Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 22(1), 113Å131 (2019).

POWER, POLITICS AND PERSONALITIES IN AUSTRALIAN ASTRONOMY: WILLIAM ERNEST COOKE AND THE TRIANGULATION OF THE PACIFIC BY WIRELESS TIME SIGNALS

Ian Tasker University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia. [email protected]

Abstract: In 1916 the New South Wales Government Astronomer, Professor Ernest Cooke, proposed the triangulation of the Pacific by wireless time signals, in order to improve mapping. The world was at war, and this scientific advancement was urgently required. The State Government gave Cooke authority to proceed, but later rescinded this decision. It also prevented Cooke from attending the first International Astronomical Union (IAU) General Assembly in Rome in 1919. Although Cooke became Chairman of the Longitude Committee of the Australian National Research Council in 1922, attended the Pan-Pacific Science Association Congress in 1923, MRLQHG WKH ,$8¶V Commission 18 (Longitude by Wireless) in 1925, and continued to promote triangulation of the Pacific by wireless, the Sydney Observatory Board of Visitors, bureaucrats and politicians all continued to block him. This paper examines the interplay between Federal and State politics in international astronomy, using &RRNH¶V triangulation of the Pacific project as a case study.

Keywords: Sydney Observatory, W.E. Cooke, Board of Visitors, triangulation of the Pacific, wireless time signals, State-Federal politics

1 INTRODUCTION presented the same scientific proposal that he

Power, politics and personalities often are in- had put forward in 1916, although on this occas- tricately intertwined in science, allowing some ion he gained the public support of visiting inter- scientists continuing success and others contin- national peers and favourable media attention. ual disappointments. Even excellent projects pro- Cooke was the President of the Astronomy Sec- moted in the public good and proposed at au- tion and Chairman of the Longitude Committee spicious times²e.g. during wartime²can fail to for the Australian National Research Council, gain official approval and funding if certain de- leading up to and organising the Pan-Pacific termining factors intervene. This paper is about Science Association Congress program. This such a case, Professor William Ernest &RRNH¶V public exposure still proved ineffective in gaining desire to get Sydney Observatory involved in a Government support for triangulating the Pacific, although it did cultivate the soil for future efforts. strategic military project, the triangulation of the Pacific by wireless time signals during World War 7KLUGO\&RRNH¶VLQIOXHQFHLQWKHIAU Gener- I (henceforth WWI). al Assembly Commission 18: Longitude by Wire-

A number of episodes occurred in Australia less, up until his forced retirement in 1926, is ex- astronomy at the apex of colonial science in the amined. A few months after Cooke¶s departure, midst of WWI and its aftermath that are central international wireless time signals connected to our current understanding of the relationship Australia with the rest of the world. However, that an Observatory Director, such as Cooke, &RRNH¶V1926 demise, requires a more compre- had with his superiors. The episode being scru- hensive treatment, which is beyond the scope of this paper. tinised here LVWKHµLQVXIILFLHQWDXWKRULW\¶RI&RRNH in internationally managed science that, under the Fourthly, the manner in which Cooke hand- Australian Constitution, should have been a Fed- ed over the international time signal project to his eral matter. replacement, the former distinguished amateur

Firstly, it is noted that Cooke appointed Syd- astronomer and Director General of Technical QH\ 2EVHUYDWRU\¶V %RDUG RI 9LVLWRUV WR VXSSRUW Education, James Nangle, and William Ray- his efforts to triangulate the Pacific by wireless mond, the Chief Transit Observer at Sydney Ob- time signals. Cooke had hoped to solicit their servatory, is detailed. combined influence and support to encourage Finally, it is noted that when authority and the NSW Government to allow this scientific ven- funding decisions are placed in the hands of pol- ture to proceed. The Board, however, had its own itically motivated individuals rather than scien- agenda and was of no assistance in furthering tists, the latter are sometimes unable to pursue astronomical interests with this technologically their science uninhibited. innovative professional. Before examining the aforementioned topics Secondly, to contrast the original war-time in detail we provide background information on effort, the effects of the 1923 Pan-Pacific Science Sydney Observatory and a biographical sketch Association Congress are considered. Cooke of W.E. Cooke. Australian localities mentioned in

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific this paper are shown in Figure 1. iston, 1988a) and Sir William Denison (1804Å 1871), the new Governor of New South Wales. 1.1 A Brief History of Sydney Observatory, The inaugural Director was the Reverend Will- 1858Å iam Scott (1825Å Orchiston, 1998b), a British academic who was not a professionally Sydney Observatory, along with several other col- trained astronomer. It was not until the new onial observatories, was established in the mid- Merz 7.25-in (18.4-cm) refractor was mounted in nineteenth century, as part of the imperial science 1861 that observational astronomy actually com- agenda of the British Government (Haynes et menced (e.g. see Orchiston, 1998b; 2017: 144Å al., 1996: 6Å95). In its early years, the primary 156). Scott took a broad approach to astrono- purpose of Sydney Observatory was to provide my, instigating astronomical and non-astronom- a time service for both the shipping and busi- ical programs. In the astronomical sphere, he ness communities. It also offered meteorologi- made cometary and transit observations, and in cal and trigonometric functions to the inhabitants 1861 recorded a partial solar eclipse and a tran- of the colony of New South Wales (henceforth sit of Mercury. In other fields, he was respon- NSW) and conducted astronomical research VLEOHIRUUHJXODWLQJ6\GQH\¶VWLPHVHUYLFHPDN- (Wood, 1958). ing meteorological measurements and recording In order to understand the relationship be- sea water temperatures. Scott was also involved tween Cooke and Sydney Observatory, it is use- in the telegraphic determination of the Observa- ful to gain a sense of the history of the Ob- WRU\¶VORQJLWXGHDQHDUO\DQWHFHGHQWWR&RRNH¶V servatory and the impact of its various directors proposal to triangulate the Pacific.

DQG WKHLU UHVHDUFK SURJUDPV SULRU WR &RRNH¶V 6FRWW¶VVXFFHVVRUwas fellow-Britain George time, to appreciate the context in which he op- Robarts Smalley (1822Å ZKRZDV'LUHFWRU erated. from 1863 to 1870. 'XULQJ6PDOOH\¶VWLPHDVt- Sydney Observatory (Figure 2) opened in ronomy deteriorated, as his interests were large- 1858, mainly as a result of several years of re- ly non-astronomical. He focused on meteoro- lentless lobbying by New South Wales¶ sole logical, magnetic and tidal measurements, al- astronomer of that time with any international though he occasionally observed comets (Or- visibility, Phillip Parker King (Å; Orch- chiston, 1988b; Russell, 1871; Wood, 1958).

Figure 1: Australian localities mentioned in the text (map: Ian Tasker).

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific

It was not until Henry Chamberlain Russell Russell was also a member of the Senate of (1836Å%KDWKDO became Director in his alma mater at Sydney University for over 1870 that Sydney Observatory came into its own three decades (Wood, 1958). He was a founder as an astronomical institution (Orchiston, 1988b; of the RR\DO 6RFLHW\ RI 1HZ 6RXWK :DOHV¶ Wood, 1958). 5XVVHOO¶V LPSDFW RQ $XVWUDOLDQ Section A (Orchiston and Bhathal, 1991) and of astronomy was felt during the last three decades the Australasian Association for the Advance- of the nineteenth century, up to his retirement in ment of Science (MacLeod, 1988), but during the 1905. Even though he continued the non-astro- last decade of the nineteenth century became nomical work of his predecessors, it was with estranged from most of those in the large pow- the introduction of new instruments, such as a erful Sydney-based amateur astronomical com- 6-in (15.2-cm) transit telescope, an 11.5-in munity (e.g. see Orchiston, 2017: 393±448; Teb- (29.2-cm) refractor and a 13-in (33-cm) astro- butt, 1891). graph (Russell, 1892a), that astronomical re- The analysis of $XVWUDOLD¶VHDUOLHVWDVWURnom- search flourished. Russell also initiated an im- ical groups and societies illustrate some of the portant double star project; conducted cometary crucial elements in the development of an emerg- work (e.g. see Russell, 1881) and meridian ob- ing discipline (Orchiston, 1998a). Building upon servations; led a solar eclipse party to northern this work, several new elements are introduced Australia (Lomb, 2016); and organised groups to and discussed in this paper, including the signifi- observe the various transits of Mercury and of cance and influence of external stakeholders and Venus (e.g. see Lomb, 2011; Russell, 1892b). their role in Australian astronomy. At Red Hill, away from city lights, he set up a field station of the Observatory for the Sydney At the beginning of the twentieth century, the section of the International Astrographic Project newly formed Commonwealth Government of Au- (Wood, 1858). Significantly, Russell indepen- stralia assumed responsibility for meteorology, dently invented the horseshoe telescope mount- but not astronomy. As a result, Sydney Obser- ing (Orchiston, 2000), a design that would later vatory and the other Australian State observa- benefit international astronomy. tories lost one of their most public utilities, fore- casting the weather (Home and Livingston, 1994).

Figure 2: Sydney Observatory in 1874. By the time Cooke began as Government Astronomer of New South Wales the left hand dome housed an 11.5-in (29.2-cm) Schroeder refractor. The section of the building to the right of the time-ball tower was the *RYHUQPHQW$VWURQRPHU¶VUHVLGHQFH KWWSVHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL6\GQH\B2EVHUYDWRU\PHGLD)LOH2EVHUYDWRU\6\GQH\MSJ 

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific

In the ILQDOSHULRGEHIRUH&RRNH¶VWHUP1903 official time service on his arrival in Perth. to 1912, Sydney Observatory had two Direc- Using a chronometer and a borrowed theodo- tors, Henry Lenehan and William Raymond. lite, he determined accurate solar time daily, They continued established programs, including clear skies permitting, and a time signal was tel- solar eclipse expeditions (see Orchiston, 1988b; egraphed to the General Post Office at noon

Wood, 1958). each day (Hutchison, 1980).

,WZDV&RRNH¶Vappointment in 1912 as the Around 1901, the International Astrographic next Government Astronomer that was to put Congress asked Perth Observatory to collabor- Sydney Observatory back on the international ate on the international star cataloguing and stage, in a deliberate move by the Public Ser- charting project, the International Photo-Durch- vice Board (Investigation «, 1909) to place New musterung or Cape Photographic Durchmuster- South Wales ahead of other Australian State ung (CPD). 3HUWK2EVHUYDWRU\¶V allocation was observatories. 32° Å 40° south latitudes, and A Catalogue of 420 Standard Stars was subsequently publish- 1.2 W.E. Cooke: A Biographical Sketch ed (Cooke, 1907). Cooke produced a critique of the international program, referring to lack of William Ernest Cooke (1863Å )LJXUH  coordination, refinements that he had made in Hutchison, 1980; 1981), more commonly known observation methods and suggesting procedures as W. Ernest Cooke or simply Ernest Cooke, to be used at other sites around the world. As a was born in Adelaide (South Australia) on result, he received wide acclaim from his inter- 25 July 1863. He excelled at The Collegiate national peers. The Astronomer Royal of Scot- School of St Peter and in 1878 commenced a land, Frank Watson Dyson (1868Å1939), wrote Civil Service cadetship at Adelaide Observatory to the Government Astronomer in Adelaide² under Sir Charles Todd (1826Å ; he was where Cooke had undertaken his cadetship with Sir Charles Todd²advising that they were

«WRfollow the head of the Perth Observa- tory impliciWO\ « >DQG@ FRS\ WKHLU PHWKRGV

their catalogues are excellent, and they seem to be able to maintain maximum effic- iency with the minimum of energy. (cited in Hutchison, 1981: 67).

Here is seen an example of where the student had become the teacher.

During his time in Western Australia Cooke was the founding Chairman of the Civil Service Association (in 1902), and he also served as the Government Meteorologist until 1908 (Hutchison, 1980).

Cooke later attended the International Astro- graphic Conference in Paris in 1909, now aged

Figure 3: W.E. Cooke (after Hutch- 46, and he presented his ideas before the Con- ison. 1981: 58). gress (see Cooke, 1911). Cooke joined their ranks as one of the 18 members of the Per- only 15 years old. In 1883 and 1889 Cooke re- manent Committee of the Congress. Six vol- ceived BA and MA degrees from the University umes of meridian observations were published of Adelaide. He then became the founding by 1913 as part of the Astrographic Catalogue Director of Perth Observatory in Western Aus- (henceforth AC) (Utting, 1989; White, 1988). tralia, on 7RGG¶s recommendation (Utting, 1989), These were based on photographs taken and and toured continental cities to study obser- measured at Perth Observatory under Cooke¶V vatory design and to purchase instruments. He direction, and contained the positions of about arrived back in Perth in 1896, just 33 years old, 9,000 reference stars between declinations Å31° promoting meteorological, geodesy and wireless and Å41°. innovations. Cooke was then enticed by the NSW Gov-

Cooke produced the first daily weather maps ernment to accept a dual role as NSW Gov- and daily forecasts for Perth, the µ:HVWHUQGold ernment Astronomer and Professor of Astron- Fields¶ and the State. By around 1900 a gen- omy at Sydney University, and was promised eral weather report, a special rainfall report, an another investigative world tour, a dark sky site isobar map and a forecast were produced each for the Observatory and the latest astronomical equipment (Cooke, 1913). morning and posted for viewing in Perth and its port, Fremantle. He also established the first &RRNH¶VVXFFHVVDW3HUWK2EVHUYDWRU\Sart-

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific ly stemmed from the childhood influence in Ade- play, for matters did not play out as Cooke had laide of his father Ebenezer Cooke (1832Å; anticipated. Hawker, 2006), who was the perfect role model. &RRNH¶s peers, Australian university aca- Cooke Senior was possibly the most influential demics, were distinguishing themselves abroad South Australian public servant of his time, in his in their wartime service, while Australia made position as the Commissioner of Audit. Cooke only limited contributions to the fields of science Senior advised the Government on a wide range and technology during that period. There are of matters, in addition to book-keeping and aud- many examples of their contributions (e.g. see iting procedures. He played a valuable role in Endacott, 2014; Hartcup, 1988). Professor Sir revealing financial swindles connected with the William Bragg focussed on problems of submar- system of tenders for Government contracts. ine detection. His son, also a Professor and Cooke Senior also served as Chairman of sev- Knight, led a team that designed a method of eral interdepartmental committees and support- sound-ranging enemy artillery batteries. Profes- ed the formation of the Public Service Associ- sor Sir Richard Threlfall was engaged in re- ation in 1884, serving as its inaugural President search on tracer ammunition and phosphorus in and as a member of its governing Council for smoke screens. Professor Sir Edgeworth David five years (ibid.). While Ernest Cooke shared led the mining corps. Professors Hubert Whit- PDQ\RIKLVIDWKHU¶Vattributes, these would not field and Norman Wilsmore worked with British be enough to bring him the success he antici- munitions producers. Honorary Lieutenant-Col- pated when he chose to accept the Sydney onel Sir Samuel Barraclough led the Australian appointment in 1912²as the events portrayed Munitions Workers in England and France. Pro- in this paper will reveal. fessor Major James Pollock, a physicist, creat- &22.(¶6 ed a geotelephone for underground listening. 2 FAILED ATTEMPT IN 1916 TO TRIANGULATE THE PACIFIC BY &RRNH¶V µOLPLWHG DXWKRULW\¶ to carry out a WIRELESS TIME SIGNALS triangulation of the Pacific proved futile, even

The problematic relationship that Professor though the results would have contributed to the Cooke had with his superiors provides critical war effort. Throughout the 1916 negotiations, insights into the man and those who governed &RRNH¶V SURSRVDO remained unactioned, as the him. Their assistance, once given, was condi- NSW Government rescinded the authority to pro- ional and could be withdrawn. In the end, ceed that it had initially granted him. What fol- &RRNH¶s superiors were prepared to sacrifice him lows is an account of the minutia of the re- for political expediency. This paper focusses on quests for authorisation that Cooke was forced the µinsufficient authority¶ of a State Observatory to make from numerous parties, and whether Director in internationally managed science, in this authority was ever granted or not. this case the triangulation of the Pacific by wire- In a casual conversation, the Chairman of less time signals. Cooke had much to contrib- the NSW Public Service Board, John Taylor, sug- ute to the international war effort but was ham- gested to Cooke that he might be able to make pered by the political impediments placed in his good use of Henry Spendlove Hawkins. Haw- path. kins (1824   was the former Head of the Å Triangulation is a process of measuring the Fieldwork of the Trigonometrical Survey of NSW, time difference between several stations that are with unique qualifications (Cooke, 1916q: 397; looking at the same star as it passes overhead, Government Gazette, 1880: 5; Hawkins, 1876; with the first station recording its passage and 1881; Orchiston, 1987; 2017: 154). The NSW transmitting this to the second station, which Surveyor General, Frederick Poate (1855Å then confirms when the star crosses their zen- Figure 4), proposed, partly in the interests of ith. Probable errors are reduced, and the ac- economy, to discontinue the geodetic survey for curacy in determining the location of each ob- a couple of years or so as the fieldwork com- servatory improves, as more stations are conn- ponent of the survey had run considerably ahead ected around the globe. of computations (Cooke, 1916b: 280). This freed up Hawkins, who could now work on other Gov- When Cooke was the NSW Government ernment projects. Astronomer, he requested that the Sydney Ob- servatory Board of Visitors be reformed, and he &RRNH IROORZHG XS RQ 7D\ORU¶V OHDG ZKHQ nominated its members. He aimed to gain their he wrote to Poate on the 8 June 1916 and then considerable combined influence and political to the Under Secretary for Education on the 15 astuteness, to encourage the Government to let June (ibid.; Cooke, 1916e: 288). Poate was a him proceed with experiments and fulfil the Gov- Fellow of both the Royal Society (from 1881) HUQPHQW¶V initial promises that secured his em- and the Royal Astronomical Society (from 1912). ployment in 1912. The Board¶s minutes and of- Poate was at that time a PSB Actuary, Director ficial correspondence, as primary sources, pro- of Trigonometric Surveys and Metropolitan Dis- vide a fascinating insight into their charged inter- trict Surveyor with the NSW Department of Lands,

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific

Cooke then wrote to the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America. Marconi was in charge of the radio station at Honolulu. Ha- waii and Fiji were to be the intermediates be- tween America and Australia with New Zealand (henceforth NZ). Cooke began proceedings be- foUH 3RDWH¶V UHWLUHPHQW Zith the provision that he had

« to secure the assistance of several gentlemen, and may encounter a fatal obstacle since a three-month time limit had been assigned to commence this project. (Cooke, 1916d: 292).

Likewise, Cooke contacted Professor Will- iam Wallace Campbell (1862Å38; Figure 5),

Figure 4: Frederick Poate in 1916, Director of Lick Observatory in California. He recorded by an unknown photo- noted that, as grapher (courtesy: State Library of New South Wales, FL1864557). « before completing any arrangements as I shall have to secure assistance in vari- ous quarters, I may experience a check, but as well as a Lecturer in Geodesy and Astronomy- at present, the way seems, so far, open. at the University of Sydney (Atchison, 1988). At (Cooke, 1916c: 294). the same time, Cooke, also a FRAS, was the Foundation Professor of Astronomy at the Uni- For this particular section, &RRNH¶V RIILFLDO versity of Sydney. correspondence is cited so that the reader may hear his voice, to gain a feel for the man and his &RRNH¶V DSSHDO for funding considered the plight. fact that, in May 1912, Poate had attended a Cooke, after a conversation with Layton, an conference with the Commonwealth Directors of Associate of the Sydney Town Clerk, then ask- Lands and Survey and the Survey Generals of ed the Town Clerk to obtain permission to ex- the Australian states, and taken an active part at tend their wireless aerial and fasten the ends of that meeting. This conference decided that the two of them to two Moreton Bay Fig trees just compilation of the map of the world would prob- outside the southern fence of the Observatory ably be done in NSW (Kass, 2008: 275). (Cooke, 1916f: 306). Nearly four months earli- 3RDWH¶VUHSO\(see Simple Practical Astrono- er, Cooke (1916a: 131) had informed the Town my, 1940: 19) informed Cooke that the Minister Clerk that for Lands, (William Ashford) was sympathetic to « our wireless house has not been used the proposition to triangulate the Pacific and since the commencement of the war, owing 1 would support it to the extent of £750 per an- to instructions received from the Defence num, provided the Observatory could raise a fur- Department to disconnect our instruments. ther £400 per annum. Poate was about to retire Despite this instruction, Cooke (1916ae: 15) had and wished that the work would commence with- previously informed the Under Secretary for Ed- in his last three months of work, adding that it ucation, when he submitted the Sydney Obser- would be a ³«crowning jewel to his career.´ vatory¶s report for 1915, that:

Owing to the war no further developments in connection with wireless time signalling were possible on account of military regu- lations, but a fair amount of experimental work has been carried out.

At the beginning of July, Cooke (1916j: 309) asked the Under Secretary for Education for authority, along with a letter of introduction from the Premier of NSW, to visit Lieutenant William Rooke Creswell (1852Å Ln Melbourne, the naval head of all wireless operations in Austra- lian waters, to obtain his consent and coopera- tion.

Cooke then began engaging with NZ and Fijian authorities. He wrote to John Strauchon Figure 5: W.W. Campbell (after Mac- (1848Å , NZ Surveyor General, and Tim- pherson, 1905: facing 240). othy Buckley, Chief Electrician of the NZ Post and

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific

Telegraph Department, along with Cecil Charles Fisk Monckton (b. 1867), Superintendent of Tel- egraphs for Fiji. He echoed that

« provided I can put this scheme into op- eration within the next three months or so « [but] I have yet to obtain the consent of sev- eral people ... so there is not at present any certainty of the proposition being carried out. (Cooke, 1916i: 321).

Finally, he announced that

The N.S.W. Government has now authoris- Figure 6: Dr C.E. Adams, New ed me to proceed «>DQG@It happens to be =HDODQG¶V ILUVW *RYHUQPHQW essential for me to start very soon, if at all, Astronomer (Orchiston Collec- as my opportunity will slip and may not eas- tion). ily recur. (Cooke, 1916g: 32Å323). Cooke also extended his invitations to part- He added: icipate in the project to other Government Astron- I¶m afraid the matter is very urgent. That is omers: Dr Charles Edward Adams (1870±1945; to say; I shall lose the opportunity unless I Figure 6) in New Zealand, Dr Joseph Mason can get started within a month or two at the Baldwin (1878Å) in Victoria, and George outside. (Cooke, 1916h: 325). Frederick Dodwell (1879Å; Figure 7) in So authorised to undertake this international South Australia, reiterating that: collaboration, Cooke still had to ask the Under Owing to readjustments in the Lands dept., I Secretary to kindly issue him a first-class return have been offered the services of a small railwa\ pasV from Sydney to Melbourne, and two well-equipped field party for an indefinite per- sleeping berths, to attend to matters relating iod, provided I can take it up almost immed- to thH proposeG longitudH determinatioQ worN iately. (Cooke, 1916k: 348).

(Cooke, 1916j: 326). Cooke may or may not In early July, Frank Basil Cooke (1892Å have made his way to Victoria, but what is evi- 1967), 3URIHVVRU&RRNH¶VVRQwho had been at dent is that Governmental structures were quite Sydney Observatory for nearly three years, fin- centralised at the time. ally received notification of his appointment as After Cooke met with Lieutenant Creswell, Junior Assistant. Nevertheless, an appropriate who was visiting Sydney, he wrote to the Naval increase of salary was not forthcoming. The file Secretary in Melbourne, apprising him of the dealing with this matter is missing.

Premier¶s instructions, leading to the following Cooke Junior was 23 at the time and re- appeal: ceived £60 per annum (Cooke, 1916j: 327). As

I have been instructed by the Premier of a professional astronomer, Cooke Junior, with N.S.W. to undertake a determination of the his advanced skill set, was poorly compensated. difference of longitude between Sydney and In Victoria, in 1910, the average yearly factory an America Observatory (probably Lick) by worker¶s wage for a male was £157 16s 8d and means of wireless time signals across the a female £70 17s 5d. In 1920, on average a Pacific. For this purpose, I shall require your man was earning £204 15s 9d per annum and a consent, and I hope also to enlist your sym- woman £99 1s 6d (State Library Victoria, 2017). pathy and co-operation. (Cooke, 1916l: 344).

Separately, Cooke also asked the Naval Sec- retary to give his consent to the carrying out of

experiments with his two sons¶invention that, if successful, would be offered to the British Mil-

itary authorities. He gave no further details on what the invention entailed, as was proper dur-

ing wartime, other than that the designs had been been submitted to the Chief Electrical Engineer

of the NSW Railway Department, who had ap- proved trials. As part of this work, it would be

necessary to erect a couple of small aerials to perform a few simple wireless experiments

(Cooke, 1916l: 346). Cooke secured the Naval Figure 7: Adelaide Obser- 6HFUHWDU\¶VFRQVHQWWRSHUIRUPWKHVDLGH[SHUL- vatory Director G.F. Dodwell ments, and the Town Clerk¶s permission to at- in about 1926 (https://de. wikipedia. org/wiki/George_ tach wires to the fig trees was thus forthcoming F_Dodwell#/media/File:G_F_ (Cooke, 1916n: 366). Dodwell_1926.png).

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific

By mid-July, Cooke wrote to the Under Sec- to reconsider the matter of carrying out the retary for Public Instruction.2 The Under Sec- scheme. The receipt of the cable from the retary, who Cooke never names, reported to the Marconi Co. this morning practically assures Minister of Education, who at the time was Ar- the success of the undertaking, and if it were dropped, except for some new and over- thur Hill Griffith Å . Cooke (1916m: whelming objection, I could never have the 358) stated: assurance to request outside assistance for I wish to appoint the assistant at once. I any future undertaking. It would make the propose that the salary be £200 with a £50 Observatory and myself a laughing stock and allowance. That will leave £150 of the £400 cause deep humiliation (after what I have al- authorised by the Premier for the necessary ready told you I think you will understand travelling and incidental expenses. Will you that it would be about the last straw).

kindly authorise the appointment to be plac- The situation, about which Cooke had al- ed in the hands of the Public Service Board ready told the Under Secretary for Education, immediately was a singular exception in Cooke¶s manner, at Cooke (1916q: 398) informed John M. Tay- least on record, dated 31 July 1916, in which he lor, Chairman of the PSB and inaugural Pres- was uncharacteristically personal: ident of the Wireless Institute, when My present position is considerably worse, « deprecating any further delay in conn- financially than the one I resigned. In ad- ection with the proposed wireless longitude dition,KDYHOLYHGDGRJ¶VOLIH All interests and latitude work « >WKDW@ my son, who I have been taken away. My tremendous en- suppose will be the assistant from the Ob- thusiasm for my work has been slowly servatory side. Cooke Junior has been most strangled, and I have aged 20 years in the enthusiastically developing the technical last 4. My wife has become a chronic in- part of the work. valid, and my daughter is just drifting about without any chance of domestic pleasures or Incidentally, this would have meant an increase the usual accomplishments that a young lady in salary for Cooke¶s son from £60 per annum to expects. She has, in fact, become a house- £200, which was more than a threefold increase, hold drudge. These are cold facts, not in plus a £50 expense account.3 the least exaggerated. (Cooke, 1916o: 377Å 378). Cooke Junior was the only viable contender in Australia for the AVVLVWDQW¶V UROH, as there For four solid years which ought to have were no other applicants. However, the PSB been the best four of my life, I have been wearing out my brains and nerves ± not in responded by sidestepping Cooke Junior¶s ap- the work for which I was appointed ± but in pointment. Instead, they perpetuated the unre- chasing official papers from pillar to post, solved Constitutional debate regarding the Fed- begging and imploring those who had the eral Government¶V responsibility to manage in- say to fulfil the promises under which I was ternational research efforts such as astronomy. appointed [sic] induced to leave my former This was despite the fact that there was no cen- life. And now after all this wear and tear, I tral astronomical agency in place at the time have brought the undertaking to the present and this particular collaboration was trigonomet- point. The plans are at last prepared. They rical. It has always been a State obligation to have been approved from dot to finish by various officials at various times. Authority establish its borders even if this required linking to go ahead has been given by the Minister them to an international trigonometrical effort, as of Education, the Premier, and the Minister evidenced in The States of a Nation: The Poli- of Works; and the Premier has provided tics and Surveys of the Australian State Borders £3,500 for a start (up to June 30th 1916). (Taylor, 2006). Any hitch now will be fatal as far as I am concerned. This is absolutely my last effort. Furthermore, Cooke reinforced the fact that I am utterly down-hearted and cannot make the original concept of triangulating the Pacific a fresh commencement. Nothing in the world stemmed from a conversation he and Taylor had. can compensate me for the last four years, The point was also made that but at least I expect some recognition of the promises that lured me here and even be- « the question of referring it to the Com- lated ratification of them. monwealth Government has already [been] raised and disposed of before authority My personal honor [sic] and that of the was granted. (Cooke, 1916r: 407). State is at stake. A quarter of a century ago Sydney undertook a share in the great Inter- Cooke (1916q: 399) reported that ³«the news- national Photo-Durchmusterung; and so far, paper reporters have got on to the project, and it owing mainly to the want of a suitable site has been made known practically throughout the and instruments, the work has been already world.´ done, at a total cost of many thousand pounds and a whole generation of workers, has been Cooke (ibid.) closed the correspondence: wasted. (Cooke, 1916q: 378).

My strong contention is that it is now too late During my research I found no evidence of either

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific a reply or a reaction WR&RRNH¶VHPRWLRQDO RXW- tions to the carry out this work, and he in- pouring, and it appears to have been ignored. formed the Board that it would involve only a temporary appointment of a Junior member Cooke was not above asking for advice from of the staff in this connection. (Sydney Ob- his international peers, such as those at the Na- servatory Board of Visitors, 1916: 3). val Observatory in Washington, who had conn- As noted earlier, the PSB objected because ected Washington with Paris with wireless time they saw this as a Commonwealth matter, even signals (see Renan, 1916; Rines, 1916; Home though it had always been a State obligation to and Watanabe, 1990): establish its borders. However, the original pro- I should, in any case, be grateful for any in- ject sponsor, Fredrick Poate, had now retired, formation or hints you may be able to give and John Broughton (1857Å had replaced as a result of your experience in the work. him, not only as Surveyor General but also as a (Cooke, 1916p: 383). member of the Sydney Observatory Board.

Notwithstanding the technical inexperience In stark contrast to Poate¶s industriousness, of Lick Observatory¶V Professor W.W. Campbell, Broughton invested some of his wife¶s money in Cooke hoped he would join him in triangulating shares in the Royal Sydney Golf Club and NSW the Pacific, using the same technology used in Tennis Ltd., clubs of which he was a member connecting Paris and Washington: (Kass, 2008: 281). Broughton held vastly diff- Whether you eventually co-operate or not I erent interests from those of his predecessor, should greatly value your candid (brutal if and Cooke thought of him as a µdilettante¶. you like) criticism of my proposed methods. (Cooke, 1916s: 446).

On 16 August 1916, the day the Sydney Observatory Board of Visitors was to have its first meeting, Cooke wrote to the Premier urging him to consider reinstating his previous decision supporting the trigonometric survey. The PSB¶V principal objection was that they thought the scientific effort was a Commonwealth respons- ibility (Cooke, 1916r: 407). This position, how- ever, did not take into account that it was up to each State to determine its borders, and the Commonwealth had no resources to undertake the work as only Cooke Junior and Hawkins possessed the skills to do this work²as prev- iously mentioned.

Cooke (1916r: 410) listed eight reasons for continuing the trigonometric project:

I contend Sir that it is altogether too late to withdraw. I did not move a finger in the matter until it was officially requested of me by one minister and sanctioned by the Figure 8: Frank Leverrier in 1900 (courtesy: Premier. Surely this constitutes sufficient University of Sydney Archives, G3/224/ 2039). authority? If not ± then there is no finality at all. Nothing further can ever be undertak- The 2EVHUYDWRU\¶s Board never recommend- en for I shall always have the feeling that after ed or supported the triangulation of the Pacific, having deeply committed myself the author- even though sitting as their Chairman was the ity will be withdrawn. That would constitute lawyer Francis Hewitt (Frank) Leverrier (1863Å utter demoralisation and prevent any further 1940; Figure 8), who also was the President of initiative. the Wireless Institute of NSW and therefore In the light of the evidence provided earlier, would have been aware of the proposal. The Cooke¶s statement that he ³«did not move a fin- Board subsequently held several meetings at ger «´ is somewhat questionable. Cooke had the University of Sydney, deliberately excluding asked for authority in July and then immediate- Cooke. Eventually, it was decided to refer the ly contacted NZ and Fijian authorities. matter to the Astronomer Royal (Sydney Obser- vatory Board of Visitors, 1916: 1, 3Å4, 6, 8). At the Board¶s first meeting When Cooke (1916s: 444) wrote to Profes- The Government Astronomer outlined the steps he had taken concerning a determin- sor Campbell at Lick Observatory in September ation of the longitude of Sydney by means of of that year, he not only bemoaned his Gov- wireless communication. He regretted that ernment but also forthrightly named his adver- the Public Service Board had raised object- sary, John Broughton:

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... but I am afraid that I have lost the oppor- A couple of days later, on 22 September tunity ± not in any way through your inability 1916, Cooke wrote again to the Premier via the to meet me with an immediate response ± Under Secretary for Education. The Secretary but owing to the usual departmental delays of the PSB had informed Cooke that the matter which seem to cripple all RQH¶V efforts. I of wireless longitude signals between Sydney have always understood, though without be- ing definitely informed, that the necessity for and America was back on the Premier¶V GHVN. haste was largely due to the resignation of Cooke included with his letter a dispatch just our late Surveyor General, Mr Poate. It was received from the Director of Lick Observatory. he who offered me the field party, and who It showed much sympathy for this proposed urged an immediate commencement. Both work, and such a willingness to assist as even Premier and Minister for Lands were very to the installation of a wireless, equipment and sympathetic and authorised the necessary the training of a member of the Sydney Obser- expenditure, and I pushed my head as hard vatory staff. Cooke (1916u: 461) thought that the as I could against the old stone wall, but it Government ought to be ashamed to back out would not budge in time. Now I am finding given that matters had progressed so far. quite unexpected obstacles, and fear that these indicate a difference of opinion on the On 6 October Cooke wrote confidentially to part of the new Surveyor General. Just the Under Secretary for Education, for transmis- at present I do not know how the matter sion to the Premier. This was &RRNH¶V final ap- stands, but believe the Premier still wishes the work to proceed. peal for 1916, and he explained that the Comm- onwealth Department (which he does not name) Throughout &RRNH¶s correspondence about was keeping quiet on war-time progress in wire- the scheme, he consistently reiterated that it less research that Cooke felt ought to be encou- had to be up DQGUXQQLQJEHIRUH3RDWH¶VUHWLUH- raged as reflecting credit upon the State of New ment. Cooke never expected to gain Brough- South Wales. He concluded that the key people WRQ¶VVXSSRUW Dr Harley Wood, a later Director were Hawkins and his son Basil: of Sydney Observatory, tells a different story, that appears to diverge from the evidence. ,Q0HVVUV¶6DZNLQV[sic] and Cooke we have two ideal people to carry out the scheme Financial aid had already been committed by successfully, Mr Sawkins [sic] with his ex- the Minister for Lands to the extent of £750 per perience of astronomical field work, and Mr annum. The Premier, who at the time was the Cooke with his knowledge of and enthusi- Acting Head of the Education Department, had asm for all sorts of wireless research. The approved a further £400 per annum (Cooke, expense will not be great, and the undertak- 1916e: 289; 1916q: 397). Wood (1958: 21) states ing will reflect credit upon the State. Please WKDW ³For want of financial support, Cooke was authorise me to go straight ahead. (Cooke, 1916v: 480). compelled to drop an extensive plan to deter- mine longitudes in the Pacific in 1916´ It is plausible that Wood may have conclud-

Cooke, however, did not miss a stride as he ed that the triangulation of the Pacific did not go corresponded with George Dodwell, the Govern- ahead due to the financial consideration alluded ment Astronomer of South Australia on 20 Sep- to above, but funds had by then been allocated. tember regarding the difference in longitude be- However, the project became convoluted when tween Sydney and Adelaide: authority was sought to appoint Cooke Junior.

Thanks for the clock errors. I have taken On 17 October Cooke wrote to Dr Adams, your signals on several evenings and work- the Government Astronomer in NZ, and subtly ed out the diff. of long. between Sydney and disposed of Broughton, writing him out of the Adelaide. It is of course a very rough test proposal and replacing him quietly with Freder- because we have taken your clock errors as ick Slade Drake-Brockman Å , the Sur- the errors of the signals at emission, have veyor General of Western Australia, whereby had no determination of personal equation, have determined our own clock error by a From present appearances I am afraid it complete novice using a new impersonal looks as if the Government at the last mo- micrometer, and have discovered that the ment has decided not to go ahead with this head of the moving wire was loose. work, but nothing is yet settled. If we do

Moreover, we did not get good sets of carry it out, I am hoping to act in conjunction stars at both ends. Notwithstanding all these with a small committee formed of the Gov- drawbacks the results do not come out bad- ernment Astronomers of N.Z., Victoria, S. ly. (Cooke, 1916t: 455). Australia and the Surveyor General of W. Australia. Will let you know as soon as some- Cooke found that the mean difference be- thing definite is settled. (Cooke, 1916w: tween Sydney and Adelaide was 50 minutes, 29 493). seconds and 19 tenths of a second. Thus, Cooke wrote as a postscript to his letter that he In the same post, Cooke (1916x: 494) wrote to Adelaide Observatory Director G.F. Dodwell: would like to arrange for a more rigorous deter- mination of the difference. Just at present we have no wireless station

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as the Commonwealth people who have be- Cooke also wrote to the Under Secretary for come rather interested in the whole matter Education on the same day that he received a are making certain alterations with a view to communication from $GHODLGH¶s G.F. Dodwell greater aerial efficiency. who was engaged in geodetic work in connec- The on 14 November Cooke (1916y: 541) tion with the Military Topographical Survey. Dod- queried if Dodwell had tried the Audion receiver: well was using a wireless method for the deter-

These are made by an American inventor, mination of longitudes. At the time Dodwell and who is not yet bringing them forward in a Cooke Junior were the only two people in Au- large commercial sense because the De stralia who knew much about this new astronom- Forrest company threatens an action for in- ical development, and Cooke¶s (1916ab) opinion fringement of the patent. It is therefore diffi- was that it was an opportune time to meet for a cult to procure them, but they are coming in- dicussion. to order in small driblets, and I think it would be possible to procure one or two of the Cooke informed Dodwell on the 14 Decem- bulbs, at 25/- each. ber 1916 that he was waiting for the authority to

7RZDUGVWKHHQGRI&RRNH¶VHIIRUWWRJHWthis send Cooke Junior across to Adelaide Observa- project off the ground, on 29 November 1916 he tory. Meanwhile, Cooke sent a copy of a paper submitted a paper to the President of the Royal that he and his son had presented to the local Society of New South Wales, Thomas Harry Royal Society a few nights earlier, and re- Houghton Å . He also forwarded a commended that Dodwell try their new method slightly revised version to the Astronomer Royal of determining coincidences (Cooke, 1916ac: Sir Frank Watson Dyson (1868Å: Figure 9), 593). whom he first met in Sydney in 1914 during the meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science (see Orchiston, 2017: 49Å499):

Herewith I am sending you a paper on some suggested improvements in accurate time signalling, having in view longitude work in particular. The main principle seems so re- markably simple that one feels it must have been tried, but we have seen no reference to it: and it appears to be remarkably effect- ive. We do not like to enthuse in a paper such as this, but we are tremendously in love with the audion we possess, and with the little we have experienced with arc work. (Cooke, 1916z: 572).

The papers were published by both Soc- ieties (Cooke, 1916af; Cooke and Cooke, 1917), even though the triangulation of the Pacific pro- ject appeared to be a dismal failure as a result of a lack of political support at the State level. Figure 9: An undated photograph of Sir Frank Dyson (https://upload.wikimedia.org/ Then on 6 December 1916 Cooke submitted wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Frank_Watson_Dys a paper to Sir Frank Dyson on a proposed meth- on.jpg). od of differential star corrections, and this also was published in Monthly Notices of the Roy- On 22 December Cooke (1916ad: 599) wrote al Astronomical Society (Cooke, 1917b). These to the Under Secretary for Education regarding publications are evidence that work was proceed- the official visit by Cooke Junior to Adelaide, ing at Sydney Observatory on several fronts sim- asking him to kindly issue the necessary return ultaneously²despite the aborted triangulation railway pass for the journey on 24 December. project²and Cooke knew that his international However, there is no evidence that Cooke Jun- peers engaged in this effort would appreciate his ior ever made the trip. suggestions, as they had in the past: On 20 March 1917, Cooke reluctantly wrote There are, or will be, a number of observers to the Under Secretary for Education recomm- working in zones of 2° in connection with the ending the acceptance of his VRQ¶s resignation. meridian scheme of the 1909 Astrographic Cooke (1917b: 24) suggested that Conference, and they will, I feel sure, find this proposed method a considerable simplific- I think the attention of the Public Service ation. I think it will also be suitable for those Board ought to be directed to this or any who are taking the intermediates, and in fact typical case which indicates a fault of some for all except fundamental observers. (Cooke, kind in the present organisation. Meanwhile 1916aa: 582). will you kindly indicate your acceptance of

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Mr &RRNH¶s resignation at once, as he wish- the second Pan-Pacific Science Association es to start fresh University course and the (henceforth PSA) Congress in 1923 in regards to term has already commenced. Section VIb: Pacific Radiotelegraphy and Longi- The matter concluded on 2 May 1917 when tude by Wireless. In these roles, he was posi- Cooke wrote to the Under Secretary for Educa- tioned to exert his influence and set the pro- tion that items under Observatory contingencies gramme. such as the µ/RQJLWXGe Operations¶ would be The second PSA Congress was held in eliminated (Cooke, 1917c: 765). After all this, the Melbourne (13±22 August) and in Sydney (23 PSB finally replied: August±3 September). The Congress aimed to The Board are unable to understand why advance scientific understanding across the Pa- wire-less apparatus has been erected at the cific region, including the development of institu- Observatory. So far as can be seen it has tions and organisations to encourage and sup- no connection with the ordinary functions of port scientific research. The Congress was a an Observatory. (Gilfillan, 1917). multidisciplinary gathering, and the attendance of Cooke entered the field of astronomy when many international, as well as prominent Austra- great Australian professional astronomers like lian scientists, generated real interest in the de- Henry Chamberlain Russell (Bhathal, 1991), Rob- velopment and importance of Australian science ert Lewis John Ellery Å *DVFRLJQH (see Conway and Philp, 2008). 1992) and Sir Charles Todd (Edwards, 1993) reigned supreme. He served his apprenticeship The PSA was the first Asia-Pacific regional under Todd in Adelaide, before accepting the inter-disciplinary science association, and was Directorship of Perth Observatory. However, by dedicated to the furthering of science in the mid-WWI Cooke could no longer work amiably Pacific. The PSA has been an influential organ- alongside the likes of the retiring NSW Surveyor isation in the region throughout its eight-decade history (Ward and Lewis, 2009). General, Frederick Poate, but instead had to contend with his replacement, the µsocialite¶ John This regional focus was in contrast to the Broughton. However, a more severe roadblock earlier wartime focus. WW1 had been a crucial to realising the triangulation of the Pacific by event in this earlier period for many and obvious wireless time signals was most likely the propos- reasons, and it both reinforced nationalism and sed appointment of Cooke¶VVRQ%DVLO as Haw- at the same time signalled the need for more in- kin¶s Assistant in 1916. A threefold increase in ternationalism, not only in political but also in Cooke Junior¶s salary, supplemented with an economic and intellectual terms. Technological expense account, was possibly too lavish for the changes and scientific discoveries were accel- PSB to authorise, and an alternative approach erating towards what would now be called glo- was employed that distracted the politicians with balisation (ibid.). State versus Federal responsibilities. Yet despite these setbacks, Cooke and his son still man- The 1923 Congress, however, was a deter- aged to publish several research papers that mining moment for the PSA. In contrast to the year. It is also significant that the Chairman of Australian meeting of the British Association for the Sydney Observatory Board of Visitors, Frank the Advancement of Science (BAAS), held in Leverrier, was also the President of the Wire- 1914, this first post-war congress signalled the less Institute of New South Wales, yet he and emergence of a new scientific nationalism in Au- the Board UHIXVHG WR VXSSRUW &RRNH¶V WULDQJX- stralia. A new scientific relationship was devel- lation proposal. Had they done so, this would oped between Australia and its great and pow- have led to a convergence of astronomy, geo- erful friend across the Pacific, the United States of America (MacLeod and Rehbock, 2000). desy and wireless, with astronomy taking the leading role in supporting the war effort. The PSA Congress was also pivotal in re- cognition of science as an instrument of Austral- 3 THE SECOND PAN-PACIFIC SCIENCE ian regional, national and international policy CONGRESS (MacLeod and Rehbock, 2000). It assisted in Cooke was not granted permission to attend the the creation of committees for Pacific investiga- inaugural IAU General Assembly in Rome, so tion, linked through the International Research he had to wait until colleagues from abroad visit- Council (henceforth IRC). The IRC was estab- ed Australia to once again apply pressure on the lished in Brussels in 1919 by wartime neutral NSW Government and further his quest to link and allied nations, led by America, Britain and the Pacific by wireless time signals. However, France, to replace Germany¶s pre-war hegemony this strategy also was ineffectual, although it did in the organisation of international science. Each set the stage for later efforts by others. member country was required to create a nation- al academy or research council aVDQµDGKHULQJ Cooke was President of the Astronomy Sec- ERG\¶WRWKH,RC (ibid.). tion of the Australian National Research Coun- cil, and he chaired the committee that organised The role of host fell to the Australian National

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Research Council (henceforth ANRC)DµTXDVL- and Rehbock, 2000; Tasker, 2012).

DFDGHP\¶ RI VFLHQWLVWV IURP DOO VL[ $XVWUDOLDQ Even beyond its importance to the Pacific, States, which was founded in 1920 as Austra- the Congress of 1923 is of particular importance lia¶s adhering body to the IRC. The ANRC to Australia. Quite apart from bringing many became the principal medium through which the colleagues to Australian shores, the Congress country¶s small scientific community presented was a massive triumph for the protagonists of itself to the public. In 1922, however, the ANRC Federal science. The Congress gave the ANRC was just one year old. Its functions, as spelled its first public platform and its first significant out in its charter, were both broad and specific: opportunity to speak to Government with an to represent Australia in international science; to assembled voice. It also showed the Australian promote scientific research through its 18 public that Australian science held a respected discipline panels; and to serve as Australia¶s de place in the world. In 1914, in welcoming the facto National Academy of Science. It aimed to BAAS, Australia was a loyal member of the Em- bring research problems to the attention of the pire. By 1923, Australians, although not turning universities and the Commonwealth Institute of away from Britain, began to look toward Amer- Science and Industry, which later would become ica, and even inwardly, into the heart of their the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Re- vast continent, which was still such a mystery. search Organisation (CSIRO) (ibid.). As such, the Congress stressed the urgency of Dominating the list of topics at the PSA Federal assistance to scientific enquiries that Congress were questions of geology, notably Australian scientists had been advocating since Alfred Wegener's hypothesis of continental drift, the 1870s (MacLeod, 1988; cf. MacLeod and Reh- which the Dutch proposed to test by taking mea- bock, 2000). surements at 5-year intervals. Wegener wanted The Geodesy and Geophysics Section at to determine whether Pacific islands were mov- the 1923 Congress urged the Commonwealth, ing about the surrounding seafloor (ibid). This ³«no longer a colony «take up her fair share proposal foreshadowed the development of tech- «´ of the world¶s work in terrestrial magnetism nology that would become Global Positioning and geophysics, IURP³«both economic and de- Systems (GPS) later in the twentieth century. fence points of view.´ (Rivett, 1923: 636). The

International speakers at the PSA received same Section called for the establishment of a favourable publicity. Extensive daily newspaper Geodetic Survey of Australia and a Common- and radio coverage brought the Congress to a wealth Solar Observatory, both of which even- broader audience than science had enjoyed in tually came into being (re the latter, see Love, Australia since the 1914 BAAS Congress (ibid.). 1985).

Questions of political economies, such as From its highly individual beginnings in Hon- the establishment of international standards for olulu in 1920 to its more common manifestation radio, the future of aviation, and the prospect of in Melbourne and Sydney in 1923, the Pan- tropical settlement, were featured prominently by Pacific movement in science gathered momen- leading Sydney writers (ibid; see also Practical tum and achieved recognition. For those who science, 1923). saught to cultivate a Pacific sense among na- tions, like geologists, Gregory from America and Sir George Knibbs (1858Å1929), amateur Andrews from NSW, the Australian Congress of astronomer and Director of the Commonwealth 1923 was a forerunner of things to come. It Institute of Science and Industry, believed that gave evidence of a more precise Pacific dimen- the Congress was more than a meeting of scien- sion emerging in American science. It displayed tists: it was ³« an event of great national and and encouraged European science in the reg- international importance.´ (Australia science, ion. It heralded a strategic, federal vision for 1923; cf. MacLeod and Rehbock, 2000: 219). science in Australia. Above all, it ³«was dest- One of the striking elements of the Con- ined to rank as a remarkable achievement in gress was the sizable American presence at the the international cooperation of science.´ (Elkin, Congress. As one of its instigators, Gregory, 1967: 25). had correctly foretold, a relatively small invest- For the next 80 years, successive PSA Con- ment produced substantial diplomatic returns. gresses would strive to achieve a similar com- The Congress lent a new dimension to American- bination of commitment to both national goals Pacific relations, at a significant moment in in- and internationalist ideals. The theme of unity ternational scientific affairs. By sending a strong and the dedication to the Pacific sense would be delegation, larger even than that of Britain, played out time and again, in the interests of America signalled an increasing interest in the peace and prosperity and the service of science region. Notwithstanding its many attachments and humanity (MacLeod and Rehbock, 2000). to Europe, American science was here-after to enjoy higher visibility and prominence in the Of particular interest at the 1923 Congres Pacific, on both sides of the equator (MacLeod was the section relating to Pacific Radiotele-

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific graphy and Longitude by Wireless, hosted in northern hemisphere. A separate series is Sydney. 7KH SDUWLFLSDQWV UHDG OLNH D µ:KR¶s necessary for astronomers and geodesists in Who¶ in this field, and their topics provide a countries bordering the Pacific. They should snapshot of the technology and issues of the be sent from Honolulu since the astronomers who would be in that series would be inter- time: ested only in the fractional part of a second. x ³Australian wireless longitude determina- There would be no necessity for any zero tions´ (G.F. Dodwell, B.A., FRAS, Australia) points. A long dash at the commencement x ³Application and development of wireless in and end would be a luxury, but not a neces- Australia´ (E.T. Fisk, Australia) sity Å a fact which wireless experimenters may understand and appreciate. The dots x ³Organisation of wireless time signals in the should be started at an assigned moment Pacific and adjoining countries´ (Professor of Greenwich Mean Time and be continued W.E. Cooke, M.A., FRAS, Australia²see without a break for about five minutes. Green- Cooke, 1924) wich, 1 a.m., would be the best, and that x ³Observations of static in the Pacific´ (Rev. would be approximate! 11 a.m. in Sydney and M. Selga S.J., Philippines) Melbourne. (Wireless time signals, 1923; cf. Editor, 1923: 9). x ³Aerial sciences and their possibilities in the Pacific´ (Captain G.A. Taylor, Australia). Cooke¶s proposal above reflects his 1916 x The social and commercial possibilities of plan to triangulate the Pacific by wireless time wireless communications in the Pacific´ signals (and was further consolidated when he (E.T. Fisk, Australia) joined IAU Commission 18 (Longitude by Wire- x ³Determination of longitude by wireless at less) in 1925).

Batavia´ (Dr C. Braak, Dutch East Indies) International astronomers present at the x ³Encouragement of invention and its bear- 1923 PSA Congress included Bernard Benfield ing upon the peace of the world´ (Captain (Astronomical Society of the Pacific), Alfred G.A. Taylor, Australia) Moore (Director, Smithsonian Solar Observatory) x ³A few suggestions for discussion in con- and Dr Wait (Carnegie Institute, and Watheroo nection with radio telegraphy´ (Father E. Magnetic Observatory²in Western Australia), all Gherzi SJ, Hong Kong) from the USA. Astronomers from Japan included x ³Theory of electricity as syntonic vibration´ Dr Shizo Shinjo (1873Å1938, Professor of Ast- (Commander F.G. Cresswell, Australia) ronomy at the Imperial University Kyoto), while x ³Reception of Bordeaux and Honolulu wire- from the Netherlands was Dr C. Braak (Director, less time signals´ (Dr C.E. Adams, New of the Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Ob- Zealand) servatory, Dutch East Indies). x ³The time service in the Philippine Islands´ The PSA Congress proposed that accurate (Rev. M. Selga SJ, Philippines) determination of latitude and longitude should The Sydney Morning Herald ran an article be carried out every five years to ascertain what on the influential radio pioneer and business- horizontal movement might be involved in such man Ernest Fisk (1886Å1965), who was Man- areas of instability throughout the Pacific by their aging Director of Amalgamated Wireless Austral- Geology section. Unfortunately, WegenHU¶Vpro- asia (AWA). This company was formed in 1913 posal proved to be way ahead of the technology by an amalgamation of Marconi's Wireless Tele- of the day, and he would not live to see his graph Co. Ltd and the Australian Wireless Com- Plate Tectonics Theory proved. pany. On 28 August 1923 Fisk was quoted as saying: ³Australia was one of the few countries 4 THE SECOND IAU GENERAL ASSEMBLY that had solved the problem of government con- trol and development of the science «´, al- Professor Sir Thomas Lyle FRS (1860Å1944) re- though this was said somewhat µtongue in cheek¶. presented Australia at the second IAU General &RRNH¶V attempts to conduct wireless experi- Assembly at Cambridge, England in July 1925, ments during 1916, which required permission only because he was in England at that time from different levels of Government, clearly indi- (Australian National Research Council, 1925: 8). cate that Australia had not solved this problem. Lyle was a retired Professor of Natural Philo- sophy (Physics) at the University of Melbourne Cooke also received some favourable free University from 1889 to 1914, Chairman of the press for his proposal: ANRC, a member of the Gravity Survey and Wireless Time Signals, W.E. Cooke M.A. Solar Physics Committees, and on the Board of

In the radio telegraphy section, attention Visitors of Melbourne Observatory. No Austra- was given to the proposal of Professor W.E. lian State Government astronomers had the op- Cooke that there should be an organisation portunity to attend this second General Assem- of wireless time signals in the Pacific and bly, not even those who had missed the first adjoining countries. There are already wire- General Assembly. less time signals, but they are mainly in the

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By 1925, two Australian astronomers had transferred, that he, Cooke, had been instructed joined IAU Commissions (International Research to retire, but one Assistant would remain to carry Council, 1925: 28, 34, 129, 192, 273). Dr Wal- on the time service. Cooke (1926a) reported ter Geoffrey Duffield FRAS (1879 Å1929), who that the NSW Government had taken this action joined C12 (Solar Physics), had also taken up a in the interests of economy. However, in the new post as the inaugural Director of the Com- end not all was lost, and Sydney Observatory monwealth Solar Observatory at Mt Stromlo, near would remain operational as a research facility Canberra (Love, 1985), while Cooke joined C18 until 1983 (State Records Archives Investigator, (Longitude by Wireless), where he was once 1999). more able to promote the triangulation of the Pacific by wireless signals. 6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Meanwhile, Dodwell (Bulletin Géodésique, This paper addresses the dynamic of insuffic- 1923) had by now become a member of the ient authority and resources that the NSW Gov- ,QWHUQDWLRQDO *HRGHV\ DQG *HRSK\VLFV 8QLRQ¶V ernment Astronomer Professor W.E. Cooke had Longitude Committee, and he was applying the to contend with in his attempt to pursue the tri- wireless longitude method to confirm State bord- angulation of the Pacific using wireless time sig- ers²wiWK &RRNH¶V WHFKQLFDO DVVLVWDQFH (Dod- nals and establish Sydney Observatory as the well, 1921; International Research Council, the Australian prime meridian. The triangulation 1922: 280, 287; Taylor, 2006). of the Atlantic had already been completed be- tween France and America, and triangulation of 5 COOKE HANDS OVER THE the Pacific would close the chain, improve glo- INTERNATIONAL TIME SIGNAL bal accuracy, and assist military logistics.

PROJECT When Cooke first proposed this project in

Before his forced retirement, Cooke wrote to the 1916 WWI was raging, and refined maps of the Chair of the National Committee for Astronomy Pacific region were urgently needed. This pro- on 19 May 1926, regarding the proposal by Yale ject therefore should have taken precedence Observatory for the co-operation of the Australia over of all other astronomical endeavours at Observatories in the investigation of variations Sydney Observatory. Cooke therefore urged the of latitude. Cooke had hoped that Melbourne NSW Government to take the lead in this impor- 2EVHUYDWRU\¶V'U-0Baldwin would be able to tant international scientific endeavour, but his undertake this collaboration. Although Cooke relationship with his superiors proved that no V\PSDWKLVHG ZLWK 'U 'XIILHOG¶V YLHZV WKDW WKLV amount of coercion was going to sway the bu- reaucracy and gain support for his project. kind of work was more suitable for a State ob- servatory than the Federal one, he felt that it In 1916 Cooke strategically appointed an in- was futile to ask any State Government for ad- fluential and politically astute Board of Visitors, ditional astronomical research funding as mat- in the belief that they would pressure the NSW ters stood (Cooke, 1926b). State Government into delivering on its prior com-

On 23 June 1926, Cooke wrote to the French mitment to fund the Pacific triangulation project. radio pioneer General Gustave-Auguste Ferié It was Cooke¶V role as the Government Astron- (1868Å1932), informing him that Sydney Obser- omer to set Sydney 2EVHUYDWRU\¶s research dir- vatory was abolished as such and that it would ection, but the Board wanted him to focus on be maintained only as a time service station. other matters that they, as science administrat- William Edward Raymond FRAS (1871Å , ors, determined were more important than the Chief Transit Observer, was to remain as the sole war effort. They went so far as to write directly salaried officer, and James Nangle (1868Å , to the Astronomer Royal in England seeking his Superintendent of Technical Education and an support, but this back-fired when Sir Frank Dy- son backed Cooke. accomplished amateur astronomer, was residing at the Observatory. Cooke suggested that, as In the longer term what were required were Nangle was interested in wireless time signals national (as opposed to State) facilities, though and Raymond was fully capable of determining in 1916 these were beyond the still-weak Fed- the time, the Observatory might still participate eral system and would only come into being in some work. Cooke (1926c) further suggested long after the war, with the benefit of returning that Ferié write to Nangle. expertise. Cooke therefore remained without the authority or means to undertake a project that On 28 June Cooke also wrote to Professor would have benefitted Australia at State and Fed- Robert Meldrum Stewart (1878Å , Director eral levels, and would also have contributed to of the Dominion Observatory in Canada, thank- the international scientific community. ing him for the reminder of 19 April regarding the Honolulu signals. Cooke informed Stewart that &RRNH¶VSRVLWLRQDVD6HFWLRQ3UHVLGHQWDQG Sydney Observatory had, unfortunately, practic- Committee Chairperson in the Australian Nation- ally ceased to function, that the staff were being al Research Council meant he could take ad-

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Ian Tasker W.E. Cooke and the Triangulation of the Pacific vantage of the 1923 PSA Congress²which was every turn when he reported the effect that this held in Australia²and re-activate his plan to had on him, his wife and his daughter. Haynes triangulate the Pacific through wireless signals. et al. LELG QRWHWKDW³« despite his very con- The media received him well and &RRNH¶VLQWHU- siderable abilities, Cook was not destined to national peers respected him for publishing both KDYHDQHDV\WLPHLQ1HZ6RXWK:DOHV´9LHZ- methods and procedures to improve efficiency ed solely in the light of his Pacific triangulation in the performance of data collection, yet once project, this is surely an understatement! again the Sydney Observatory Board of Visitors prevented his efforts from bearing fruit. 7 NOTES

Cooke also could promote his Pacific trian- 1 For those wondering what £750 or £400 mean, gulation project through Commission 18 of the prior to the introduction of decimal currency International Astronomical Union, but he never on 14 February 1966, Australia used pounds was able to attend a General Assembly and had (£), shillings (s) and pence (d). There were to rely on corresponding with other members of 20 shillings in a pound, and 12 pennies or the Commission. Strategically, Cooke support- pence in a shilling. Thus, a salary of £157 ed his protégé G.F. Dodwell, the South Austra- 16s 8d (mentioned on the following page of lian Government Astronomer, who approached this paper) is 157 pounds, 16 shillings and 8 the issue of State boundaries within Australia pence. Another way of expressing this is: but from a different perspective: through the £157/16/8. Similarly, often shillings and pence Longitude Committee of the International Geod- would be listed say as 16/8 (i.e. 16 shillings esy and Geophysics Union, and by using wire- and 8 pence) or 16/- (16 shillings exactly). less time signals from around the globe. Not- 2 Although the Department of Public Instruction withstanding his influence, publications and pol- (1880Å1915) was renamed the Department of iticking, Cooke still could not convince his Board Education in 1915, the former title persisted. or the NSW Government to fund his Pacific 3 The expense account amounted to 83% of triangulation project. his original £60 salary package.

Over the years, the Sydney Observatory Board could have offered Cooke much in the 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS way of assistance and influence, but it did not I wish to thank Dr Ragbir Bhathal (Western Syd- help or support him, right up to his forced early ney University), Associate Professor Carol Liston retirement. In 1926 Cooke tried to re-activate (Western Sydney University), Dr Michelle Hyde the long-planned move of Sydney Observatory (Writing & Educational Services), Kristine Pedler, IURPFHQWUDO6\GQH\WRDµGDUNVN\¶VLWHEH\RQG Professors Nick Lomb (University of Southern the city limits, and the Government responded Queensland) and Peter Hobbins (University of to this by deciding to close down the Obser- Sydney) for comments on an earlier draft of this vatory. As Malin et al. (1986: 66) poignantly paper. I also am grateful to The State Library of observe, Cooke NSW and the University of Sydney Archives for

«became a scapegoat He was placed on supplying Figures 4 and 8, and to Professor DPRQWK¶VQRWLFHDQGILQDOO\OHIWWKHREVHUYD- Wayne Orchiston for helping prepare the final tory in August 1926 « >Ke was] a broken version of this paper. man «>%HFDXVH@ WKH XQLYHUVLW\ UHIXVHG WR SD\KLVSHQVLRQ« He retired in poverty to 9 REFERENCES eke out a living by conducting classes in

contract bridge « before returning to his Atchison, J.,1988. Poate, Frederick (1855Å , home city of Adelaide, where he died in Surveyor-General. In Serle, G. (ed.). Australian Dic- 1947. tionary of Biography. Volume 11. Melbourne, Mel- What this paper draws out is that personal bourne University Press. Pp. 249Å250. and emotive issues, such as jealousy, turf wars, Australian National Research Council, 1925. Minutes political infighting, lack of vision and national of Annual General Meeting. Sydney. insularity (the tyranny of distance), had the po- Australia science. Sydney Morning Herald, 25 August 1923, p.15. tential to impede the advance of Australian Bhathal, R., 1991. Henry Chamberlain Russell ± ast- science. In this instance, the triangulation of the ronomer, meteorologist and scientific entrepreneur. Pacific was delayed by a decade, but more im- Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of portantly, Australia lost its prominent position on New South Wales, 124, 1±21. the world stage in the fields of astronomy, Bulletin Géodésique, 1(Supplement 1), 9-17 (1923). geodesy and wireless. Connor, J.S., 2011. The War Munitions Supply Com- pany of Western Australian and the popular move- More than one hundred official documents ment to manufacture artillery ammunition in the were examined in the course of the research for British Empire in the First World War. Journal of this paper, and Cooke remained the consum- Imperial and Commonwealth History, 39, 795Å813. mate professional throughout. Only once did he Conway, R., and Philp, J., 2008. People, Power, Pol- pour out his soul to those who blocked him at itics: The First Generation of Anthropologists at the

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University of Sydney. Sydney, Macleay Museum. Cooke, W.E., 1916p. Letter from W.E. Cooke to the the University of Sydney. Director Naval Observatory, Washington, dated 1 Cooke, W.E., 1907. A Catalogue of 420 Standard August. Original in Sydney Observatory A3003: Stars: Mostly Between 31° 41° South Declination, Box 41. NSW State Records, Sydney. for the Equinox 1905-0 «3HUWK3HUWKObservatory. Cooke, W.E., 1916q. Letter from the Govt. Astron- Cooke, W.E., 1911. Standard astrometry of the omer to J.M. Taylor, dated 4 August. Original in future. Astronomische Nachrichten, 187, 81Å82. Sydney Observatory A3003: Box 41. NSW State Cooke, W.E., 1913. Sydney Observatory. Monthly Records, Sydney. Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 73, 263. Cooke, W.E., 1916r. Letter from the Govt. Astron- Cooke, W.E., 1916a. Letter from the Govt. Astron- omer to the Premier, dated 16 August. Original in omer to the Town Clerk, dated 1 March. Original in Sydney Observatory A3003: Box 41. 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209Å275. Rines, D., 1916. The wireless determination of the Washington-Paris longitude. Geographical Review, 1, 123Å127. Ian Tasker was born in New Rivett, A.C.D., 1923. Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Zealand in 1959 and began his Australia, 1923. Nature, 112, 378. career in telecommunications Russell, H.C., 1871. Meteorology in New South with the New Zealand Post Wales. In The Industrial Progress of New South Office before emigrating to Wales: Being A Report of the Intercolonial Exhibi- Australia in 1984. He spent tion of 1870, at Sydney; Together With a Variety of several decades in Information Papers Illustrative of the Industrial Resources of and Communications Technol- the Colony. Sydney, Government Printer. Pp. 579± ogy, eventually becoming a 615. principal consultant, working Russell, H.C., 1881. Spectrum and appearance of the across multiple time zones from Japan through to recent comet. Journal and Proceedings of the Roy- India. Pursuing an interest in astronomy, in 2004 he al Society of New South Wales, 15, 81±86. published the paper ³Robotic Observatories in Russell, H.C., 1892a. Description of the Star Camera, eEducation and eResearch´ in the IAU Commission at Sydney Observatory. Sydney, Government Print- 46 Newsletter. Ian returned to academia in 2007 and er. completed a Post-graduate Certificate in Research Russell, H.C., 1892b. Observations of the Transit of Studies, with a thesis on Feasibility Study for a Venus, 9 December, 1874; Made at Stations in New Planetarium at UWS: The Efficacy of Planetaria, South Wales. Sydney, Government Printer. Astronomy and Space Science Education. He then Simple Practical Astronomy. Sydney, Sydney Obser- undertook a Masters (Hons.) degree, developing a vatory (1940). methodology to reverse engineer the viability of State Library Victoria, 2017. Wages in Victoria Sydney Observatory, as a case study defining the (https://guides.slv.vic.gov.au/whatitcost/earnings; decline of colonial science from 1916 to 1983. Since accessed 22 May 2018). WKHQ,DQ¶VUHVHDUFKLQWHUHVWVKDYHPDWXUHGDQGKHLV State Records Archives Investigator, 1999. Admini- currently addressing how internationally managed strative History Note: Sydney Observatory science is funded. Currently, he is in the process of (http://investigator.records.nsw.gov.au/Entity.aspx? publishing his research for a PhD by Publication at Path=%5CAgency%5C113; accessed 18 Novem- Western Sydney University, which will be supervised ber 2009). by Professors Ray Norris and Brett Bowden.

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