Parte Ii Scritture E Libri Nell'antica Mesopotamia

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Parte Ii Scritture E Libri Nell'antica Mesopotamia PARTE II SCRITTURE E LIBRI NELL’ANTICA MESOPOTAMIA Quadro storico La nascita della scrittura è strettamente legata alla civiltà sumerica1 e alla città di Uruk,2 in un periodo collocabile verso la fine del IV millennio. I Sumeri si insediarono sul delta del Tigri e dell’Eufrate3 tra il 5000 e il 4000 a. C. e svilupparono una fiorente cultura di tipo urbano (le loro principali città furono Kish, Nippur, Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Eridu,4 tutte nella regione che si stende tra Bagdad e Bassora). Più o meno nello stesso periodo delle popolazioni semitiche, appartenenti a tribù semi-nomadi di allevatori, cominciarono a stabilirsi più a nord, nel territorio che prese poi il nome di Akkad. A differenza dei Sumeri, che sembra non abbiano più avuto rapporti con la loro terra di origine, rimasta misteriosa, i Semiti furono continuamente rafforzati da successive ondate migratorie, sino a diventare una potente popolazione. Sumeri e Semiti vivevano in comunità che facevano capo a città- stato, governate da un monarca, e condividevano la stessa cultura economica, senza particolari manifestazioni di rivalità o di inimicizia, se non in circostanze occasionali. Molti Sumeri vivevano probabilmente in città accadiche e viceversa, anche per ragioni di commercio. Ma probabilmente i Sumeri erano, cone dice Bottéro, “plus inventifs, plus ouverts, plus hardis que les Sémites”5 e per questa regione la scrittura nacque nell’ambito della loro civiltà. I dati cronologici possono essere riassunti sinteticamente in questo modo. Ci si riferisce alla Mesopotamia dal VI al V millennio come al periodo Ubaid (a sua volta in 1 La bibliografia sull’antica Mesopotamia, sia archeologica, sia storica, è sterminata. Ci limitiamo a citare pochissime opere, da cui chi voglia approfondire l’argomento può partire, traendo da esse altre indicazioni bibliografiche. Per un quadro generale della storia mesopotamica, dai Sumeri alla fine degli imperi assiro e babilonese, si consulti la Cambridge Ancient History, prima edizione 1924-39, in 12 volumi, seconda edizione rivista a partire dal 1970, in 14 volumi e 19 parti (anche in trad. italiana, Storia del Mondo Antico, Milano Garzanti, 1974-75, 9 volumi). Come introduzione generale alla civiltà dei popoli mesopotamici è possibile riferirsi a tre opere classiche: A. LEO OPPENHEIM, Ancient Mesopotamia. Portrait of a Dead Civilization, Chicago, the University of Chicago Press, 1964; WOLFRAM VON SODEN, Einführung in die Altorientalistik, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1985 (anche in trad. inglese, The Ancient Orient. An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East, Grand Rapids, Mich., Eerdmans, 1994); G. ROUX, La Mésopotamie. Essai d’histoire politique, économique et culturelle, Paris, Seuil, 1985. Per l’aspetto iconografico fanno testo i due splendidi e illustratissimi volumi di A. PARROT, Sumer, Paris, Gallimard, 1960 e Assur, ibid., 1969. Per l’aspetto più propriamente archeologico sarà utilissimo The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Archaeology in the Near East, prepared under the auspices of the American Schools of Oriental Research, ERIC M. MEYERS editor en chef, New York e Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997, 5 volumi. Molto più agili, ma eccellenti da ogni punto di vista, sono PIOTR BENKOWSKY, ALAN MILLARD, Dictionary ot the Ancient Near East, London, British Museum Press, 2000 e GUY RACHET, Dictionnaire de l’Archéologie, Paris, Laffont, 1983. Fondamentale è anche il Dictionnaire Archéologique des Techniques, Paris, Editions de l’Accueil, 1963-64, 2 volumi. Testi più specifici saranno citati nelle note che seguono. 2 Uruk, attualmente Warka, si trova nel sud dell’Irak, circa 35 km a est del fiume Eufrate. Il nome Uruk è accadico, derivato dal termine pre-sumerico UNUG. Nella Bibbia la città ha il nome di Erech. 3 Questo territorio divenne asciutto alla fine delle glaciazioni, intorno al VI millenio. Fu abitato dapprima da popoli provenienti dall’Asia centrale, discendenti forse dai cavernicoli e dall’homo sapiens. Il territorio era molto fertile, adatto all’allevamento e alla coltivazione dei cereali. Ma date le scarse precipitazioni doveva essere irrigato. La necessità di costruire canali obbligò gli abitanti ad aggregarsi, e favorì il sorgere di civiltà urbane. Poiché la ricchezza era frutto di un lavoro collettivo, era anche naturale che fosse utilizzata, almeno in parte, collettivamente, attraverso le strutture amministrative della città. Di qui la necessità di registrazioni contabili. 4 Altra città antichissima, scavando la quale si è giunti, attraverso un’interminabile sequela di livelli, sino alla sabbia su cui furono costruiti i primi edifici, intorno al 4900 a. C. 5 p. 136 molte fasi), dal nome di un sito presso Ur scavato da Harry Hall nel 1919 e da Wolley nel 1923-24.1 Il IV millennio è definito periodo Uruk e le sue ultime fasi, a ridosso del 3000, sono appunto Uruk IV e Uruk III.2 Il periodo di Jemdet Nasr3 è considerato in genere una fase di passaggio verso il periodo protodinastico, che a sua volta si divide in Protodinastico I (3000-2700), Protodinastico II (2700-2600),4 Protodinastico III (2600-2334). Nel periodo Protodinastico I le città più importanti furno Eridu e Uruk. Nel periodo Protodinastico II domina prima la città di Kish, poi il leggendario re di Uruk, Gilgamesh, conquista la supremazia alla propria città. Il periodo Protodinastico III termima con il regno di Lugal-Zaggesi di Uruk, che fu sconfitto nel 2334 da Sargon di Akkad. Gli anni del periodo Protodinastico III sono anche indicati come periodo di Fara, dal nome della città che ci ha lasciato le maggiori testimonianze ad esso relative. Nel periodo Protodinastico III, accanto a Uruk, assunsero grande importanza le città di Lagash e di Ur. Tra i re della prima dinastia di Lagash ricorderemo soprattutto Eannatum (sec. XXV circa) per la celebre stele degli avvoltoi conservata al Louvre, e Entemena, suo nipote, di cui di è rimasto uno splendido vaso in argento con iscrizioni, esso pure al Louvre. 1 Tradizionalmente la cultura Ubaid viene divisa in quattro fasi, da Ubaid I a Ubaid IV. Ma recentemente sono state aggiunte a questa classificazione altre due fasi, Ubaid 0, a partire circa dal 6200, e Ubaid V, dal 4300 al 3800. 2 Ricordiamo che nella classificazione cronologica delle culture più antiche ci si può riferire alle diverse fasi di sviluppo, e in questo caso il numero I corrisponde alla fase più antica, oppure agli strati messi in evidenza dagli scavi archeologici: in questo caso il numero I corrisponde al periodo più recente, posto in superficie, e i numeri maggiori ai periodi più antichi, posti in profondità. 3 Jemdet Nasr è una località situata circa 100 chilometri a sud di Baghdad. Scavi condotti nel 1925-26 hanno portato alla luce un vastissimo edificio di mattoni seccati e cotti, contenente molti manufatti. Il nome di questo sito è stato dato alla cultura che si sviluppa nel sud della Mesopotamia tra il 3200 e il 3000, subito dopo il periodo Uruk III. Mentre il periodo Uruk è caratterizzato da una espansione della cultura sumerica, il periodo Jemdet Nasr è di maggiore isolamento. 4 Al periodo Protodinastico II appartiene il regno di Gilgamesh. 2 La prima dinastia di Ur (2550-2340 a.C.) è celebre soprattutto per le tombe reali ritrovate da Wolley, tra cui quella della regina Puabi.1 Della seconda dinastia di Ur si sa poco, e si ritiene che in quel periodo la città fosse in decadenza. Con la sconfitta di Lugal-Zaggesi ad opera di Sargon, nel 2334, il dominio sumerico sulla Mesopotamia venne a cessare, sostituito da quello degli Akkadi. Il più importante re degli Akkadi fu Naram-Sin. L’impero akkadico durò poco più di un secolo, sino al 2218, quando fu travolto dai Gutei. iscrizione di Naram-Sin I Gutei, nomadi, forse di origine indo-europea, invasero la Mesopotamia giungendo dall’Iran e sconfissero gli Akkadi. Dominarono dal 2218 al 2047. Tirigan, l’ultimo re dei Gutei fu sconfitto da Utukhegal, re di Uruk. I Gutei non ebbero però il dominio completo della Mesopotamia, soprattutto nel sud, e molte città conquistarono un’ampia indipendenza. In particolare ritrovarono la loro potenza le città sumere. Utu-Hengal, probabilmente governatore di Uruk, si sollevò contro i Gutei a diede alla propria città una posizione di predominio, che passò pochi anni dopo alla 1 Puabi, una regina o una sacerdotessa, era probabilmente un’accadica. Nella sua tomba, intatta, furono scoperti splendidi tesori (gioielli, e una lira) e i cadaveri di 18 persone (5 soldati e 13 ancelle) che si suicidarono o furono uccise per accompagnare la loro signora nell’aldilà. Lo stendardo di Ur, forse l’oggetto più celebre dell’arte sumera, fu trovato in un’altra tomba, ma nella stessa zona delle tombe reali. 3 città di Ur e al suo re, Ur-Nammu. Ur-Nammu è il fondatore della splendida terza dinastia di Ur (2047-1949), tra i cui sovrani va soprattutto ricordato il dotto Shulgi. Anche Lagash rifiorì in questo periodo con la seconda dinastia di Lagash, il cui sovrano più celebre è Gudea (2124-2124). Di Gudea ci sono rimaste ben 26 statue in pietra (diorite), molte con importanti iscrizioni. L’ultimo re di Ur, Ibbi-Sin fu sconfitto dagli Elamiti, popolo semitico, nel 2004. Con questa sconfitta, che lasciò ampio segno nei testi letterari, termina la parabola dei Sumeri. Il sigillo Nella storia dell’Antico Oriente, l’invenzione della scrittura è preceduta da quella del sigillo. L’uso di sigilli in forma rudimentale (l’impronta di un dito, di un’unghia, di un lembo del proprio vestito) è probabilmente antichissimo, ed è difficile dire a quando risalga, anche perché non ci sono rimasti documenti databili che lo attestino. I più antichi sigilli giunti sino a noi sono del tipo a base piatta, e provengono dal nord della Mesopotamia (Tell Arpašiyya, Tell Ḥalāf, prima metà del IV millenio): essi presentano decorazioni di tipo geometrico, e raramente qualche scena con figure di animali.
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