face. She's bringing such shame to the family name (Lomax, 1934, pp. 262-263). The return of the prodigal daughter, singing, oh Cotton-Eyed Joe. Clearly the Lomax version would not ap- peal to modern sensibilities because of its Went to see the Doctor and I almost died When I told my mama Lordy how she cried racism. The Lomaxes write that Cotton-Eyed Me and my daddy were never too close Joe was a person whose eyes were milky But he was there when I needed him most white from trachoma (Cohen, 1975), a conta- gious disease of the conjunctiva and cornea, Look here comes a prodigal son which is a major cause of blindness in Asia Fetch him a tall drink of water and Africa (Soukhanov, 1992, p. 1896). But there's none in the CLIp'cause he drank it Marion Thede (967) suggests an alternative all up interpretation: cotton-eyed is "a term de- Left for a prodigal daughter, scriptive of a person with very light blue singing, oh Cotton-Eyed Joe eyes, a type often called 'white eye' " (p. 26). Had not've been for the Cotton-Eyed Joe Thede's collected text shown below is cred- I'd have been married a long time ago ited to "Negroes on the Mississippi River." Out in the cornfield I stubbed my toe Cornstalk fiddle and shoe-string bow I called for the doctor, Cotton-Eyed Joe Come down gals on Cotton-Eyed Joe. In her liner notes, Shocked writes: Wanna go to rneetin' and wouldn't let me go My early intention was to present this record Had to stay home with Cotton-Eyed Joe. with a cover photo of myself wearing blackface ... ltol provide a genuine focus on Come a little rain and come a little snow the real "roots" of many of the tunes included; The house fell down on Cotton-Eyed Joe. blackface minstrelsy. It's my contention that blackface tradition is alive and well hidden The expression "come down" on a piece of behind a modem mask. I believe that "black- music means to put spirit into the fiddling or ing up" should be done correctly ... in a con- singing. In this case, the text "Come down text of true respect for the cultures we ape. gals on Cotton-Eyed Joe" means "to dance These texts offer individual puzzles. How with abandon." Thede further notes that: do we untangle the Lomaxes' blind fiddler "One can readily see in this ballad that the from Thede's blue-eyed African-American? three stanzas were not the work of one per- How would a young teenager identify with son, or at least were not improvised at the the Rednex version, an American expression same time, since 'Cotton-Eyed Joe' in the first now sampled and diffused in a global stanzas is used in speaking of the music, but technopop commercial marketplace? What in the remainder of the ballad, is employed would the Swedish Rednex band read into to mention a person" (p. 26). this song-and how did they come by it? The Swedish technopop cover of "Cotton- How does Michelle Shocked use tune and Eyed Joe" is not the only contemporary re- images to convey messages, for example, make. While the Rednex version features love 'em and leave 'em reference from origi- newly made verses on the same theme, a re- nal; ironic use of a dance tune for a bitter cent recording by Michelle Shocked (992), subject; outmoded attitudes about women as entitled "Prodigal Daughter," grafts a new objects that can become "damaged goods"; story onto the old tune. parallels between oppression of African-

48 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning People use music to make sense of their -w-orld,to convey po-w-erfulemotions, to communicate and to teach about their lives. Such meanings are an important part of music, content of the curriculum in music, and other curricular goals.

Americans and women, and so forth. Finally, me." Other verses, which are rarely heard how do these five versions of this song and seldom printed in school songbooks, re- (Rednex, Doc Watson, Lomax, Thede, late a more complex point of view: Shocked) reflect social issues of different times? What musical issues do they raise? As I went walking, I saw a sign there Situating a work in context helps us un- And on the sign it said "No Trespassing." derstand the origin, journeys, and socio- But on the other side it didn't say nothing, That side was made for you and me. economic-cultural influences that envelop the work. A simple tune such as "Cotton- In the shadows of the steeple I saw my people, Eyed Joe" mayor may not be worthy of By the Relief Office I seen my people; inclusion in a curriculum. Nevertheless, As they stood there hungry, I stood there asking this common tune carries powerful con- Is this land made for you and me? nections and associations that may illumi- nate past or present attitudes. Nobody living can ever stop me The Significance of Musical Context As I go walking that freedom highway; Music can open up areas of inquiry and Nobody living can ever make me turn back, This land was made for you and me. can be used to prompt discussion and dis- (Schmid, 1991, p. 44) covery. People use music to make sense of their world, to convey powerful emotions, to Woody Guthrie wrote these words during communicate and to teach about their lives. his travels as a musician and union activist Such meanings are an important part of mu- during the Great Depression in the 1930s. sic, content of the curriculum in music, and The "lost" verses restore their original other curricular goals. charged meaning to this worn tune. This Both original context and transmission meaning was brought home to one of us process work to create meaning in a song. (Kari) while visiting her aunt's reading group Musical meanings are not static. They can in San Diego. The setting was a living room, be lost, perverted, enhanced, or trans- lined with enlarged archival stills of Depres- formed through the processes of oral or sion scenes, where almost thirty women con- written transmission. "Cotton-Eyed Joe" sidered Steinbeck's The Grapes afWrath. As serves as an example of how verses the discussion progressed, it became clear floated in and out of favor. The Lomax that many of the women had been "Okies" variant, which may be the oldest version as children during the Depression. Their sto- presented here, contains wording and sen- ries were compelling and unsentimental. timents that have been discarded. Some Talk turned to the contemporary political cli- persistent images such as fiddle and bow mate. One woman asked quietly: "Don't you or phrases "Down in the cotton (corn) sometimes feel that these times are like the field" and "I'da been married a long time depression days?" As the reading group ago," may be reconfigured or resituated breathed life into Steinbeck's novel by trac- within a new text to create fresh meanings. ing parallels between the 1930's and 1990's Woody Guthrie's widely sung "This Land is polarization of wealth and poverty, these un- Your Land" offers another illustration of how used verses by Woody Guthrie leapt to mind, meaning may be lost or changed through breathing life into a patriotic song. Clearly transmission. Familiar verses as sung in pub- "This Land is Your Land" has been rendered lic schools declaim a simple patriotic mes- safe by the exclusion of problematic verses. sage, that "this land was made for you and

Volume VI, Number 3 49 And yet, these images may hold the most rel- through film scores, television themes, or ad- evance for us today. How might such forgot- vertising. Finally, the listener "gets it" as the ten words initiate student inquiry? solution springs to attention; the song is re- Music often comes packed with hidden placed. In the case of the technopop version messages as voices of the dominant culture of a transplanted tune like "Cotton-Eyed Joe," vie with minority voices. We can uncover the solution may be accompanied by a sense these messages and learn how to read them, of wonder that the song has strayed so far often through comparing different versions. from its more familiar home. A provocative instance of submerged mean- There is nothing unusual or uncommon ing is revealed through tracing the history of about this process of recognition. Our aural "Run, Children, Run" (Cloud, 1993). Strands environment provides plentiful opportunities of discourse woven through multiple texts of for such activity, particularly as new stylistic common songs such as "Yankee Doodle," hybrids proliferate and access to new musical (Sonneck, 1909) "Donkey Riding," (Beetho- forms widens. In what ways, however, is ven et al, 1988, p. 28; Black Family, 1986) this notion significant to curriculum or music and "Children Go Where I Send Thee" teacher education? The search for context is (Aronson, 1995, pp. 164-165) may reveal a natural "sense-making" tendency that has similar complex interactions, travels, and implications for the way we choose, teach, competing power structures. and learn new music. These implications Context and the Music Curriculum extend beyond a perfunctory mention of These illustrations of the journeys of "Cot- the origin of a song to central questions of ton-Eyed Joe" and "This Land is Your Land" curriculum and instruction, such as: How also hint at the complex thinking processes do the processes of curriculum selection that lead to an investigation of context. They and development recognize the contextual include the realization of a song's displace- content of musical examples? What forms ment ("Something seems strange about this of contextual knowledge enhance under- tune in a technopop setting"), the search standing of music? How does a search for through categories and styles in an effort to context suggest opportunities for meaning- situate the tune ("I know I've heard this tune ful work in classrooms? before but not in this style"), and the sense Criteria for content selection in music usu- of resolution as the puzzle is finally solved ally include considerations of performance ("Of course! This is the same tune I heard difficulty for students, the potential of the ex- played by a country fiddler in the movie, ample to embody the structural and expres- Places in the Heart"). A displacement experi- sive elements of music (the "conceptual ap- ence sets up a path of inquiry as the listener proach"), and representation of a wide vari- first recognizes the general shape of the tune, ety of styles and genres. Although historical accompanied by a vague realization that and cultural contexts are broadly addressed something is "not quite right" about its loca- through identification of style, more specific tion in the musical environment of the mo- references to time and place are often inci- ment. Next, the listener searches through the dental. When this grounding is omitted, vast pools of known repertory, searching for mentioned only in passing, or trivialized in some link that will either give a name to the the curriculum, significant opportunities to tune or a location among already known represent music as an embodiment of human styles and genres of music. Often, in what aspirations and as a reflection of historical seems like random order, listeners sift and social meanings are compromised. Mu- through labels such as folk music, Baroque, sical performance, listening, and arranging bluegrass, reggae, or tecbnopop, connections are informed by connections to the lives of related to factors such as ethnicity, social individuals and communities who are repre- class, or affiliation with peers; comparisons sented in sound and through sound. with particular musical examples performed Contextual knowledge is built upon a or studied in formal training; or the aggregate foundation of related facts, dates, and set- of associations gained more indirectly tings but the mortar of understanding is sup-

50 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning Even if teachers fail to set a nevv song in a frame of reference to enhance the meaning, students will do so anyvvay, as shovvn by the anecdotes of "fractured" song texts that provide deep chuckles in the staff room. The sense-making tendency prevails, even vvhen our meanings are hardly "authentic" to the original intent.

plied by the meanings students bring to the riod of acquaintance described at the begin- instructional setting and the new insights ning of the article, the roots of a piece may gained through rich classroom experiences. be revealed through an examination of the Elliott (1995) defines context as "the total of text, but more often will rely on other ideas, associations, and circumstances that sources of information to help establish its surround, shape, frame, and influence some- pedigree. Teachers may assume a presenta- thing and our understanding of that some- tional mode to establish, both in sound and thing" (p. 40). This panoramic view of through verbal description, a scheme of mu- knowledge challenges dominant epistemo- sical and extramusical relationships to aid in logical views that present knowledge is dis- learning the new piece. Related familiar creet, fixed, and impersonal. Instead, the songs from the same era or region provide content of the curriculum is constructed from an aural link. Sources outside the song, such understandings that are interconnected, dy- as narrative historical accounts, anecdotes, namic, and grounded in the storehouses of maps, paintings, dances, plays, or poetry, may aural images and related contextual informa- be used to set the stage for understanding. tion held by students and teachers. The cri- Without this contextual backdrop, perfor- teria for content selection are expanded to mance of the song may lack understanding. include the potential of musical examples to We can probably think of songs we have connect the past to the present and the man- sung many times without an adequate under- ner in which they coincide with prominent standing of the meaning of the text, a situa- interests and experiences of students and tion that effectively reduces the words to teachers. Since shared knowledge is "under vocables. Repetition sometimes lulls us into construction," we are challenged to articulate an unquestioning acceptance of the words multiple and sometimes ambiguous points of forming on our lips as we sing. For ex- view in our quest for enlightened musical ample, it is likely that many children associ- understanding. ate "stuck a feather in his hat and called it In this article, we are primarily concerned macaroni" from "Yankee Doodle" more with with song. Song texts and tunes are melded a comforting lunch than a satirical reference to encapsulate both time and place. Stu- to sartorial fashion during the Revolutionary dents, firmly situated in another time and War (Sonneck, 1909/1972). Even if teachers place, cross paths with the song during an fail to set a new song in a frame of reference instructional encounter. A search for contex- to enhance the meaning, students will do so tual meaning may follow from three possible anyway, as shown by the anecdotes of "frac- intersections between the student and the mu- tured" song texts that provide deep chuckles sic: (a) the song at its point of origin, (b) the in the staff room. The sense-making ten- song's path of transmission, and (c) the song's dency prevails, even when our meanings are relationship to contemporary experience. hardly "authentic" to the original intent. To Point of origin. What were the impulses of establish the contextual origins of pieces, stu- creation? What were the meanings embed- dents and teachers are asked to serve as text ded in the work as created? How do we and tune detectives, and to use auxiliary come to know these, as removed as we are sources of information to enrich our histori- from the birth of the song? Just like the pe- cally and culturally grounded performance.

Volume Vl, Number 3 51 Finding good candidates for curriculum ~ork is quite simple; the intrigue starts as students identify paradoxes, conundrums, and ironic tw ists of meaning thinly veiled in the songs.

Path of transmission. Where have alter- original or literal meanings. As music educa- nate versions come from and how have they tors seeking valid interdisciplinary links in traveled from voice to voice or hand to hand? the curriculum, this reception history should What changes have added to the meaning or interest us as generalists, eager to show how transformed the meaning? How do transfor- music can serve as a window to other forms mations reveal the points of view of the of knowing. transformers' Relationship to contemporary experience. When we set about tracing paths, meaning What sense do we bring to a new song or an arises from juxtaposition. Multiple versions of old song encountered after a period of si- works draw us into speculation about the role lence? What current insights or distortions of music in the lives of others as well as our arise from the here and now? How do new own, and provide a useful curricular tension, a populations of listeners find fresh meaning in chance to pique curiosity and mobilize interest works seemingly embedded in the past? around the clash between the familiar and the Recognizing our situated perspectives can be new. We compare and contrast X with Y and difficult, for insight often comes from dis- Y with Z. What does that tell us? tance. Consider, for example, the Just as some individuals find pleasure in intergenerational surprise when parents hear collecting stamps, salt and pepper shakers, or their children singing "golden oldies" in slick, Model-T's, it is easy to get caught up in yet MTV manifestations or when children find another version of folk songs, arrangements, out that stodgy parents know all of the or instances of musical borrowing. Finding words to the latest hits. How are these good candidates for curriculum work is quite songs "owned" by father, mother, son, or simple; the intrigue starts as students identify daughter and affixed anew to the identity paradoxes, conundrums, and ironic twists of of a succeeding generation? meaning thinly veiled in the songs. As the Contemporary life influences our percep- "Cotton-Eyed Joe" and "This Land Is Your tions of the music we encounter. Current Land" examples suggest, the transformations, events, tragedies, triumphs, and societal transplantations, and alterations of song texts problems are "heard" in counterpoint to past provide entry points to describe changes in voices. The meanings of song texts that lie patterns of power or prevailing sensibilities. dormant in our field of attention suddenly Depth of understanding accrues from wres- amplify when heard in new settings or in re- tling with multiple messages and conflicting lation to shifts in our thinking. In curriculum points of view. Complementary relationships encounters, these renewals of meaning trig- to disciplines outside of music are readily ger teachable moments. Why does this text presented for further exploration. make sense to us now when we've heard it Bruno Nettl (1995) speaks of "reception so many times before? Reverberations of the history," a branch of disciplinary study that past through the present compel us to stop broadens interest beyond "who wrote this and examine current personal experience. piece and when?" to the performances, un- Finally, it is worth noting that any given derstandings, and interpretations of a compo- song may warrant investigation from any of sition since the point of origin. The social these intersections of experience. Sacks and and cultural history of reception leads us to Sacks (1993) provide a fascinating account of ask why certain songs come to be associated the disputed origins of the Confederate an- strongly with the identity of individuals and them, "Dixie," in which they suggest that two groups and to consider how songs are used African-American musicians from Ohio, Ben symbolically to refer to ideas that transcend and Lew Snowden, taught the song to Daniel

52 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning Curricular materials can lose meaning through haphazard oral transmission or fade through cycles of publication, resulting in student disengagement, routine enactment of plans, and insipid performance. As an antidote, teachers can search for thorny and provocative musical problems and shape them into vibrant educative experiences.

Decatur Emmett, the more commonly-cited through cycles of publication, resulting in composer. Sacks and Sacks track the tune student disengagement, routine enactment of through various guises from a walkabout plans, and insipid performance. As an anti- song in minstrel shows to its adoption as the dote, teachers can search for thorny and pro- Confederate anthem, to satirical Union paro- vocative musical problems and shape them dies, and also to a symbol of civil unrest dur- into vibrant educative experiences. Produc- ing the 1960s. In the cumulative review of tive paradoxes of origin and transmission can versions, the simple tune takes on potency as be identified, alternate versions for juxtaposi- a complex powder keg of patriotic, senti- tion collected, and primary and secondary mental, racist, and hostile attributions. This sources of information consulted to raise review also serves as an account of the re- questions about the intersections of music, ception history of "Dixie." Layers of perspec- history, and culture. Although this work re- tive and interpretation call out for examina- quires commitment of time, access to re- tion, as Sacks and Sacks suggest: sources, and considerable intellectual energy, For good or ill, "I Wish I Was in Dixie's Land" the benefits include satisfying, personal en- expresses something of America's changing gagement for teachers and students, deeper character and consciousness. After more than connections of understanding, and a re- a century and a quarter in the popular reper- newed sense of curricular ownership. toire, "Dixie" thrills some and humiliates oth- Parodies as a Curricular Challenge to ers. Largely because of its rich variety of Context meanings, "Dixie" refuses to lie peacefully in How does the idea of context apply when that trunk of Victorian sheet music forever consigned to the attic. It grabs at our popular the lyrics of a song are deliberately altered so culture in ways both subtle and overt, and it that the song serves a function different than continues to shape the identity of blacks and its original function? This practice of parody whites in its community of origin (p, 5). has become increasingly popular in schools Connections to contemporary experience as classroom teachers, in a well-intentioned are explored as viewers encounter the fre- desire to reach their students through music, quent use of "Dixie" as a gentle overlay to create didactic lyrics to pre-existing tunes to the disturbing scenes of war depicted in the teach student facts about science, math, PBS series on the Civil War (Burns, 1990). health, geography, or other subjects. The As we were exploring various versions as a use of didactic parody songs appeals to link to historical studies in one of our classes, teachers because (a) music serves as a mne- a student recalled how every day began with monic device to help the students remember the singing of "Dixie" in her Tennessee el- the text, (b) music often motivates students, ementary school, supplanting the Pledge of and (c) familiar tunes allow teachers to focus Allegiance as the opening ritual. instructional time on learning the text, not The search for context represents a valid the tune. The use of parodies in the class- form of curriculum inquiry in music class- room raises some questions, however, for rooms and an opportunity for creative cur- those who are concerned that students' expe- riculum development in music teacher edu- riences in music, both in the music classroom cation. Curricular materials can lose meaning and the general classroom, be authentic and through haphazard oral transmission or fade of high quality. While some parodies are

Volume VI, Number 3 53 Historical parodies certainly have a rightful place in the music classroom and general classroom as teachers use them to illustrate the power music has to communicate, to influence opinion, and to mobilize people to action.

clever and appropriate, others seem con- the Republic." Originally a hymn ("Say trived and unmusical. Sometimes the new brothers will you meet us on Canaan's happy texts seem inappropriate, given the meanings shore"), the tune later became associated associated with the original songs. with the abolitionist movement ('John When pre-existing music becomes the ba- Brown's Body"), the cause of the North in sis for a new song, instrumental composition, the Civil War ("Battle Hymn of the Repub- or improvisation, listeners-consciously or lic"), and justice for laborers ("Solidarity For- unconsciously-carry some kind of associ- ever"). The tune's stirring power is a result ated meaning from its previous context to the of its cumulative context as well as its new setting. Because of these allusions, a pitches, rhythms, and harmonies. new composition using pre-existing music Historical parodies certainly have a rightful can (a) pay homage to its source, (b) com- place in the music classroom and general ment upon or suggest parallels to its source, classroom as teachers use them to illustrate or (c) critique or negate its source (Burk- the power music has to communicate, to in- holder, 1994). Weird Al Yankovich's "Eat It," fluence opinion, and to mobilize people to a parody of Michael Jackson's "Beat It," or action. Students can be challenged to create "Like a Surgeon," a parody of Madonna's contemporary parodies using songs that ei- "Like a Virgin," are examples of the latter ther share some associative meaning, or are type of allusion. Yankovich's humorous contextually antithetical to the new lyrics. twisting of the original sources forces listen- These uses of parody deliberately acknowl- ers to reevaluate the value of the originals, edge the context of the source tune. which made huge sums of money for their A more problematic use of parody in the performers. When civil rights marchers, classroom is one where the original context however, sang "No More Segregation" to of the source tune seems ignored or disre- the tune of the spiritual, "Oh Freedom," garded. Sometimes the source tune and the they were paying homage to the source new text are neutral enough that the parody song. Knowledge of the origins of the is innocuous. Using the tune of "The Farmer tune and the words originally associated in the Dell" to teach about the life cycle of with it lend even greater power to the frogs may not be the aesthetic highlight of more contemporary message. the school day, but it does not pose signifi- The schoolhouse parody, "Mine Eyes Have cant cultural problems in the juxtaposition of Seen the Glory of the Burning of the School," text and tune. Of more concern, perhaps, seems deliciously naughty as well as irresist- might be kindergarten students singing this ible to children, not only because its words anti-drug message to the tune of "The Itsy mock institutional authority, but also because Bitsy Spider": "The spider took some drugs its words are juxtaposed with a tune that is and fried up all his brain/Then the itsy bitsy usually reserved for solemn occasions. Re- spider was never the same again." The way ciprocally, adults dislike the parody not only children first hear a song remains firmly because of its inflammatory message (pun planted in their memories. Which associa- intended), but also, perhaps, because it flouts tion do we want children to have with this the history of the tune's association with no- tune: carefree child's play or the evils of bler causes. The theme of triumph over ad- drugs? Another problematic example is the versity is common to various songs that share use of the African-American song, "Dry the tune we associate with "Battle Hymn of Bones," to create a parody about archeology:

54 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning "Them bones, them bones, them old bones/ Black Family (1986). The Blackfamily. [audio They tell the story of the past; Dig up a dino- cassette], Dublin: DARAC 023. Burkholder, J. P. (994). The uses of exist- saur, how 'bout four/Scared stiff at Jurassic ing music: Musical borrowing as a field. Park." The unintended effect of such a Notes: Quarterly Journal of the Music Li- parody is the trivialization of the spiritual na- brary Association, 50, 851-870. ture of the source tune. Burns, K. (1990). The Civil War.' Original As we reflect on the role of context in mu- soundtrack recording [compact disci.Beverly Hills, CA: Elektra Entertainment. sic and express concern for tasteful and in- Cloud, 1. (1993). The miseducation-and missed formed use of borrowed tunes, it is helpful education-of musicians about African-Ameri- to remember that even discussions of context can music and musicians. The Quarterly, IV have a context. The practice of recasting pre- (2), 12-22. existing music for new uses and resulting Cohen, N. (1975). Liner notes for The Skillet negative reactions to that practice are not Lickers. Old time tunes. [phonograph re- cording]. New York: County 506. without historical precedent. During the Re- Elliott, D. (1995). Music matters. New York: Ox- naissance, borrowed tunes found their way ford University Press. into both the Lutheran and Catholic liturgies. Lomax, J. and Lomax, A. 0934/1994). American Martin Luther set hymn texts to secular melo- ballads and songs. New York: Dover. Nettl, B. (1995). Heartland excursions: dies when expedient. The practice of using Etbnomusicological reflections on schools of secular songs as the basis for Mass settings, music. Urbana, II, University of Illinois Press. however, met with disapproval by Catholic Rednex (1995). Sex and violins. [compact disc]. Church Fathers. Although the passion cho- Stockholm: Zumba Records Ltd. rale, "0 Sacred Head" and portions of Mes- Sacks, H. 1. & Sacks, J. R. (1993). Way up North in Dixie: A black family's claim to the Confed- siah by Handel were originally love songs, erate anthem. Washington, DC: Smithsonian the secular origins of these works are nearly Institution Press. lost in history. Time has changed the con- Schmid, W. (1991). A Tribute to Woody Guthrie & text we associate with these works. Leadbelly. [compact disc and booklet]. Reston, Conclusion VA: Music Educators National Conference. Marc Aronson calls for a re-examination of Shocked, M. (992). Arkansas traveler: [compact disc]. New York: Polygram Records Mercury authenticity that recognizes the complexity of 314 512 101-2. culture: "We came into this world two by Sonneck, O. G. T. (1909/1972). Report on "The two, and just as the wonderful mixture of our Star-Spangled Banner" "Hail Columbia" parents' genes made us, the incredible tapes- "America" "Yankee Doodle." New York: try of world traditions lie beneath all of our Dover Books. Soukhanov, A. H. (Ed.) (992). The American songs and stories. Tracing those tangled lin- heritage dictionary CJ! the English language. eages gives us our heritage" (1995, p. 168). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Like a genealogical search for one's roots, we Steinbeck, J. (1939/1976). The grapes of wrath. are unlikely to find every piece of the puzzle New York: Penguin Books. or purely authentic versions of works. But Thede, M. (1967). The fiddle book. New York: Oak Publications. the lure of being "onto something" is a pow- Watson, D. (1984). Soundtrack for Places in the erful motivation for our work in schools. The heart. [videotape]. Farmington Hills, MI: process of re-situating songs and tunes in CBS/Fox Video VHS 6836. historical and cultural contexts or tracing Appendix: Selected Versions of their transformations across regions or gen- "Cotton-Eyed Joe" erations is challenging and thought-provok- ing work for teachers and students. Recordings Carson, Fiddlin' John, "Georgia fiddle bands, Vol. References 2," County 544. Carter Brothers and Son, "Echoes of the Ozarks, Aronson, M. (1995). A mess of stories. The Horn Vol. 3," County 520. Book Magazine (March/April). 163-168. Beethoven,]., Davidson, J., and Nadon-Gabrion, Carter Brothers and Son, "Traditional fiddle music C. (1988). if/orld of music (Grade 4). of Mississippi," County 528. Collins, Earl, "That's Earl," Briar 0798. Morristown, NJ: Silver, Burdett and Ginn.

Volume VI, Number 3 55 The Corn Dodgers, "Cotton Eyed Joe," Rooster Pope's Arkansas Mountaineers, "Echoes of the Records 101. Ozarks, Vol. 1," County 518. Dalglish, Malcolm and Grey Larsen, "The first of The Skillet Lickers, "Old time tunes," County 506. autumn," June Appal Recordings JA026. Trenton, Lee, et al., "In the field: Southeast Ten- Douglas, Wilson, "The right hand fork of Rush's nessee fiddlers," Pine Breeze 005. Creek," Rounder 0047. Printed Sources Hall, Kenny and the Sweets Mill String Bane!' Brody, D. (1983). Tbe fiddler'sfaleebooe. New ["same"j, Bay 727. York: Oak Publications. Highwoods String Band, "No.3 special," Rounder Cauthen, J. H. (1989). With fiddle and well-ros- 0074. ined bow: Old-tirnefiddling in Alabama. Hunter, Ernie, "All about fiddling," Stoneway 143. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press. Jackson, Tommy, "30 fiddler's greatest hits," Christeson, R. P. (1973). The old-timefiddler's rep- Gusto 104. e1101y. Columbus, MO: University of Missouri Jackson, Tommy, "Instrumentals country style," Press. Mercury SRW 16261. Silber, F. and Silber, 1. (1973). Folksinger's word- jarrel, Tommy, "Sail away ladies," County 756. book. New York: Oak Publications. Martin, Benny, "The fiddle collection," CMH Thomson, R. J. (1985) Tbefiddler's almanac. Records CMH-9006. Newmarket, NH: Captain Fiddle Publications. Molsky, Bruce, "An anthology," Tennvale 004. ~

BULLETIN OF THE COUNCIL FOR RESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION

No. 127 Winter 1995/1996

Special Issue:

The 15th ISME International Research Seminar

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The Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education is published quarterly in the spring, summer, fall and winter by the Council for Research in Music Education, School of Music, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 114 West Nevada Street, Urbana, Illinois 61801. Phone: (217) 333-1027; e-mail: [email protected].

56 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning