The First Gilgamesh Conjectures About the Earliest Epic
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see Front matter at the end see bookmarks The First Gilgamesh Conjectures About the Earliest Epic Giorgio Buccellati University of California, Los Angeles/International Institute for Mesopotamian Area Studies Abstract: Out of the elements of the Sumerian cycle about Gilgamesh, a complex new epic was fashioned at the high point of the Akkadian period. The paper argues in favor of such a high date for the first composition of the epic as a literary whole, and situates it in the context of the Akkadian imperial experiment. Keywords: Gilgamesh, Bilgamesh, epic literature, Old Akkadian, Hurrians, Urkesh, Ebla The argument The Urkesh plaque: the reconfiguring of Enkidu Gilgamesh is the best known character of Mesopotamian The Urkesh plaque A7.36 (Figure 1) has been convincingly literature, and the eleven tablet composition that narrates its interpreted as representing the encounter of Gilgamesh adventures is universally recognized as a masterpiece of world and Enkidu.3 Two aspects of the analysis offered by Kelly- literature. This is the Gilgamesh of the late version, which was Buccellati are particularly relevant for our present concern: most likely redacted at the end of the second millennium BC, the date and the iconography. and is available primarily through the scribal version of the library of Assurbanipal, several centuries later. An earlier The date. The fragment was found in a private house from version, in tablets dating to the early second millennium, has to the end of the third millennium, which offers a significant been known for a long time: not preserved in a single scribal terminus ante quem – significant because it is in any case context, it presents segments of a story that is close enough earlier than Old Babylonian. Broken and of a quality that is to the later version to suggest that the segments were already not consonant with the appurtenances of a private house, the part of a single whole. Because of the date when these early plaque did not belong originally to the stratum of the houses tablets were copied, the text is considered to be an original (Ur III), but must have gotten there, very likely, as a result Old Babylonian composition. of the excavations for storage pits that took place from the level of the private houses and reached down to the floor In this paper I suggest that the first redaction of the of the palace and even below. Stylistically, the fragment can Gilgamesh story as a single epic1 composition should in fact confidently be dated to the beginning of the Akkadian period.4 be dated much earlier than the Old Babylonian period, in the Old Akkadian period.2 It is a philological matter. But it is also The iconography5 of the two figures evinces traits that are an important question of literary analysis, for it implies that emphasized in the text (specifically the Yale tablet6): Enkidu’s that was the time when the first proper epic could in effect hairy appearance and strength, Gilgamesh’ beauty, elegance come into existence, crowning a literary development that and youth. These traits can be seen to refer to the events that had been set in motion with the beginning of urban life. take place in the early part of the story, the ‘three moments of discovered friendship, of reciprocal confidence and of My argument rests on archaeological and philological holding each other by the hand, just they are about to embark evidence, and on a broader analysis of the historical context. on their major adventure.’7 After their initial fight, Gilgamesh It remains admittedly conjectural, but there is enough and Enkidu become friends, which is signaled by the embrace substance to deserve consideration. And it is a pleasure to in the plaque (the text says: ittašqū-ma īpušū ru’ūtam ‘they submit it, for such consideration, to the attention of the dear kissed each other and made friendship’ Tablet Y 19). As a friend whom we are celebrating in this volume. Mirjo Salvini result, Gilgamesh proposes the adventure against Huwawa, has been among the first to recognize the importance of our and to get ready they are given, among other things, ‘bow and work at Urkesh, and part of my argument is drawn from quiver’ (qaštum u išpatum Y 238), which are clearly in evidence an important archaeological find at this site. It thus seems in the plaque. appropriate that he should be the first to critically assess the argument I am advancing, with the profound ἀκρίβεια, 3 the ‘acribia’ for which the English ‘scrupulousness’ seems Kelly-Buccellati 2006: 403-414. 4 Kelly-Buccellati 2006: 409. like a poor translation, and of which Mirjo has been such a 5 wonderful champion and model throughout his scholarly life. Steymans (2010: 8) makes short shrift of Kelly-Buccellati’s analysis, which is particularly surprising as her analysis takes up seriously the question of iconography, that is central to Steymans essay. But clearly Steymans’ reading of Kelly-Buccellati’s argument remained rather on the surface, as he refers to Urkesh as the Mittani capital... – In the same volume edited by Steymans, Tallay Ornan (2010: 230), 1 I use the term ‘epic’ as a noun referring to a larger, multi-episode equally dismisses Kelly-Buccellati’s and other ‘efforts to link visual compositional whole (in our case, the Akkadian Gilgamesh), and the depictions to specific events mentioned in the various versions of the term ‘epic song’ to refer to self-contained single episode (in our case, written narrative,’ but without any argument, even though the rest the Sumerian texts about Bilgames). See further below, section 5. of his article proceeds to offer just the same kind of correlation for 2 For suggestions about an early date see Foster 2016: 208-209 and 224, the figure of Humbaba. with reference to earlier literature. See also Ornan 2010: 254-255, for 6 George 2003: 192-216. some archaeological evidence. 7 Kelly-Buccellati 2006: 408. 114 Giorgio Buccellati: The First Gilgamesh Figure 2. Reconstruction of Gilgamesh plaque. Figure 1. The Urkesh Gilgamesh plaque (A7.36). Here Enkidu is the servant of Bilgames,9 a trusted and friendly servant, to be sure, but still a servant. The Old Akkadian plaque, and the text it presupposes, reconfigure Enkidu into a The iconography of the Urkesh plaque presupposes the very different person: he is different in origin and by his very story we know from the version of the epic available to us nature, because he does not come from the known entourage in the Old Babylonian manuscript tradition, indicating of the royal household as other servants do, but from a totally therefore that these later tablets reflect a much older different background. And he becomes a close friend through composition, a composition so well known in Old Akkadian a sequence of actions that test his nature as well as that of times that its themes could be reflected in the iconography Gilgamesh and that offer a psychological setting for what of a plaque carved in the Hurrian context of Urkesh. An amounts to a wholly extraordinary type of friendship. important consideration is that, since the fragment with its self-contained scene appears in the upper right corner Šunū ithū ana māt Ebla: the western horizon of the plaque, the original version of the plaque must have contained at least three additional scenes, which Kelly- A text known from another Old Babylonian tablet, published Buccellati reconstructs as follows: ‘upper left = struggle, recently, tells us that Gilgamesh and Enkidu, ‘together,10 upper right = friendship (our fragment), lower left = fight drew near to the land of Ebla’ (šunū ithū ana māt Ebla, written with Huwawa, lower right = death of Enkidu.’8 The sequence with crasis ma-ti-ib-la).11 It is the adventure against Huwawa: may be rendered graphically as in Figure 2. Gilgamesh has had a dream which Enkidu interprets as describing the god Shamash who intervenes to help him. This is significant because, however one may wish to Strengthened by this good omen, Gilgamesh happily resumes reconstruct the rest of the plaque, it is certain that it his journey in the direction of the western mountains, where consisted of a series of connected episodes – our scene being, Huwawa lives. It is the direction of the ‘land of Ebla.’ in the proposed reconstruction, the second in a four episode sequence represented on the plaque. The fact that other scenes must have accompanied the scene we have on this 9 See George 2003: 71-90 for the arguments in favor of this spelling for fragment, suggests therefore that the artist had in mind the the Sumerian version of the name. 10 larger compositional whole of which the plaque renders only This is an example of what I call a semio-syntactic translation. a single specific event. Such a representation fits better with Syntactically, the pronoun šunū is not needed. It refers back to the two the notion of the epic as a single compositional whole than subjects, Gilgamesh and Enkidu, who are mentioned in the previous narrative, but one after the other, not side by side. Thus the pronoun with the notion of a cycle (see below, section 4). signals, semiotically, that it is the same two, ‘together,’ who undertake the action of going further in the trip. A simple translation of šunū The tone of the relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu, as ‘they’ does not render the full force of the independent pronoun, as described in the text and shown in the plaque, is very since in English the pronoun is syntactically required. It is of course different from the tone we see in the Sumerian episodes.