Little Sotol Unearthed: the Excavation of a Long-Term Earth
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LITTLE SOTOL UNEARTHED: THE EXCAVATION OF A LONG-TERM EARTH OVEN FACILITY IN THE LOWER PECOS CANYONLANDS OF TEXAS by Ashleigh J. Knapp, B.A. A thesis submitted to the Graduate Council of Texas State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts with a Major in Anthropology December 2015 Committee Members: Stephen L. Black, chair C. Britt Bousman J. Phil Dering COPYRIGHT by Ashleigh J. Knapp 2015 FAIR USE AND AUTHOR’S PERMISSION STATEMENT Fair Use This work is protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States (Public Law 94-553, section 107). Consistent with fair use as defined in the Copyright Laws, brief quotations from this material are allowed with proper acknowledgement. Use of this material for financial gain without the author’s express written permission is not allowed. Duplication Permission As the copyright holder of this work I, Ashleigh J. Knapp, authorize duplication of this work, in whole or in part, for educational or scholarly purposes only. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks goes to everyone who shared encouraging words and insights throughout the excavation of Little Sotol and the writing of this thesis. It was truly a collaborate effort, and only some of the individuals and organizations are named here. I thank Rick and Mary Rylander for providing access to the Little Sotol site and generously opening their home to the ASWT research team for almost two years. Your knowledge, curiosity, and genuine interest make you exceptional stewards of the land. Thank you for hosting the 2011 and 2012 Texas State University field seasons. I look forward to soaking in the Devils River, watching the hummingbirds, and admiring your ranch with you again. Thank you to my committee for their continued support and encouragement. Dr. Steve Black – you are true advocate and marvelous mentor. I feel lucky to have met you hiking around the Lower Pecos Canyonlands. Thank you for opening my eyes to earth oven research and Texas archaeology. I am grateful for the support of you and the Ancient Southwest Texas Research (ASWT) Project. Dr. Phil Dering – thank you for sharing your humor and insights, teaching me the valuable skill of flotation, and identifying the copious amounts of botanical material from Little Sotol. Dr. Brit Bousman – thank you for your contagious passion for archaeology and challenging my perspectives. Thank you to the many archaeologists who sweat and scurry to contribute to the body of knowledge every day. My thanks go to Dr. Charles Frederick for showing me iv new ways to view the landscape and nurturing my love of rocks. Thank you Dr. Carolyn Boyd for introducing me to the Lower Pecos and for your vivid insights into the past. Thank you Dr. Alston Thoms for providing microfossil analysis and the conceptual premise on which this thesis is based. My thanks also go to Elton Prewitt for identifying all of the projectile points from Little Sotol, and answering all of my questions so thoughtfully. Thank you Mark Willis for visiting Little Sotol, taking aerial photographs, and impressing all of the field school students with your kite flying skills on such a windy day. Thank you to both radiocarbon laboratories for processing samples, especially Dr. Raymond Maudlin and the Center for Archaeological Research. Thank you Mike Quigg, Paul Matchen, Dr. Jodi Jacobson, and all of the extraordinary individuals at TRC Environmental for your support, knowledge, and understanding. I must express my sincere gratitude to the 2011 Texas State University field school students, especially Holly Mello, Kat Pratt, and Sarah Himes for your shared desire to reach bedrock. Thank you Sean Zimmerman, Jacob Combs, Peter Shipman, Ashlea Evans, Nate Stanley, Kirsten Verostick, Amanda Castaneda, Charles Koenig, Ben Dwyer, Travis Metheny, Dan Rodriguez, Matt Basham, Chris Davis, Bob Wishoff, Jerod Roberts, Vicky Munoz, and Jack Johnson for volunteering your time towards this effort. I feel grateful for the surrounding archaeological community. Thank you to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, the Texas Archeological Society, the Shumla School, and the “Agave is Life” documentary team for visiting Little Sotol and taking interest in the research. v Thank you Mary Gibson for your behind-the-scenes support of the graduate students and anthropology department. You have helped me out of many tight places. I appreciate you and all that you do. My deepest gratitude goes to my caring and loving family – Megan Knapp, Gary Knapp, Susan Knapp, Pearl Kimple, and Chase Kimple – for your continued support in the field, laboratory, and at home. It was such a joy to work with you at Little Sotol, and I wholly appreciate your enduring encouragement. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my daughter, Pearl. You can accomplish anything if you set your mind to it, even when the odds (or burned rocks) are stacked against you. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. xiv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 The Little Sotol Site ................................................................................................ 6 Long-Term Use ........................................................................................... 8 Site Formation ........................................................................................... 11 Excavation Strategy .................................................................................. 14 Organization of Thesis .......................................................................................... 16 2. REGIONAL AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ....................................... 18 Physical Environment ........................................................................................... 18 Indigenous Prehistoric Populations....................................................................... 19 Prehistoric Diet ..................................................................................................... 21 Archaeological Record.......................................................................................... 22 Views on Earth Oven Plant Baking ...................................................................... 24 Desert Bounty ........................................................................................... 25 Famine Food ............................................................................................. 28 Seasonal Staple ......................................................................................... 31 Landuse Intensification ............................................................................. 34 3. LOWER PECOS ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND ................................ 39 Tested and Excavated Burned Rock Middens ...................................................... 42 Research along Dead Man’s Creek ....................................................................... 45 4. EXCAVATION METHODS AND RESULTS .................................................... 57 vii Area 1 – Burned Rock Midden ............................................................................. 65 Area 2 – Little Sotol Cave .................................................................................... 73 Area 3 – Limestone Bench and Roof Collapse ..................................................... 78 Area 4 – Northern Cave Test ................................................................................ 81 5. EARTH OVEN FEATURES THROUGH TIME ................................................. 84 Heating Element with Pit Lining .......................................................................... 86 Feature 1.................................................................................................... 87 Remnant Pit Lining ............................................................................................... 89 Feature 10.................................................................................................. 90 Intact Heating Elements ........................................................................................ 93 Feature 3.................................................................................................... 94 Feature 4.................................................................................................... 95 Feature 9.................................................................................................... 97 Heating Element Remnants ................................................................................. 100 Feature 5.................................................................................................. 101 Feature 6.................................................................................................. 102 Rock Rosette (Feature 2) .................................................................................... 104 Discussion ........................................................................................................... 108 6. LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE