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Quaestiones Infinitae Publications of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies Utrecht University Volume 93 Copyright © 2016 Sigrid Coenradie All rights reserved ISBN 987-94-6103-053-5 Cover illustration: Ivo Smits Printed by CPI Koninklijke Wöhrmann, Zutphen Vicarious substitution in the literary work of Shūsaku Endō. On fools, animals, objects and doubles Plaatsbekleding in het literaire werk van Shūsaku Endō Over dwazen, dieren, voorwerpen en dubbelgangers (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. G.J. van der Zwaan, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 29 augustus 2016 des middags te 4.15 uur door Sigrid Coenradie geboren op 12 oktober 1961 te Schiedam Promotor: Prof.dr. J.F. Goud Copromotor: Prof.dr. I.B. Smits This study was partly financed by the Vera Gottschalk Frank Foundation. Table of contents Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………….. p. 9 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. Vicarious substitution …………………………………………………………….. p. 16 1.2. Stellvertretung in modern literature ……………………………………… p. 20 1.3. Research programme …………………………………………………………….. p. 25 1.4. Methods of analysis …………………………………………………………………. p. 30 Chapter 2 Shūsaku Endō (1923-1996) and his writing Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………… p. 41 2.1. Christianity in Japan ………………………………………………………………… p. 43 2.2. Shishōsetsu ……………………………………………………………………………… p. 52 2.3. Daisan no shinjin …………………………………………………………………….. p. 61 2.4. Endō as a Catholic and shishōsetsu author ……………………………. p. 64 2.5. Main events of Endō’s biography and the interchange between his life and his literary work ……………………………………………………………. p. 70 2.6. Shishōsetsu and vicarious substitution …………………………………… p. 73 Chapter 3 Self-sacrificial vicarious substitution in Endō’s Christ and Christ-figures Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………… p. 85 3.1. A Life of Jesus: Endō’s Christ as a vicarious substitute …………. p. 87 3.2. The Christ-figures in Endō’s narratives ………………………………….. p. 90 3.3. Imitation and sacrifice …………………………………………………………….. p. 100 3.4. The effect of the Christ-figures’ self-sacrificial substitution on the place-givers ………………………………………………………………………………... p. 108 3.5. Between self-sacrifice and self-annihilation …………………………….. p. 121 3.6. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………….. p. 128 Chapter 4 Vicarious substitution as solidarity in suffering Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………. p. 131 4.1. The consoling Christ-figure Gaston ………………………………………….. p. 134 4.2. The consoling function of a companion in Endō’s historical novels ………………………………………………………………………………………………… p. 138 4.3. Christ-like objects ……………………………………………………………………… p. 157 4.4. The suffering and the co-suffering companion ………………………… p. 165 4.5. The effect of the dōhansha on the place-givers: transformation ………………………………………………………………………………….. p. 173 4.6. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………….. p. 181 Chapter 5 Vicarious substitution in Endō’s animal stories Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………. p. 183 5.1. ‘The Case of Numada’ ……………………………………………………………….. p. 185 5.2. Christ-like animals: dogs and birds …………………………………………… p. 188 5.3. The challenging function of birds’ laughter in ‘The Case of Numada’ …………………………………………………………………………………………….. p. 195 5.4. The effect of the animals’ substitutive dying …………………………… p. 197 5.5. Animal substitution as a sacrifice ……………………………………………… p. 208 5.6. Gift and “givenness” in Endō’s animal stories ………………………….. p. 211 5.7. Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………………. p. 222 Chapter 6 The double as a vicarious substitute Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………. p. 225 6.1. The doppelgänger motif in literature ………………………………………….. p. 227 6.2. The double in Scandal …………………………………………………………………. p. 230 6.3. Coping with death ……………………………………………………………………….. p. 234 6.4. The role of sin and evil in Endō’s literary work ………………………….. p. 238 6.5. The double as a vicarious substitute …………………………………………… p. 247 6.6. Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. p. 257 Chapter 7 A typology of vicarious substitution in Endō’s literary work Towards a pattern of vicarious substitution? Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………….. p. 259 7.1. Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………. p. 259 7.2. A typology of vicarious substitution and its functions ………………. p. 262 7.3. The effect of vicarious substitution ……………………………………………. p. 267 7.4. A pattern of vicarious substitution …………………………………………….. p. 268 Appendix …………………………………………………………………………………………….. p. 273 References ………………………………………………………………………………………….. p. 285 Summary in Dutch ……………………………………………………………………………… p. 303 Curriculum Vitae …………………………………………………………………………………. p. 311 Acknowledgements The very first time I read a novel by Shūsaku Endō from the local library, I could not imagine the impact his work would have on my life. I wept because of the tragical outcome; me, crying only when watching sentimental movies. The rest of Endō’s translated oeuvre had an identical effect on me. I intended to investigate why his literary work raised such emotions. In the context of my graduation as a minister at the Remonstrant Seminary I wrote an essay, in which I compared the Christ-figures in the literary work of Shūsaku Endō to the Jesus in the Remonstrant creed. As a result, Johan Goud invited me to become his promovenda. Johan suggested that Endō’s Christ-figures might have vicarious substitution in common. His idea turned out to be a very appropriate one to explore my fascination and intuition that what characterized Endō’s Christ-figures might be at the centre of my personal belief, and a most interesting topic worth studying. “Why Endō?”, Johan asked during one of our first meetings. “Why do you choose the difficult path through a Japanese author, and not the Dutch author Willem Jan Otten?” When Otten’s De Vlek [The Strain] appeared in 2011, I did have some regrets. However, before the day was over,I was convinced Endō’s literary work to be more diverse and intriguing. Besides, I hope that my study, in the light of the forthcoming release of Martin Scorsese’s movie Silence, after Shūsaku Endō’s masterpiece, may contribute to Endō’s fame in Europe. Writing this dissertation I have experienced as a soloist activity. I thought constantly to be engaged in interesting conversations on a high intellectual level. Instead, I was mostly in discussion with thoughts others had committed to paper. Carrying out a research appeared to consist mainly of writing. So behind the desk of my computer I ended up writing a book. These activities were a pleasant counterpart to my work as a preacher, but also swallowed all my free hours. I have grossly neglected my friendships these years. Meanwhile, life just went on: divorce, illness, death of both parents, change of employer. Working on this research gave solace in difficult periods. For that reason, it was hard for me to put an end to it. The reason I succeeded in spite of difficult circumstances, is thanks to the following people. My thanks go first and foremost to the Vera Gottschalk Frank Stichting, which this thesis partly has funded. I thank the Norbertine of ‘The Essenburgh' and 9 the Sisters of the Abbey Koningsoord for their hospitality. It is wonderful to be able to alternately pray and work in a beautiful setting. I thank Anne-Marie Korte for her tips for a successful PhD program. I thank Martha Frederiks, who, in her role as dean, listened and encouraged me in difficult times. I thank Jeannette Boere and Suzanne van Vliet for their keen interest, administrative support and alertness. I would not have made it without my writing buddies from the shut-up-and-write group. Every month we worked steadily on our studies, sharing joys and sorrows. Monique Arkesteijn, Charlotte Emstede, Ria Hoentjen, Andries Temme, Hanneke Tuithof, thank you. Fortunately, a book and an article will follow, so you are not be rid of me yet. From Canada, Yvonne Philpott meticulously corrected my English. Since she read Endō's books, she was able to ask smart questions that forced me to articulate some thoughts clearer. Linda Jansen also helped me in the final stage with the English language. I warmly thank Christien Franken for her invaluable help in structuring my research. We shared a remarkable literary fascination for the double. I thank my promoter and co-promoter for the accuracy and enthusiasm with which they have guided my research. My co-promoter, Ivo Smits, very patiently introduced me in the Japanese culture and literature. Our conversations, always in another Leiden establishment, invariably took too long. I was captivated by the typical Japanese writing genre of shishōsetsu, and if money were available, I would like to study the relationship between autobiographical writing and vicarious substitution more thoroughly. And perhaps there is also a relationship between reading and vicarious substitution? I am grateful to Ivo Smits for drawing the picture that adorns the cover of this book. I thank my promoter, Johan Goud, who gave me freedom to conduct this study in my own way. I could not have done without his critical questioning and his unwavering faith in my abilities. And I will never forget the support he offered me after my mother’s death. Finally, I thank my daughter Fu Qi Coenradie, who is proud of her mother and never complained when I crawled back behind the computer; and my love, George Spangenberg, for his reassuring comments and his way