Social Education 84(4), p. 214–218 ©2020 National Council for the Social Studies Working the Democracy: The Long Fight for the Ballot from Ida to Stacey

Jennifer Sdunzik and Chrystal S. Johnson

After a 72-year struggle, the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted whose interests should be represented, American women the right to vote in 1920. Coupled with the Fifteenth Amendment, and ultimately what policies will be which extended voting rights to African American men, the ratification of the implemented at the local and national Nineteenth Amendment transformed the power and potency of the American electorate. levels. At a quick glance, childhoods par- Yet for those on the periphery—be Given the dearth of Black women’s tially spent in Mississippi might be the they people of color, women, the poor, voices in the historical memory of the only common denominator of these two and working class—the quest to exer- long civil rights struggle, we explore the women, as they were born in drastically cise civic rights through the ballot box stories of two African American women different times and seemed to fight dras- has remained contested to this day. In who harnessed the discourse of democ- tically different battles. Whereas Wells- the late nineteenth century and into the racy and patriotism to argue for equality Barnett is best known for her crusade twentieth, white fear of a new electorate and justice. Both women formed coali- against lynchings in the South and her of formerly enslaved Black men spurred tions that challenged the patriarchal work in documenting the racial vio- public officials to implement policies boundaries limiting who can be elected, lence of the 1890s in publications such that essentially nullified the Fifteenth as Southern Horrors and A Red Record,1 Amendment for African Americans in she was also instrumental in paving the the South. The same was true with pas- way for women suffrage. Upon her forced sage of the Nineteenth Amendment. relocation to the North, she worked But the right to vote is more than tirelessly in the early twentieth century checking a box on the ballot. In this with Chicago’s Black community for the article, we invite you to reimagine the enfranchisement of African American Nineteenth Amendment beyond women women and for the political empower- suffrage. Not only did the ratification of ment of African American men. the Nineteenth Amendment open the Decades later, Stacey Abrams, who doors for some Black women to vote, was the first Black female major-party but it was also a call to political activism. U.S. gubernatorial nominee in 2018 when The amendment empowered African she ran in Georgia, has emerged as a ris- American leaders like Ida B. Wells- ing star in today’s Democratic Party. She Barnett and, today, Stacey Abrams to is also the first Black woman to deliver hold the nation accountable on its prom- a response to the State of the Union ise to be a government by the people and address. Stacey is the most recent and for the people. Ida B. Wells-Barnett not perhaps most powerful example of Ida’s only fought for passage of the Nineteenth dedication to expanding Black women’s Ida B. Wells, head-and-shoulders portrait, Amendment but utilized its passing to published in The Afro-American press and its opportunities in the political realm in plant the seed of political activism within editors, by I. Garland Penn., 1891 order to promote an authentic demo- the Black female community. (Courtesy of the Library of Congress) cratic system. A closer look at these two

Social Education 214 African American leaders and the battles Southwestern Railroad Company, which they fought a century apart reveals their was initially victorious. However, the shared approach to civic matters. Ida Tennessee Supreme Court reversed the and Stacey both understood the ballot lower court ruling, deciding in favor of box as more than a vote, extending its the railroad company. It was that train power to political enfranchisement and ride in Tennessee that ignited Ida’s tire- community activism. Being leaders not less passion to fight against discrimina- just through their words but also through tion and racism. their actions, both women deployed the Ida realized the power of the bal- power of defiance in order to challenge lot to achieve social equality. In “How the system. In this regard, their com- Enfranchisement Stops Lynching,” she mitment to the promises of democracy noted, arches the long fight for the ballot in the United States. The Negro has been given We are again at a critical moment separate and inferior schools, in our society. The country’s changing Then-Georgia State Representative Stacey separate railway cars, separate demographic has triggered fears, mostly Abrams gives the keynote address at the every thing [sic] else because among white conservatives, about a Barbara Jordan Forum of the LBJ School of he has no ballot. He therefore political, economic, and cultural take- Public Affairs, in Austin, Tex., February 21, 2012 cannot protest against such (Courtesy of the LBJ school, via Flickr, CC BY-SA 2.0) over by immigrants and people of color. legislation by choosing other law Conservative politicians know how to makers, or retiring to private life harness this tide of anxiety. They push So, while the Nineteenth Amendment those who legislate against his through legislation (e.g., gerrymandering, diminished the gender distinctiveness interests.4 voter suppression measures, etc.) that of women’s citizenship, it still fell short curbs access to the ballot. And in the of creating equal opportunities for all Soon after, in January 1913, she tradition of Ida B. Wells-Barnett, Stacey citizens. founded the Alpha Suffrage Club, the Abrams has been galvanizing political first African American suffrage club, activism and participation in disenfran- Ida’s Defiance with the help of white suffragist col- chised and underserved communities. While Americans celebrate Rosa Parks leagues like Belle Squire. for her defiance of Jim Crow laws on Upon settling in Chicago, Ida travelled Defiance as Power a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, across Illinois speaking publicly on civic Historically, African American women in 1955, Ida actually openly challenged matters and the fight for women suffrage.5 were doubly removed from the public the system by refusing Jim Crow trans- She organized various local Black wom- realm, both legally as well as socially. portation in Tennessee more than 70 en’s clubs in the city. As new president They lacked the independent status years earlier.2 She claimed her seat in of the Alpha Suffrage Club, she joined equated with being male and white in the “ladies” coach on a train ride from the Illinois Suffragists for a National American society. After Emancipation, Memphis to Woodstock in September American Woman Suffrage Association- they were essentially governed by Black 1883, experiencing the double bind of sponsored parade in Washington, D.C., men. Even as the rules of legal cover- being Black and a woman. The train in March 1913. Forty years after defying ture, or second-class citizenship, were conductor demanded she move to the Jim Crow on a train in Tennessee, Ida eroded in the second half of the nine- “colored” coach. Ida recalled, “He said found herself again defying Jim Crow, teenth century, the core principle of an to me that he would treat me like a lady, this time in Washington, D.C. The indirect citizenship, conferred via the but that I must go into the other car, and parade’s white leadership feared alien- head of household (husband or father) I replied, that if he wished to treat me ating Southern members by challenging for women remained. The Nineteenth like a lady, he would leave me alone.”3 their Jim Crow system, and did not want Amendment succeeded in displacing Her refusal to leave the coach designated Black women walking with state delega- this ideal of citizenship by giving white for white women triggered an alterca- tions. Ida, however, refused to be sent women and some Black women clear tion (she bit the conductor’s hand when to the back of the parade and boldly political standing in the public sphere. he attempted to forcefully move her), marched with the women of Illinois. Ida But suffrage failed to establish equal citi- resulted in her dress being torn, and led “defined the battle for African American zenship. Rather, women remained caught ultimately to her physical removal from women by intertwining her state citizen- between competing conceptions of polit- the train at the next stop. She initiated ship, her African Americanness, and ical equality and ascriptive difference. a suit against the Chesapeake Ohio & her femaleness,” and asserted “African

September 2020 215 American women’s place in the fight for initiatives dedicated to registering and which trained Black women specifically the ballot by confronting white women.”6 engaging people of color in the civic to run for political office. Running under process, which in Georgia’s case encom- the motto “For Women, of Women, By Stacey’s Defiance passed more than 800,000 potential vot- Women,” Ida united community devel- At an early age, Stacey Abrams was ers. The addition of more than 86,000 opment with political activism and shaped by her experiences of racism and voter registration applications provoked democratic aspirations.14 She then led sexism. After winning an essay contest panic among Georgia’s political players the way and ran as an Independent for in middle school, she had to fight the and sparked an increase in acts of sabo- the Illinois State Senate in 1930. Though librarian to receive her award money. tage, with half the applications going she came in fourth, losing to incumbent The librarian seemed unable to believe “missing.” Stacey’s conviction “to shift and Black career politician Adelbert that Stacey—a Black girl—was the author the political dynamics of Georgia, and Roberts, she demonstrated that politi- of the award-winning essay. In college, to live [her] parents’ teachings about cal power for women was within reach.15 when she still aspired to become a civic responsibility,” as well as the New Despite not winning her political race, physicist, her physics professor doubted Georgia Project, have been her driving Ida signaled that having Black women Stacey’s ability to understand “the purpose ever since.11 in positions of power was a possibility. complexities of higher math [that] the Or, in the words of civil rights activist long-term pursuit of physics required.”7 You Cannot Be What You Cannot Marian Wright Edelman, “You can’t be Stacey would go on to “always [con- See: Working the Democracy by what you can’t see.” front] racism, sexism, ageism and other Empowering Women Stacey Abrams, in the twenty-first phobias,” as she well understood that When Illinois granted women century, continued to register more and opportunities in today’s society entail restricted voting rights in 1913, more voters through the New Georgia learning “to constantly rebut the soft enabling their right to vote for presi- Project. She pursued her political aspi- prejudices held against us.”8 By the time dent as well as local offices (such as rations to be governor of Georgia (even Stacey became the Democratic leader in mayor or alderman), Ida worked with though the United States has never had Georgia’s House of Representatives in the Alpha Suffrage Club to organize an African American woman governor), 2011, she had identified “stinging rheto- meetings, register prospective voters because “You can’t be what you can’t see.” ric,” “wordsmithing and incisiveness” as and galvanize political interest in the After winning the Democratic primary her strategies for fighting gender stereo- African American community. She nomination for governor in May 2018, types and white supremacy.9 specifically appealed to women to Stacey galvanized local and national sup- Stacey’s first prominent act of defiance register and vote, with the promise port across racial, class and gendered was at a town hall meeting in the after- to “help put a colored man in the city lines. She accumulated a number of math of California’s 1992 Rodney King council.”12 Although Black women’s high-profile endorsements, including verdict, which sparked violent reactions first attempt to elect a Black council- one from Oprah Winfrey and former across the nation, including in Atlanta, man in Chicago failed in early 1914, President Barack Obama.16 where Stacey was a first-year student women were energized by the close- In a disputed November 2018 race, at Spelman College. She understood ness of the race. The Chicago Defender in which she ran against then Georgia that despite Atlanta’s Black leadership, championed Black women’s “sense of Secretary of State Brian Kemp who white supremacy was at the root of many duty to do more,” proclaiming that supervised his own election system, of Atlanta’s problems. Mayor Maynard soon “Traitorous leaders [will] be rel- Stacey gave a non-concession conces- Jackson denounced Atlanta’s violent egated to the background and citizens sion speech challenging the system that response to the King verdict, deploying of strength and character [will] take allowed Kemp to both oversee and run the police across the city and campuses. their places.”13 A year later, Chicago’s in the same election as well as engineer a Stacey publicly challenged the mayor’s Black women were the driving force voter suppression scheme. In the speech, record of failing to improve the lives of behind the election of the first Black she appealed to supporters to recognize his constituents.10 The moment catalyzed man to city council, Oscar de Priest, that elections are not about the individu- her battle for political office, which would alderman of the Second Ward. als running, but about what citizens are become about eradicating poverty and The passing of the Nineteenth seeking. Stacey has gone on to found racism, while actively engaging and politi- Amendment inspired Ida to build a struc- new nonprofit initiatives such as Fair cally activating Georgian communities. ture that would support and advance Fight Georgia and Fair Count, which In 2013, Stacey founded the New African American voting rights. She demand accountability and integrity in Georgia Project. Though a century apart, founded additional civic-minded and Georgia’s elections and assurance that both the Alpha Suffrage Club and the politically engaging organizations such as every person is counted in the Census, New Georgia Project were nonpartisan the Third Ward Women’s Political Club, respectively.

Social Education 216 Lesson Idea Inquiry Design Model (IDM) Blueprint™ Compelling Question How can the lack of power push individuals to seek change?

Standards and D2.Civ.5.9-12; D2.Civ.10.9-12; D2.His.3.9-12; D2.His.12.9-12 Practices

This activity highlights the Life Road Maps strategy. At the conclusion of the lesson, students will draw a map of Ida and Stacey’s lives that highlights the important events and decisions that shaped their identities. To begin, write the compelling question on Staging the Question the board. Ask students to think about the question for a minute. Have students turn to a neighbor and share responses. Inform students that today they will examine two African American women who were born without power or privilege but who sought to change their lives and the lives of others by working the democracy.

Supporting Question 1 Supporting Question 2 Supporting Question 3

Challenging power takes courage and sometimes How did the lack of power influence the core How did Ida B. Wells and Stacey Abrams use pow- results in ostracism. Can you think of times where beliefs of Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Stacey Abrams? er to work the democracy for the greater good? Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Stacey Abrams felt alone? Formative Performance Task Formative Performance Task Formative Performance Task Primary source analysis: Analyze Primary Source Primary source analysis: Analyze Primary Source Primary source analysis: Analyze Primary Source A (Ida) using primary source analysis sheet. C (Ida) using primary source analysis sheet. E (Ida) using primary source analysis sheet. Primary source analysis: Analyze Primary Source Primary source analysis: Analyze Primary Source Primary source analysis: Analyze Primary Source B (Stacey) using primary source analysis sheet. D (Stacey) using primary source analysis sheet. F (Stacey) using primary source analysis sheet. Small group: Based on primary source analysis, Small group: Based on primary source analysis, Small group: Based on primary source analysis, respond to supporting question 1. respond to supporting question 2. respond to supporting question 3.

Timeline: Create two timelines that represent Timeline: Update both timelines in light of new Timeline: Update both timelines in light of new significant events and choices in Ida and Stacey’s information gathered. information gathered. lives. Journal Entry 2: Have students construct a journal Journal Entry 3: Have students construct a Journal Entry 1: Have students construct a entry for Ida and a journal entry for Stacey focus- journal entry for Ida and a journal entry for Stacey journal entry for Ida and a journal entry for Stacey ing on how both women used their power (or lack focusing on how both women felt alone as they focusing on how the lack of power influenced thereof) to work the democracy for the greater worked the democracy for the greater good. their core beliefs. good.

Featured Sources Featured Sources Featured Sources Source A: A Legal Brief for Ida B. Wells’ Lawsuit: Source C: Coverage of the March of 1913 (Chicago Source E: The March of 1913 (www.pbs.org/ https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/ida-b-wells- Tribune, March 5, 1913, p. 5, available on newspa- opb/historydetectives/feature/the-march- and-anti-lynching-activism/sources/1113 pers.com; www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/ of-1913/) and the 100th anniversary of the March, feature/the-march-of-1913/); and the 100th commemorated in the Washington Post: www. Source B: Chapter 1 from Minority Leader (pp.1- anniversary of the March, commemorated in the washingtonpost.com/blogs/she-the-people/ 25), particularly sections “I Know You Are, But Washington Post: www.washingtonpost.com/ wp/2013/03/03/despite-the-tremendous-risk- What Am I” and “What’s Love Got to Do With blogs/she-the-people/wp/2013/03/03/despite- african-american-women-marched-for-suffrage- It” (pp. 7–15), available online at: http://sub- the-tremendous-risk-african-american-women- too/ wayreads.org/book/minority-leader/ marched-for-suffrage-too/ Source F: Chapter 8 from Minority Leader Source D: Chapter 1 from Minority Leader (pp.1- (pp.175–195), particularly the section “First Things 25), particularly the section “I Don’t Want What I First,” (pp. 179–186) Haven’t Got (And Other Lies)” (pp. 15-25), http:// subwayreads.org/book/minority-leader/

Explain to students that they will be drawing a “map” of someone’s life. Before students draw their maps, have them brainstorm things people might encounter when they take a trip or journey. Items on this list might include stop signs, speed bumps, traffic lights, dead ends, detours, highways, tolls, and rest stops. Give students the opportunity to discuss what these items might represent when ap- plied to the metaphor of “life as journey.” For example, a dead end might represent a decision that did not yield the desired result. A green light might represent getting approval to move ahead. In small groups, have students construct “life road maps” for Ida and Stacey. Provide students with a large piece of bulletin board paper or chart paper. Remind students that this journey should represent Summative Argument important decisions and events that shaped Ida and Stacey’s lives. Encourage students to add details Performance Task to their maps, including facts that may have influenced decisions, such as historical events, important relationships, goals, beliefs, and aspects of human behavior (fear, prejudice, etc.). Have students share their work as a gallery walk. As students review the work of their classmates, ask them to pay attention to similarities and differences among the maps. As students partake in the gallery walk, have them reflect on the following questions: What factors influence the choices people make? What factors help people move forward and make progress? What factors set people back?

Taking Informed As a culminating activity, ask students to reflect on the following question: How can you use power to work democracy for the Action greater good?

September 2020 217 to important questions of the day, not Notes the Civil Rights Act in 1883. Thus, Ida’s case was Conclusion: Win for Democracy just to academic exercises about selected 1. Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for the first one after Blacks had to appeal to state courts Teaching History in Schools, Bradley Commission The passage of the Nineteenth Amend- for justice. See Evelyn B. Higginbotham, “African bygone events. They can think critically on History in Schools, www.nche.net/content. ment did not mean the fight for the ballot American Women’s History and the Metalanguage asp?contentid=160. of Race,” Signs 17 (1992): 251–274. about questions that may literally involve was over for African American women. looming matters of life and death: “Are 2. National Standards for History: Basic Edition (Los 3. Greer and Adams. Chesapeake, Ohio & Angeles: National Center for History in the Schools, Many scholars claim this fight came to Southwestern Railroad Company v. Ida B. Wells. we inclined to invade County X because 1996), 15, 16. fruition in 1965 with the passage of the 1885. Retrieved from the Digital Public Library of it’s weaker than we are? Are the people of 3. Bruce VanSledright, Kimberly Reddy, and Brie America, http://cdm15838.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ Walsh, “The End of History in Elementary Schools?” Voting Rights Act, ensuring the civic ref/collection/p15838coll7/id/283. Country X likely to resist our invasion? Perspectives on History, American Historical right to vote for all Americans. Yet, as 4. Ida B. Wells, How Enfranchisement Stops Lynchings. NAACP Papers, of United States. Based on historical experience, what are Association (May 2012), www.historians.org/ Georgia’s recent gubernatorial race illus- likely costs of this invasion for the people publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/ Library of Congress. Manuscript Division (Reel 8, may-2012/the-end-of-history-education-in-elementary- trates, the struggle continues. In history Part I: Meetings of the Board of Directors, Records of our country and the target country? schools. books we will read that neither Ida nor of Annual Conferences, Major Speeches, and Why would this invasion be likely to suc- 4. Benjamin M. Schmidt, “The History BA since the Special Reports, Proceedings of the National Negro Great Recession,” PerspectivesJR. on History is, American JR. is Stacey were successful in their politi- Conference, May 1910, Library of Congress, ceed when so many foreign invasions fail?” Historical Association, Dec. 2018, www.historians. cal races for office. Ida lost her Illinois Washington D.C.), 1-20, https://search.alexander It’s not possible to exercise informed org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on- street.com/view/work/bibliographic_entity%7Cbiblio Senate race to Adelbert Roberts and graphic_details%7C2561784. history/december-2018/the-history-ba-since-the-great-here! here! judgment about serious matters like recession-the-2018-aha-majors-report. Stacey lost the Georgia governorship to 5. The Illinois Suffrage Act, granting women in Illinois going to war without asking questions 5. Daniel Willingham, Why Don’t Students Like Brian Kemp. The problem here is that limited voting rights, including the right to vote for such as these, yet these questions were School? A Cognitive Scientist Answers Questions president and local officers, passed in June 1913. about How the Mind Works and What It Means for Junior Rho Kappa history is written by and for the winners. Voting for legislators on the state and federal level, not raised in any prominent or sustained the Classroom (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009) Both women challenged and pushed the however, was not granted until the ratification of 28, 25. is the only national the Nineteenth Amendment seven years later. From way by politicians, the media, or the pub- boundaries of a system rigged against “100 Most Valuable Documents at the Illinois State 6. Sam Wineburg, Why Learn History (When It’s lic prior to the U.S. invasions of Vietnam organization for Archives,” www.cyberdriveillinois.com/departments/ Already on Your Phone) (Chicago: University of them on a variety of levels. They showed 11 archives/online_exhibits/100_documents/1913-il- and Iraq. The questions weren’t raised, Chicago Press, 2018), p. 92. middle or junior high that the power of the ballot encompasses suffarge-act.html no doubt, because people were largely 7. Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, school students that both political activism and participation. 6. Wanda A. Hendricks, “Ida B. Wells-Barnett and unaware of the exceedingly basic and National Governors Association Center for Best the Alpha Suffrage Club of Chicago,” in: One Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers, recognizes excellence Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Stacey Abrams Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman exceedingly important principles of his- 2010, p. 7, www.mathedleadership.org/docs/ccss/ have transformed the narrative and Suffrage Movement, ed. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler tory that would prompt such informed CCSSI_Math%20Standards%20Expanded.pdf. in the field of Social (Troutdale, Oregon: New Sage Press, 1995), 270. 8. Common Core State Standards for English Language proved that with enough mobilization, and thoughtful inquiries. There exists Studies. 7. Stacey Abrams, Minority Leader: How to Lead from Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, traditionally marginalized voters can the Outside and Make Real Change (New York: only one place in society where citizens and Technical Subjects, National Governors have a voice in America’s democracy. If Henry Hold Company, 2018), xviii. Association Center for Best Practices, Council of 8. Abrams, Minority Leader, xx, 75. may systematically acquire such crucial Chief State School Officers, 2010, p. 7, www. this is not a “win” showcasing successful 9. Ibid., 42-43. knowledge of the world, and that place corestandards.org/assets/CCSSI_ELA%20Standards.pdf. and exemplary leadership, then what is? 10. Ibid., 15-21. is history class. 9. Mike Maxwell, Future-Focused History Teaching: Restoring the Power of Historical Learning (Mancos, 11. Ibid., 54-55. If history education were to identify Colo.: Maxwell Learning, 2018), 20, 185. A Note on the Lesson Idea 12. Alfreda M. Duster (ed.), Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University general principles of historical knowl- 10. Graham Allison, “The Thucydides Trap: Are the The lesson presents an engaging strategy of Chicago Press, 1970), 346. U.S. and China Headed for War?” The Atlantic, Sept. edge, the knowledge-thinking feedback 13. “Afro-American Women the Pride of Chicago,” 24, 2015, www.theatlantic.com/international/ for deepening students’ historical knowl- Chicago Defender, March 7, 1914:1, col. 5. loop would become complete: useful archive/2015/09/united-states-china-war-thucydides- edge of the long fight for voting rights trap/406756/. 14. Patricia A. Schechter, Ida B. Wells-Barnett and the historical knowledge would support in the United States and the significant American Reform, 1880–1930 (Chapel Hill: useful thinking that informs judgment in 11. See for example: Steve Rendall, “In Prelude to War, roles played by Ida B. Wells-Barnett and University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 217, 239. TV Served as Official Megaphone,” FAIR, Fairness 15. Ibid., 242. the realm of human affairs. In so doing, and Accuracy in Reporting (April 1, 2003), https:// Stacey Abrams. The lesson is meant not 16. Abrams, Minority Leader, 200. history would fulfill the mission of educa- fair.org/extra/in-prelude-to-war-tv-served-as-official- megaphone/, accessed June 10, 2019. Fairness and only to compare and contrast the two tion by supplying knowledge applicable Jennifer Sdunzik (jsdunzik@purdue. Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) looked at nightly news women, but also to allow students to edu) received her PhD in American Studies to the future. coverage from ABC, CBS, NBC, and PBS during a grapple with the reality that the fight for from Purdue University. Her scholarly contri- two-week period leading up to the U.S. invasion of If historians wish to confine their the ballot box continues to this day. butions in the fields of race and ethnic stud- Iraq. Of 393 televised interviews about Iraq, most ies, community development, activism and efforts to describing events of the past, featured current or former government officials education, have been published in a variety of sounding the drumbeat for war; only “17 percent of that’s their business. Then the task of Notes interdisciplinary and education journals. Her total on-camera sources represented skeptical or first book manuscript,Geography of Hate: The identifying enduring principles of histori- critical positions on the U.S.’s war policy.” 1. Ida B. Wells-Barnett, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases (New York, N.Y.: New York Age Great Migration and Small-Town America, is cal knowledge falls to history educators, Print, 1892), and A Red Record: Tabulated currently under review. Chrystal S. John- who bear the professional responsibility Statistics and Alleged Causes of Lynchings in the son is an Associate Professor of Social Studies A former journalist and history teacher, Mike United States, 1892-1893-1894 (Chicago: Privately Education at Purdue University. Her scholarly to impart important knowledge of the Maxwell is the author of Future-Focused published, 1895). contributions in the fields of character educa- tion, citizenship development, charter schools, History Teaching: Restoring the Power of 2. Ida B. Wells-Barnett wasn’t the first to challenge world that can help students and soci- and the social studies have been published in discrimination on public transport. Catherine Historical Learning and The Student’s Friend top tier journals. She currently teaches social ety to function effectively in the future. LEARN MORE Brown defied riding in the “colored car” on her Concise World History. Maxwell has operated studies methods in the elementary and second- train ride from Alexandria, Virginia, to Washington, Because that’s our business. the StudentsFriend.com website for world history ary programs. She can be reached at johnsocs@ D.C., in 1868. The case ultimately came before the teachers since 2001, and he recently launched purdue.edu; on Twitter: @purdue_johnsocs; or www.socialstudies.org/junior-rho-kappa U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled in her favor in visit www.education.purdue.edu/faculty-profiles/ the futurefocusedhistory.blog. 1873. The federal government’s support of Black name/chrystal-johnson/. civil rights, however, was ephemeral, as it repealed

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