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CHAPTER 2
THEORITICAL FOUDNATION
2.1 Theories of Picture Book
A picture book combines visual and verbal narratives in one medium which is in a book format. The illustration can be made with different range of media, digitally or manually (Sipe,1998). Picture book is called a picture book, because the illustrations dominate the text and they are both equally important (Summer,2013). Yet, there are several picture books are told completely by pictures only. For this particular project, the use of a well-balanced text and illustrations to introduce young readers about animals is necessary, because it will be an educational picture book for young readers not just a story book.
2.2 Theories of Picture Book Roles
Picture book is written to help children discover about their surroundings, it is also a written artifact that transmit cultural information and values their surroundings.
Books that children read and learn with, including used in classrooms for educational, can impact their self-awareness (Chaudhri & Teale,2013) and help them to establish a positive self-identity (Hall,2008; Levin,2007). Picture book can be an educational tool, most children can interact with it. Consequently picture books contents are matters (Koss,2015). Therefore, picture book is chosen as the main media to educate and raise young readers early awareness toward endemic animals of
Indonesia. This picture book will include colorful and contemporary illustrations to gain young readers attention. It will also include fun facts about each of the endangered animal with simple words and short paragraph to help young children 7 understand the information easily.
2.3 Theories of Importance of Picture Book
Picture book always comes with illustrations. According to Segun, picture book’s illustrations are literature in their own right and, whether used by themselves or combined with written text. They sharpen the perception of children, stimulate their imagination and increase their sense of observation. Picture book creates an entirely different communication between parent and child, picture book allows parents to spend more time talking and discussing with children about the stories, characters, pictures and words. Picture book also can be one of effective tool for teaching the concept of cause and effect (Calabrese,2010). Especially, when it comes to this particular issue to inform young children that todays extinction is not caused by natural process anymore, but it is mostly caused by human. Therefore, picture book can be one of the main medium to raise their awareness about current Indonesian animal’s situation.
2.4 Theories of Writing Children’s Picture Book
Picture book needs to have extended illustrations and enhanced the written text. It provides young readers with an aesthetic experience that is more than the sum of the book’s parts. And an outstanding picture book seamlessly combines words and pictures together, to form a rich and rewarding reading experience, where both illustrations and text take an important role in this medium and text inspire the illustrations (Picturing Book,2004).
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2.4.1 Text
Text in picture book should be organized into simple explanation and short paragraphs, usually each page only contains 1 to 4 paragraphs and consist about 2000 words. Using active verbs, will keep the story vivid for the young readers. To help the author to make a vivid story, they employ literary tools. Such as, rhythm, alliteration, repetition, refrains, onomatopoeia, simile, personification, rhyme, and imagery are commonly used devices. One of the thing to be considered is ending each page of the book with elements of surprises to raise reader’s curiosity.
Repeating phrases will also help to hold young reader’s attention
(ReadWriteThink,2006).
Figure 2.1 Owen Davey, Mad About Monkeys.
Based on the references above, Owen Davey succeed to create a simple and well written facts about the animals, he also included humorous phrase to engage children. This project will also include fun facts about the endemic animals of
Indonesia, and hopefully by using simple and fun phrases help to attract young readers to read this book.
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2.4.2 Illustrations
Whether it complements with text, or as wordless picture book, illustrations always play an important role in a picture book. According to Nikolajeva & Scott (2000), there are three basic ways to describe the relationship between illustrations and the text in a picture book:
- Symmetry, a closed correlation between the text and illustration. The
illustrations simply describe what is told in the narratives, without adding any
new meaning.
- In augmentation, illustrations enhance or extend the text, or give a new
meaning that are not expressed in the text. The illustrations are contradictory
with the narratives, or the illustrations is a continuation of the story.
- As for contradiction, illustrations present a contrary meaning to the text. The
text convey different perspectives with the illustrations. For instance, the text
described the character as a tough and scary man, but the illustrations
pictured as a kind and loving man.
As for some picture books use front cover as the presentation of the main conflict
or main point of the story (ReadWriteThink,2006).
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Figure 2.2 Ben Newman, Professor Astro Cat’s Frontiers of Space. Example for a symmetry picture book.
Figure 2.3 Drew Daywalt & Oliver Jeffers, The Day The Crayons Quit.
Example for an augmentation picture book.
Figure 2.4 Peter Brown, Mr. Tiger Goes Wild. Example for a contradiction
picture book.
From illustrations in a picture book, children can understand and get to know many different styles of illustration and enriches their sensitivity. With different kinds varieties of illustration styles, can deliver different experience and also influence children’s feelings (Tunnel & Jacobs,2000). Based from the type of relationship between illustrations and text, this project will use a symmetry picture book, where both text and illustrations are equally important, since it is a educational picture 11 book. As for the illustration’s technique, this project will use digital techniques, because there is no limitation when it comes to digital technique to produce the illustration itself, there are different kind of brushes, texture, and variant of colors that can be used. The goal of this project is to produce a good and fun illustrations, since they will play an important role to help children to understand better and to have a slight hint of what the animals look like.
2.4.3 Developing Character
There are different kind of characters in picture books, such as, aliens, monsters, dinosaurs, children, safari animals or domestic animals. All the characters are needed to be developed enough to keep readers hooked and want to read more
(Blackbrun,2013). There are three elements of characterization, first is physical appearance. What does the character look like? Second is actions, speeches, and behavior. What does the character do? How does the character behave? What does the character say? And third is interactions with others, How do other characters in the story react to this character (ReadWriteThink, 2007). This project will involve more or less fifty to sixty animals, that do no need for characterization, since it is an educational book for young readers, character development is not necessary.
2.4.4 Plot
A solid and a well-developed plot is essential to create a good picture book
(ReadWriteThink, 2006). According to Wallin & Gordon (2011) picture books are easy to read and love, but they are not easy to write. The text might be simple and short, but that is misleading. Since, space is limited when it comes to write for picture book, every single word need to be carefully chosen. Children tend to have 12 short attention spans, in order to capture their attention the text need to be constantly moving. Every page should contain playful words, including the very first page. This picture book will consists fun facts and the uniqueness about each animal. This is a way to engage young reader to keep reading the book and memorize the information that are given.
2.5 Theories of Principles of Design
Fundamental principles can help designer to manage the process of design, guided their sense of intuition, reason, and aesthetic judgment. Principle of design acts as a guideline to come up with their creative decisions and it is really fundamental for a designer. (Evan & Thomas, 2013). This guideline help them to elaborate visual elements of art in the picture book that artists will use.
2.5.1 Unity and Variety
Variety is controlled by unity. Variety is the usage of several elements of design in one artwork that capture viewer’s attention, and guide viewer’s eye to see through and around the artwork. (Paul, 2011). Combination between this different elements need to create a unity to form a harmony between all element of the work of art.
Therefore in order to make a well-designed picture book a well-balanced between unity and variety is needed.
2.5.2 Hierarchy
Hierarchy is organizing different kind of elements to differentiate the levels of importance. Hierarchy establishes patterns of movement and flow, and it is also create a centers of interest on designer page (Bradley,2009). The main goal of this 13 thesis project is to inform young readers about endemic animals in Indonesia. It is important to organize and prioritize different elements to guide children’s reading flow in order to help them to understand each story on every page
2.5.3 Balance
Balance is an equal distribution of visual elements, weight of objects, colors, textures, and spaces. Each element need to be balanced between each other to make the design feel stable (Paul,2011). In symmetrical balance, the arrangement of elements are equally distribute to the left and right, or top and bottom of center. As for asymmetrical balance, the arrangement of unlike elements with equal weight on each side of the page. Combination of colors, values, sizes, shapes, and textures can be used to balance all elements. This picture book will using both symmetrical balance and also asymmetrical balance, so make the book will be more dynamic but without losing it balanced. Because both text and illustration are taking a huge part as the storyteller in this picture book.
2.5.4 Dominance
The part that consist different visual elements but catches viewer’s attention the most. Usually, making one distinguish or stand out object than the other objects is by contrasting the object using different kind of sizes, colors, textures, shapes, lines, or any other design elements. Illustrations will take an important role in this picture book and need varieties of visual elements, yet the text is quite as important. Because they are the main elements to make a picture book. Therefore, to balance the colorful illustrations, the text will use bold and dark color.
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2.5.5 Proximity
Proximity is grouping related items together, and usually side by side. Elements that are related need to be close to each other so viewer’s can easily determine them as one cohesive group. The basic of proximity is to organize, with a well organized information, it can increase viewers to read and to remember. The picture book will discuss several different animals in one spread, that why it is crucial to make a correlation between the text and the illustrations, so young readers can easily identify which animals that the narrative is talking about.
2.5.6 Rhythm
Rhythm is used by designers to create movement in a composition by positioning different type of elements, to lead the eye to move from one to another elements.
Repeating elements can create a smooth, and a controlled rhythm, and varying elements can create a dynamic rhythm. For this project varying elements will be the best option, since the readers are children, they tend to get easily bored, with varying elements it might help to capture their attention more.
2.6 Theories of Visual Elements of Picture Books
Creating a good picture book requires not just following principles of design. There must be an involvement of visual elements of designing picture book to make it complete and equally balanced.
2.6.1 Line
According to Gatto, Porter, & Selleck (2000) line is an element of art that is used to define shapes, contours, outlines, and to suggest mass and volume, based from the 15 thick or thin the line is.
Characteristic of Line are:
• Width- thick, thin, tapering uneven.
• Length- long, short, continuous, broken.
• Direction- horizontal, vertical, diagonal, curving, perpendicular, oblique,
parallel, radial, zigzag.
• Focus- sharp, blurry fuzzy, choppy.
• Feeling- sharp, jagged, graceful, smooth. Based on line’s characteristics,
they can be categorized into 10 different type of lines.
Types of Line are:
• Vertical lines are suggested lack of movement,
• Horizontal lines suggest calm, sleep, stability, and an absence of strife.
• Vertical lines and horizontal lines at right angels depict artificial
elements
• Two vertical lines connected by horizontal line are give feeling of solid,
safe place.
• Diagonal lines suggest loss of balance and uncontrolled motion
• Triangles on a horizontal base suggest safety.
• Jagged lines suggest danger, curved line and circles are less definite and
less predictable than straight lines.
• Thin lines suggest being delicate and ephemeral as for thick links suggest
boldness and strength. 16
For the lines usage this project will combine several different type of lines, it depends on the animal’s nature characteristic, since there are too many diversity and uniqueness in Indonesian animals.
Figure 2.5 Owen Davey, Kuvva Wallpapers. Example for combining different
lines in one artwork.
2.6.2 Color
Color took an important role in illustration book. Line and color combination are perhaps the most common way for the artist to convey mood and emotion in picture books. According to Sutton & Whelan (2004) color combination can evoke certain emotional responses. Color is both simple and complex, it means that people have their own interpretation toward color, no color is seen the same way by any two people. Color also both personal and universal, it acts as a medium to send message with endless variations of meaning.
- Red, yellow, and orange - usually associated with fire, sun, and blood.
Usually expressing warm or hot connotations: friendliness, high energy, or
anger. 17
- Blue, green, and some violets - mostly portray air, water, and plant life and
their coolness suggest moods and emotion for tranquility, peace to
melancholy.
- Primary and bright colors - suggest excitement, happiness, and action.
- Pastel and muted colors - usually suggest fear and danger.
- Natural colors (earth tone: browns, greens, yellow and oranges) - suggest
nature, environment and showing calmness.
For this book, the author will be use variant of color combinations, but mostly primary and bright colors. Using natural colors help to portray the real colors of the animals and capture their habitat. The color palette will be consist of color varieties yet more toward to nature color scheme, since mostly Indonesian animals are full of color diversity.
Figure 2.6 Todd Oldham & Charley Harper (2011), Charley Harper: An
Illustrated Life. Example of natural color combinations. 18
2.6.3 Shape
Norton & Norton (2003) explained, that lines are joined to form different kind of shapes and areas of color help to produce shapes. Different shapes have different connotations depending on the lines and colors are used. Shapes are another way to show the mood of a picture and a story.
Categories of Shapes:
• Organic shapes - In nature irregular and curving are common same as
with hand-made objects. It might be used to convey anything from
receptivity and imagination to frightening and unpredictability.
• Geometric shapes - exact, rigid, and often rectangular usually has
mechanical origins. To convey complexity, stability, assertion, or
severity.
• Positive shapes – in painting or drawing, this shape is usually in solid
forms or positive space such as a bowl of cereal.
• Negative shapes – space that surround positive shape is called negative
space. When negative space and positive shape collide, it can form a
certain shape. Such as sky, or spaces between objects.
• Static shapes – shapes that are stable and resting
• Dynamic shapes – shapes that appear to be moving and active
For this project, the illustration will use organic, dynamic, and geometric shapes combinations to create a more simplify illustration and offer a different kind of illustration style without losing each animal’s characteristics. 19
Figure 2.7 Charley Harper, Animal Kingdom. Shape reference.
2.6.4 Texture
Artist combine lines, colors, shapes, and artistic media to form textual imagery. The impression of how a pictured object feels is its texture. Texture can be rough, slick, firm or spongy, jagged or smooth, this texture can give an accent to a flat surface to have a dimensional surface. Less realistic illustration style may make use of texture as a medium to enrich the visual experience and stimulate young reader’s imagination (Russel, 2009). Based from this, the author decided to play with texture, digitally. It will help them to develop picture of Indonesian animals in their head.
Since the book will also provide fun facts, illustration help them to have a representation of the animals shape and texture.
Figure 2.8 Maurice Sendak (1963), Where the Wild Things Are. Example of an
artwork that used texture for its objects. 20
2.6.5 Composition
Composition of an illustration refers to arrangement of the visual elements in the picture. The author decides the portion, balance, harmony and disharmony between various elements to produce desired visual view and impact. This project need to have a good composition design, because the main target is young children, they get confused easily. Therefore, the flow of the stories and information need to be straight forward and easy to understand for young children.
2.6.6 Perspective (Point of View)
Perspective is refers to the vantage point from the object that can be seen on the page. The artist may want the readers to think in specific ways by illustrated different kind of point of view for instance a worm’s eye view, children perspective, a bird’s- eye view, or an unreal angle. Mostly picture book use the “middle shot” perspective to show detailed, few close-ups and few panoramic views.
Figure 2.9 Taken from Pool, JiHyeon Lee. Example of perspective. 21
2.6.7 Typography
True picture book should has a seamless mesh of words and images, between one of they could not exist without the support of each other, except for wordless picture book. The most important consideration when it comes to choose a typeface is legibility. For a picture book, the text need to be large enough for legibility, but still have plenty of room for illustrations (Silvey, 2002). There are certain letter forms that are recommended for beginner readers, the typeface has to be in the correct letter forms to make the book easier to read. Usually Sans serif fonts are more appropriate for young readers as the font are closer to the way they learn to write in school.
Therefore, it is easier to recognize the letters. (Burrell,2011). As for this project, to keep the book’s consistency will use only one to two type of sans serif fonts to balance the contemporary and modern looked illustrations. The size of the text would never be any smaller than 11pt for this picture book.
Figure 2.10 Taken from Children Book Creation. Certain letter forms which
are recommended for beginner readers.
2.7 Theories of Endemic animals
Endemic species are specify or can only be found in certain region and nowhere else in other part of the world. Since the animals are only specify to certain area, they are tend to be in conservation concern, because they are not widespread and may be 22 confined to only one or two protected areas (Plumptre,2003). This thesis will only include Indonesian endangered endemic animals, because half of the animals that lived in Indonesia are mostly endemic to certain place, or province. For instance,
Javan rhino, is endemic to Ujung Kulon, and can only be found there.
2.8 Theories of Fauna of Indonesia
Indonesia cover two regions of fauna distribution in the world (zoogeography), which are Oriental area, distributed in sunda besar region, Sumatra, Kalimantan,
Java, and Bali. And Australia area that are distributed in Papua and Aru Island.
Indonesia got many benefits due to the animals migration across the two area, but the lines or borders are not exactly right. There are also islands that are located right in the middle of the two areas which are Sulawesi, Maluku, and Nusa Tenggara. The most interesting part of Indonesian animals are its highly endemic animals that can be found. In general, fauna distribution in Indonesia were categorized into three different geographical conditions. There are
1. West Indonesian Fauna
This area concludes several islands, Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, with several
small islands near them. Animals that lived in this area were called the oriental
animals type. Like, elephant, bull, tiger, javan rhino, wild boar, eagle and
muntjac.
2. Center Indonesian fauna
This area concludes Sulawesi, Islands of Maluku, and Nusa Tenggara. This
area were home to many Indonesian endemic animals. For instance, anoa, 23
javan deer, wild boar, sunda slow loris, komodo dragon, maleo bird, and
cenderawasih.
3. East Indonesian Fauna
This area concludes Papua with several islands near it. Animals that lived in
this area were called the australian animals type. Like, tree kangaroo, turtles,
cassowaries, and pygmy parrots (Samadi,2006).
2.9 Theories of Endangered species in Indonesia
According to WWF, Sumatra has tropical climate and diverse eco-regions, this circumstance created habitats that house thousands of unique species and the world’s last remaining Sumatran tigers, orangutans, pygm elephants, and Sumatran rhinos. In this place is the only place on Earth where tigers, rhino, orangutans, and elephants are living together. Due to unsustainable agriculture such as deforestation, and illegal logging, not to forget illegal wildlife trade are the main problems of animals extinction. As for Indonesia provinces of Papua and West Irian Jaya the island cover just 1 percent of the world’s land area but home to at least 5 percent of its animal and plant species, and 2/3 of which are found only in these island. New Guinea’s forest face growing threats from logging, mining, wildlife trade and agricultural plantations, especially oil palm. These are the list of animals that are featured in this project, the animals are chosen based from their endemicity and their endangered status according to IUCN red list:
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Sumatran Tiger, Panthera tigris ssp. sumatrae (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: Habitat loss due to expansion of oil palm plantations and planting of
Acacia plantations. Illegal trade, primarily for domestic market. Prey-base depletion.
Figure 2.11 Sumatran Tiger. Retrieved from
http://www.zoo.org.au/melbourne/animals/sumatran-tiger
Sunda Clouded Leopard, Neofelis diardi (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan, Sumatera
Major threats: Habitat loss due to commercial logging and conversion to oil palm plantations and the increasing threat from poaching.
Figure 2.12 Sunda Clouded Leopard. Retrieved from
http://www.thefascinatingworldofforestry.com/exploring-biodiversity-the-sunda-
clouded-leopard/ 25
Javan Leopard, Panthera pardus ssp. melas (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Gunung Halimun, Ujung Kulon, East Java
Major threats: Human population growth and loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion.
Figure 2.13 Javan Leopard. Retrieved from http://www.hdw- inc.com/lgleopardjavan.htm
Borneo Bay Cat, Catopuma badia (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan
Major threats: Habitat loss due to commercial logging and oil palm plantations are the major threat.
Figure 2.14 Borneo Bay Cat. Retrieved from http://wildcatsmagazine.nl/wild- cats/borneo-bay-cat-pardofelis-badia/ 26
Sumatran Orangutan, Pongo abelii (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: This species is threatened by logging both legal and illegal, habitat loss due to expansion of agricultural land and oil palm plantation. This animals are also illegally hunted and captured for the international pet trade, and also some of them are captured to do a commercial prostitution. Due to last year deforestation, they have lost over 80% of their habitat.
Figure 2.15 Sumatran Orangutan. Retrieved from
http://www.worldwildlife.org/photos/sumatran-orangutan--4
Bornean Orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan
Major threats: Their major threats are habitat loses due to illegal logging, expansion of agricultural land. And also deforestation not included natural causes such as The
El Nino climatic events. This animals are also illegally hunted and captured for international pet trade.. 27
Figure 2.16 Kalimantan Orangutan. Retrieved from
http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/bornean-orangutan
Dwarf Gibbon, Hylobates klossii (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: Their home is threatened by deforestation, conversion to oil palm plantations, and expansion of agricultural land. Yet recently, their major threat is being hunted by hunter due to logging roads and tracks. The hunters used bows, arrows and caliber air rifles to hunt them.
Figure 2.17 Dwarf Gibbon. Retrieved from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/2e14/4632171978
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Silvery Javan Gibbon, Hylobates moloch (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Java
Major threats: This species is still threatened by Java deforestation in colonial times still maintains an overriding presence on the landscape, and make them to live in forest across Java around mountain and volcano.
Figure 2.18 Silvery Javan Gibbon. Retrieved
http://perthzoo.wa.gov.au/conservation/javan-gibbon/
Hose’s Langur, Presbytis hosei (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan
Major threats: This species is relatively tolerant towards forest disturbance, yet their major threat is being hunted for the timber industry and traditional medicines.
Figure 2.19 Hose’s Langur. Retrieved from
http://www.pbase.com/cokesmith/image/121237998 29
White-fronted Langur, Presbytis frontata (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan
Major threats: This species is threatened mostly by illegal hunting for their meat and traditional medicine, as well as habitat loss due to oil palm plantation and expansion of agricultural.
Figure 2.20 White-fronted Langur. Retrieved from
http://www.samveasna.org/tours/temples-birds:-one-day-tours.html
Muller’s Bornean Gibbon, Hylobates muelleri (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan
Major threats: Deforestation and trade in illegal pets are the predominant threats, and in interior areas hunting is also a threat. Much habitat is being lost due to expanding oil palm plantations and logging. 30
Figure 2.21 Muller’s Bornean Gibbon. Retrieved from
http://www.safeproject.net/animal-sightings/bornean-gibbon-hylobates-muelleri/
Long-nosed Monkey, Nasalis larvatus (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan
Major threats: Because this species is lived in riverine and coastal habitat, their major threats are habitat destruction for logging, cultivation, and settlement.
Figure 2.22 Long-nosed Monkey. Retrieved from
https://www.thinglink.com/scene/636928126345019393
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Gorontalo Macaque, Macaca nigra (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi, Maluku
Major threats: This species is threatened by extensive habitat loss due to illegal logging and expansion of agricultural. They are also hunted for their bush meat and live animal trade. And also extensive illegal gold mining, who used mercury in their habitat. Shifting cultivation by local people is an increasing threat.
Figure 2.23 Gorontalo Macaque. Retrieved from
http://mashable.com/2014/08/09/monkey-wikimedia-copyright/#3ugyjOSH5EqS
Mountain Anoa, Bubalus quarlesi (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi.
Major threats: The two major threats to this species are hunting, for food, and habitat degradation due to agriculture, mining (gold mining). 32
Figure 2.24 Mountain Anoa. Retrieved from
http://www.zoochat.com/135/mountain-anoa-109381/
Lowland Anoa, Bubalus depressicornis (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi.
Major threats: The two major threats to this species are hunting, for food, and habitat degradation due to agriculture, mining (gold mining). Nowadays, their far the most serious threat is hunting. They are hunted for international animals live trade.
Figure 2.25 Lowland Anoa. Retrieved from
http://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/27596
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Javan Deer, Rusa timorensis (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Bali, Jawa, and Kalimantan.
Major threats: This species is threatened by the introduction of Acacia nilotica tree in
Baluran National Park that changed an open grassland into dense thorny forest. Since that, people repeated cutting of the acacia has led to very dense forest that contains small amount of grass or other herbs make the deer difficult to penetrate.
Figure 2.26 Javan Deer. Retrieved from
http://www.flickriver.com/photos/tags/javanrusa/interesting/
Kanchil, Tragulus javanicus (Data Deficient)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Java
Major threats: This species is threatened because of numbers in trade are surprisingly high given the small numbers to be seen in the field nowadays. 34
Figure 2.27 Kanchil. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_mouse- deer
Bawean Deer, Axis kuhlii (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Java
Major threats: This species has been subject to illegal hunting since 500 years ago.
Todays, every year 1 to 5 deer died due to human influence. Such as, traffic accidents, and being chased by local dogs during pig hunts.
Figure 2.28 Bawean Deer . Retrieved from http://thezt2roundtable.com/topic/9631755/1/
Sumatran Striped Rabbit, Axis Nesolagus netscheri (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatera
Major threats: The main threat to this species is the clearing of mountain forest for agriculture, most of them are coffee, tea and cocoa plantations. 35
Figure 2.29 Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Retrieved from
http://www.chickensmoothie.com/Forum/viewtopic.php?f=65&t=1785013
Hairy-nosed Otter, Lutra sumatrana (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatera
Major threats: This species is threatened because of illegal wildlife trade. They also live in terrestrial ecology, and its dependence on ecosystems that are often changed or converted into agricultural land.
Figure 2.30 Hairy-nosed Otter. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairy-nosed_otter 36
Smoky Flying Squirrel, Pteromyscus pulverulentus (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatera, Kalimantan
Major threats: This species is affected by habitat degradation because of low elevational range.
Figure 2.31 Smoky Flying Squirrel. Retrieved from
http://stevetaboneblog.com/2013/08/06/flying-squirrels-and-a-red-fox-in-the-same-
evening/
Sunda Otter Civet, Cynogale bennettii (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatera, Kalimantan
Major threats: This species is threatened because of habitat destruction by human activities. Such as, logging of forests and chemical pollution from activities like god mining. 37
Figure 2.32 Sunda Otter Civet. Retrieved from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8854000/8854529.stm
Horsfield’s Tarsier, Tarsius bancanus (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia
Major threats: The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging both legal and illegal, oil palm plantations that keep spreading, and deforestation. The species is also collected for illegal wildlife trade and also contamination from pesticides.
Figure 2.33 Horsfield’s Tarsier. Retrieved from
http://franslanting.photoshelter.com/image/I0000AZRy6A.fzEk
Pygmy Tarsier, Tarsius pumilus (Data Deficient)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi 38
Major threats: The main threat to this species is destruction of its habitat, destruction of mountain forests due to densely populated Sulawesi. And also collected for illegal wildlife trade.
Figure 2.34 Pygmy Tarsier. Retrieved from
http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/30/pictures-5-ridiculously-tiny-
creatures/
Sunda Slow Loris, Nycticebus coucang (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatera
Major threats: The species major threat is illegal wildlife trade, people often collected them for pets and sold throughout Southeast Asia. Their teeth are often pulled, resulting an infection or death. 39
Figure 2.35 Sunda Slow Loris. Retrieved from http://photoity.com/playful-
pictures-of-sunda-slow-loris-by-hendy-mp/
Dingiso, Dendrolagus mbaiso (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Papua
Major threats: This species is threatened by hunting for food in parts of its range. In the western parts of Papua this species is protected by tradition, but in the eastern parts they are threatened due to increasing human population and loss of habitat.
Figure 2.36 Dingiso. Retrieved from http://www.arkive.org/dingiso/dendrolagus-
mbaiso/ 40
Golden-mantled Tree Kangaroo, Dendrolagus pulcherrimus (Critically
Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Papua
Major threats: The species is highly threatened by hunting for food by local people, and additionally by habitat loss through conversion of forest to cultivated land. The lowland areas are earmarked for deforestation and oil palm expansion.
Figure 2.37 Golden-mantled Tree Kangaroo. Retrieved from
https://id.pinterest.com/pin/387450374168620611/
Matschie's Tree-kangaroo, Dendrolagus matschiei (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Papua
Major threats: This species is threatened by overhunting for by the local people, and habitat loss due to conversion of forest to subsistence agriculture, especially coffee plantation. 41
Figure 2.38 Matschie's Tree-kangaroo. Retrieved from
https://id.pinterest.com/pin/387450374168620825/
Sumatran Elephant, Elephas maximus ssp. sumatranus (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: It is threatened because of human settlement and agricultural areas.
Many of them were killed or have been removed from the wild related to people settlement and they were also illegally killed by people for their ivory.
Figure 2.39 Sumatran Elephant. Retrieved from
http://news.mongabay.com/2012/01/sumatran-elephant-population-plunges-wwf-
calls-for-moratorium-on-deforestation/ 42
Sumatran Rhino, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: The two major threats that this species faced are poaching and reduced population viability. They are poached for their horns and other body parts for medicinal purposes. Due to their small numbers, breeding activity is infrequent. This species is also to be very sensitive to habitat disturbance.
Figure 2.40 Sumatran Rhino. Retrieved from
http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/sumatran-rhino
Javan Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sondaicus (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Ujung Kulon, Banten.
Major threats: Same as Sumatran Rhino, this species is threatened because they were hunted by poacher, and took their horn and other body part for Chinese and allied medicine systems. 43
Figure 2.41 Javan Rhino. Retrieved from http://rhinos.org/species/javan-rhino/
Hairy Babirusa, Babyrousa babyrussa (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi
Major threats: This species is threatened due to large-scale commercial logging and cultivation, hunted for meat in some places.
Figure 2.42 Hairy Babirusa. Retrieved from http://www.arkive.org/hairy-
babirusa/babyrousa-babyrussa/
Helmeted Hornbill, Rhinoplax vigil (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia
Major threats: This species is threatened due to hunters and illegally traded. The species has a solid horn which is highly prized. China is the biggest consumer of the horn as for medication and carved them for decorations. 44
Figure 2.43 Helmeted Hornbill. Retrieved from
http://www.speciesonthebrink.org/species/helmeted-hornbill/
Knobbed Hornbill, Rhytieros cassidix (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi
Major threats: This species is threatened with habitat destruction because they have specialized breeding requirements (depending on large trees). That is why it makes them particularly vulnerable. Both hunting and gold mining also took part to make this hornbill in threatened.
Figure 2.44 Helmeted Hornbill. Retrieved from
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Knobbed_hornbill
Sulawesi Hornbill, Rhabdotorrhinus exarhatus (Vulnerable)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi
Major threats: This species is threatened with habitat destruction because they have specialized breeding requirements (depending on large trees). That is why it makes 45 them particularly vulnerable. Both hunting and gold mining also took part to make this hornbill in threatened.
Figure 2.45 Sulawesi Hornbill. Retrieved from http://leesbird.com/tag/hornbill/
White-winged Duck, Asarcornis scutulata (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: Its decline is largely attributable to the destruction, degradation and disturbance of riverine habitats including loss of riparian forest corridors.
Figure 2.46 White-winged Duck. Retrieved from
http://orientalbirdimages.org/search.php?Bird_ID=146&Bird_Image_ID=8309&p
=43
46
Rueck’s Blue-flycatcher, Cyornis ruckii (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: This species is threatened due to habitat loss legal and illegal.
Figure 2.47 Rueck’s Blue-flycatcher. Retrieved from
http://www.pixark.com/asia/rueck-s-blue-flycatcher-cyornis-ruckii.html =43
Sumatran Ground-cuckoo, Carpococcyx viridis (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sumatra
Major threats: Deforestation has been extensive on Sumatra and this is probably the main threat.
Figure 2.48 Sumatran Ground-cuckoo. Retrieved from
http://orientalbirdimages.org/birdimages.php?action=birdspecies&Bird_ID=457
47
Javan Lapwing, Vanellus macropterus (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Java
Major threats: Its decline has been attributed to 'merciless' hunting and trapping.
However, it seems far more likely that high levels of human disturbance and conversion of its habitat to aquaculture and agricultural land were the principal agents.
Figure 2.49 Javan Lapwing. Retrieved from http://www.taenos.com/en/itis/lapwings/Vanellus/
Javan Hawk-eagle, Nisaetus bartelsi (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Java
Major threats: This species is threatened due to habitat loss and trade. Loss of habitat are caused by conversion to agriculture, development and uncontrolled fire. This species is also openly for sale in Javan bird markets.
Figure 2.50 Javan Hawk-eagle. Retrieved from https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2013/08/17/206505369/javan-hawk-eagle- population-rises-in-bromo 48
Milky Stork, Mycteria cinerea (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia
Major threats: This species lived in mangroves tidal forests, yet these forest are threatened by agricultural conversion, large-scale fish farms, logging and other disturbance. They also difficult to hunt their food and hunt for illegal wildlife trade.
Figure 2.51 Milky Stork. Retrieved from http://lazy-lizard- tales.blogspot.co.id/2012/07/the-serangoon-stork.html
Rufous-fronted Laughingthrush, Garrulax rufifrons (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Java
Major threats: This species is heavily exploited as a cage-bird, which has rendered it uncommon in most of its range. Its forest habitats remain moderately secure due to the remote and rugged nature of the terrain, although some loss and degradation is likely to have occurred in lower areas.
Figure 2.52 Rufous-fronted Laughingthrush. Retrieved from http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/rufous-fronted-laughingthrush-garrulax- rufifrons/adult-bird 49
Bali Starling, Leucopsar rothschildi (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Bali
Major threats: This species is threatened because it attributable to unsustainable, illegal trapping in response to worldwide demand for the cage-bird trade. However, the whole population is now confined within a national park and has been the subject of a specific conservation program, but the place suffered from mismanagement and corruption. This species were sold at bird black-market. These particular problem occur due to habitat loss.
Figure 2.53 Bali Starling. Retrieved from
https://worldbirdwatching.wordpress.com/worldbirds/bali/bali-mynah/
Yellow-crested Cockatoo, Cacatua sulphurea (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Timor-Leste
Major threats: This species is threatened because of exploitation both internal and international trade. Illegal trapping continues in many areas including national parks.
Habitat loss, conversion of forest to agriculture and the use of pesticides are further potential threats. 50
Figure 2.54 Yellow-crested Cockatoo. Retrieved from
https://www.australiazoo.com.au/our-animals/birds/native-parrots/sulphur-
crested-cockatoo
Flores Crow, Corvus florensis (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Nusa Tenggara
Major threats: The primary threat for this species is further habitat loss and fragmentation, driven principally by small-scale agricultural encroachment.
Figure 2.55 Flores Crow. Retrieved from
http://orientalbirdimages.org/birdimages.php?action=birdspecies&Bird_ID=2345
&Bird_Image_ID=65551
51
Bornean Peacok-pheasant, Polyplectron schleiermacheri (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Kalimantan
Major threats: This species is threatened due to habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as the result of large-scale commercial logging.
Figure 2.56 Bornean Peacok-pheasant. Retrieved from http://www.treehugger.com/endangered-species/giraffes-zebras-tk-animals-you- didnt-know-are-going-extinct.html
Lompobatang Flycatcher, Ficedula bonthaina (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi
Major threats: Most of the species have disappeared due to transmigration settlements, commercial logging and both shifting and plantation agriculture. And the forest continues to be harmed by human activities.
Figure 2.57 Lompobatang Flycatcher. Retrieved from http://zootherabirding.blogspot.co.id/2014/10/sulawesi-halmahera-highlights.html 52
White-tipped Monarch, Monarcha everetti (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Flores
Major threats: The main problem is probably deforestation, because the island was used to full of trees. Now all the forest seen had been extensively logged.
Figure 2.58 White-tipped Monarch. Retrieved from http://leesbird.com/monarchidae/
Banggai Crow, Corvus unicolor (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi
Major threats: Habitat destruction remains the greatest threat for this rediscovered species. In the past it may have been severely impacted by extensive deforestation.
Figure 2.59 Banggai Crow. Retrieved from http://orientalbirdimages.org/photographers.php?p=20&action=birderimages&Bir d_Image_ID=38544&Birder_ID=214 53
Maleo, Macrocephalon maleo (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi and Buton Island.
Major threats: This species is threatened due to disturbance and forest destruction.
Human disturbance of nesting grounds cannot give the species a room to harvest their eggs that caused the abandonment of many nesting colonies. Forest destruction is also harmful for this species, since there is a strong relationship between the forest and the nesting grounds.
Figure 2.60 Maleo . Retrieved from
http://blogs.uajy.ac.id/gladyswelmabatlayeri49/2015/09/08/maleo-bird-save-or-left/
Elegant Sunbird, Aethopyga duyvenbodei (Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi.
Major threats: This species is only located in Sanghe island in sulawesi. Their major threats are most of the forest in sanghe island has been almost completely cleared and agricultural intensifaction is reducing the available are of even these modified habitats. 54
Figure 2.61 Elegant Sunbird. Retrieved from
http://www.vulkaner.no/n/asia/elegant.html
Red-and-blue Lory, Eos histrio (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Northern Sulawesi.
Major threats: This species is threatened due to on-going illegal wildlife trade.
According to Birldlife International (2001), 1,000 to 2,000 birds were being taken from their habitat for illegal wildlife trade.
Figure 2.62 Red-and-blue Lory. Retrieved from
http://www.zoochat.com/1718/red-blue-lory-eos-histrio-254905/
Cerulean Paradise-flycatcher, Eutrichomyias rowleyi (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Sulawesi, Sangihe Island 55
Major threats: This species is threatened due to habitat loss. Most of Sangihe island has been deforested and converted to agriculture. However, the main causes for habitation loss is actually planting. It is taking at higher elevations, such as nutmeg, coconut, teak and mahogany are planted in the island.
Figure 2.63 Cerulean Paradise-flycatcher. Retrieved from
http://www.gossamerie.com/blogs/embroidery/18259607-my-chinese-paradise-
flycatcher
Blue-fronted Lorikeet, Charmosyna toxopei (Critically Endangered)
Countries occurrence: Indonesia, Maluku
Major threats: Most of the forest in the coastal lowland of Buru has been deforested, and northern part of the island is selectively logged or degraded by shifting agriculture. Only several indigenous tree species left, this species is likely to live in those trees.
Figure 2.64 Blue-fronted Lorikeet. Retrieved from
http://www.utopiabirds.com.au/bluefr.ht