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Confession and Visible Sainthood

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Confession and Visible Sainthood SSStttooonnnyyy BBBrrrooooookkk UUUnnniiivvveeerrrsssiiitttyyy The official electronic file of this thesis or dissertation is maintained by the University Libraries on behalf of The Graduate School at Stony Brook University. ©©© AAAllllll RRRiiiggghhhtttsss RRReeessseeerrrvvveeeddd bbbyyy AAAuuuttthhhooorrr... “Then God Brake My Head”: Indian Saints in 17th Century Massachusetts 1646-1660 A Dissertation Presented by David M. Hollis to The Graduate School In Partial fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University December 2009 [Type text] Copyright by David M. Hollis 2009 [Type text] The Graduate School David M. Hollis We, the dissertation committee for the above candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree, hereby recommend acceptance of this dissertation. Ned Landsman, PhD., Dissertation Advisor Professor, Department of History Donna J. Rilling, PhD., Chairperson of Defense Associate Professor, Department of History Gary Marker, PhD. Professor, Department of History Andrew Newman, PhD. Assistant Professor, Department of English This dissertation is accepted by the Graduate School Lawrence Martin Dean of the Graduate School ii Abstract of the Dissertation “Then God Brake My Head”: Indian Saints in 17th Century Massachusetts 1646-1660 by David M. Hollis Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University 2009 This dissertation is about the process of Algonquian conversion to Puritan Christianity in the mid-seventeenth century and the considerable difficulties that stood in the way of that process occurring. It seeks to take seriously the intentions of the missionaries without obscuring that their actions were embedded in a colonial context. At the same time, it is offered as a partial response to treatments of the praying towns in which Eliot and his missionary colleagues are portrayed largely as agents of English imperialism, intent on using the Gospel as a means of subjugation. In part the argument offered in this work is that, in some ways, the missionaries at times both embraced and thwarted English colonial goals. The image of the mission presented is neither that of the benevolent mission unencumbered by colonial interests nor the reduction of it to an instrument of economic exploitation. While the contributions of those looking to link the mission project to the larger context of English colonization should not be ignored – indeed at times those links are made by the missionaries themselves – it is also important to recognize the ways in which the mission stood at odds with such an enterprise. Fundamentally this dissertation is an exploration of the various issues confronting Algonquians who underwent a process of conversion to Puritan Christianity in New England in the mid-seventeenth century. It focuses especially on the rather unique settlements – known as “praying towns” - created in Massachusetts largely through the efforts of John Eliot with financial support from overseas. The argument here is in part that the towns posed some additional hurdles to the conversion process, especially since iii Eliot and his colleagues insisted on linking civil conversion to spiritual readiness. In essence, the praying Indians of Massachusetts were both asked to participate in English culture while at the same time being denied the full opportunity to do so. The dissertation also argues that those Indians who finally succeeded in achieving the validation of the Puritan referees in their bid to create an independent Indian church at Natick were successful not only in crossing barriers of language, worldview, health, and cultural hostility, but that they had acquired facility with the language of Scripture that made them recognizable as “visible saints.” iv This dissertation is dedicated to my loving wife, Gertha; to my two wonderful children, Malaika and Stephen; and to Jesus Christ, my Lord and Savior. [Type text] Table of Contents Preface…….………………………………………………………..vii I. Chapter One……………………………………………………….. 1 II. Chapter Two……………………………………………………….. 35 III. Chapter Three……………………………………………………... 79 IV. Chapter Four………………………………………………………. 113 V. Chapter Five……………………………………………………….. 152 VI. Chapter Six………………………………………………………… 183 VII. Conclusion…………………………………………………………. 214 Bibliography……………………………………………………….. 220 Appendix………………………..………………………………….. 235 vi Preface This dissertation focuses on the issues that surrounded the process of Native American conversion in Massachusetts Bay Colony from the mid 1640’s to the early 1670’s. Much of what is covered entails an analysis of the praying towns created under the guidance of John Eliot and his missionary companions, towns designed to create an environment in which the process of true heart conversion would be most likely to take place. In doing so, I attempt to demonstrate that there were particular barriers to conversion facing Native Americans, but also that some of the circumstances in seventeenth century Massachusetts may have also caused them to consider the message of the Puritan missionaries. I argue that, ironically, at least one of the hurdles to heart conversion was unwittingly erected by Eliot himself, whose dedication to cultural conversion mixed the Gospel message with English material culture in a way that complicated the process. In the course of applying for church estate, the praying Indians were required to make individual public confessions of faith, a practice consistent with joining any New England congregation. The attempt here will be to use the confessions of the Natick praying Indians and other evidence to help explore a number of themes relevant to the issue of Amerindian conversion in seventeenth century New England including the difficulties with the process of such transformations. To do that, it is necessary to situate the confessional narratives in their proper contexts, both temporal and spiritual. Strangely enough, in the analyses of the Native American praying towns of Massachusetts Bay, it sometimes seems as if not enough attention is devoted to the very vi particular worldview of their primary creator, John Eliot. Because Eliot operated under many of the same assumptions as his fellow Puritans with respect to issues of Native American “civility” and his rather unyielding attitude towards culture, the temptation seems to be to paint both Eliot and his English brethren with the same broad brush. Unfortunately – Richard Cogley’s excellent discussion of Eliot’s millennial views notwithstanding – Eliot’s peculiarities are often mentioned as a side issue, tangential to the mission but not of critical importance to the “real” discussion of the relationship between the English and the praying Indians. But Eliot’s views on exactly what the mission to the Native Americans represented were surely relevant to how the praying towns were administered, and his commitment to a worldwide Mosaic form of government renders him in some ways a very poor candidate for a prototypical New England Puritan. Additionally, it has often been asserted that the missionaries perceived the Native Americans as the descendents of the lost tribes of Israel, and that this understanding was a consistent feature of their project in the new world. I argue that the Jewish identity question was one that informed missionaries in their attempts to situate the mission in millennial discourse and was therefore a topic of no small import. However, I also attempt to trace Eliot’s thinking on the subject in an effort to demonstrate that his commitment to Indian conversion and his devotion to the Exodus-style government could stand on their own without reference to the question of Indian identity. Chapter One, centering on millennial discourse in relation to the praying towns and on the apostle’s rather unique perspective on the matter, is intended in part to flesh out the ways in which this question shaped, or didn’t shape, the mission project. vii The remaining chapters are built around themes present in the individual confessions, using the narration of particular Indians to help explore issues central to the transitions from Algonquian to praying Indian and from praying Indian to visible saint. Chapter Two is an analysis of some of the specific difficulties with the acculturation process necessary to achieve church membership, including the role that literacy and language played in the transition from indigenous Algonquian to Red Puritan.1 In this chapter I attempt to show the difficulties in transitioning to a society ruled by a Puritan conception of law. The chapter also explores the ways in which English material culture was tied to spiritual conversion, both explicitly and implicitly, and how this could be a source of frustration for potential converts. I also examine the mistrust harbored by many English, reflected in the legal codes of the colonies, and the ways in which this served as a stumbling block to conversion. Literacy and education, so critical to participation in Puritan spiritual life, emerged as yet another hurdle, not only with regard to the significant issue of translation but also in terms of the availability of Algonquian reading materials. Chapter Three is a discussion of the influence of sachems and also of the impact of family on the decision to become a praying Indian. Here I attempt to demonstrate that sachems were immediately recognized as targets for conversion because of the influence they exerted over their constituents. This influence could cut both ways, moving people either toward or away from the Gospel. Similarly,
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