Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento ISSN 1852-4206

Conceptual and methodological approaches to the study Diciembre 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 of Self-Regulation: An inquiry within Developmental revistas.unc.edu.ar/inde Science x.php/racc

Nachon, Juan Ignacio*, a; Segretin, María Soledada y Lipina, Sebastián Javiera

Review Tabla de Abstract Resumen Contenido

The present work intends to thoroughly identify theoretical Abordajes conceptuales y metodológicos en el Introduction 13 and practical applications of self-regulation (SR) in estudio de la autorregulación: una revisión en Methods 15 contemporary developmental research, by reviewing las ciencias del desarrollo Study design 15 conceptual and operational definitions of SR, in addition to El presente trabajo se propone identificar y Search 15 the methods and instruments used to assess it in empirical ahondar exhaustivamente en la aplicación strategy, data studies. 468 scientific articles with cumulative evidence contemporánea del concepto de la sources and from the last two decades of research were included (142 autorregulación (SR), incluyendo los métodos que extraction reviews and 326 original research articles). Using a mixed- se utilizan para evaluarlo en el campo de la Data analysis 16 methods approach based on grounded theory methodology, psicología y la neurociencia cognitiva del Results 16 the main theoretical and methodological aspects involved in desarrollo. Para ello, se revisaron 468 artículos Discussion 26 the definition and operationalization of SR were reviewed. científicos que acumulan evidencia de las últimas Acknowledgments 28 Results point towards a growing consensus in the décadas de investigación en el área. Los References 28 conceptual definition of SR, which emphasizes the resultados apuntan hacia un creciente consenso interrelation of emotional and cognitive control, goal- en las definiciones conceptuales, en torno a la oriented activity, physiological and interpersonal processes. interrelación multidimensional de procesos de Empirical research often considers to diverse biologic, regulación emocional, regulación cognitiva, behavioral and social features in the operationalization of actividad orientada a fines, esfuerzo conciente, the concept, making use of report scales, performance procesos interpersonales y fisiológicos. Los tasks and, to a lesser extent, physiological and abordajes operacionales presentan la observational measurements. consideración de diversos fenómenos de índole biológica, comportamental y social, haciendo uso de herramientas para evaluar la SR en distintos contextos del desarrollo y a lo largo del ciclo vital. Entre los instrumentos más frecuentemente utilizados se encuentran medidas de reporte, pruebas de desempeño y, en menor medida, medidas fisiológicas y observaciones estructuradas.

Keywords: self-regulation, self-control, relational Palabras clave: autorregulación, autocontrol, developmental systems, review. sistemas relacionales del desarrollo, revisión. Recibido el 25 de Octubre de 2019; Aceptado el 28 de marzo de 2020 Editaron este artículo: Raquel Peltzer, Paula Abate, Sebastián Leonangeli y Sofia Sambre

Introduction At the beginning of the present millennium, decades later, efforts made towards this goal by Posner & Rothbart (2000; 2007) identified the researchers stepping from multiple disciplinary comprehensive study of self-regulation (SR) as a backgrounds have condensed into a considerable mayor objective for advancing an understanding of body of published works, which grows more development and psychopathology. Nearly two voluminous with each passing year.

aCentro de Educación Médica e Investigaciones Clínicas “Norberto Quirno” (CEMIC-CONICET), Unidad de Neurobiología Aplicada, Buenos Aires, Argentina. *Enviar correspondencia a: Nachon, J. I. E-mail: [email protected]

Citar este artículo como: Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. (2020). Conceptual and methodological approaches to the study of Self-Regulation: An inquiry within Developmental Science. Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento, 12(3), 13-31 13 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 In a broad sense, SR stands for the ability to theoretical order, and that disagreements in how to direct one’s thoughts, attention, behavior and define self-regulatory constructs generates emotions in order to achieve goals (Vohs & confusion that hinders the coherent integration of Baumeister, 2016). The capacity to exercise this body of knowledge (Cervone, Shadel, Smith, control over motor, emotional and other cognitive & Fiori, 2006). In this sense, it is important to processes develops as a result of complex mention that systematic review-based efforts have interactions between an individual’s genetic already been put into action by developmental endowment and its life experiences (Bell & Deater- psychopathologists in order to assess conceptual Deckard, 2007; Blair & Raver, 2012). relations between different theoretical constructs Developmental science focuses in describing, (Nigg, 2017). In addition, an interesting meta- explaining and optimizing intraindividual changes analysis on the convergent validity of in adaptive developmental regulations, as well as heterogenous self-control measures was the interindividual differences in such relations, published almost ten years ago (Duckworth & across life (Lerner, 2012). Since developmental Kern, 2011). science is especially compelled to understand What exactly is SR it and how do we measure phenomena characterized by adaptive co- it? The need to tackle these issues constitute the regulations among individuals and their rationale of the present work. Discerning the latest environments, it follows that interest in process- conceptual and methodological advancements in relational constructs such as SR should be this matter would enable the reassessment of how significant. The use of the term process (i.e., the developmental scientists study SR, and thus ordered succession of acts), in the context of achieve a better understanding of how societies developmental science reflects the adoption of an eventually could benefit from their insights. epistemological stance, in which the fundamental Contemporary research paradigms in categories employed for the analysis of developmental science have been shaped developmental phenomena are change and extensively by philosophical debates on the process, as opposed to stasis and substance concept of agency, systems theory and by which derive from classic Cartesian reductionism technical breakthroughs in the field of (Overton, 2015). In this process-relational view, neurobiology (Lerner, 2018). The identification of the historical and physiological events that several mechanisms involved in neural plasticity, constitute developmental change for either a stress physiology and the development of single organism or a whole community are attentional networks has sparked support for the conceived as a a set of complex transformational integration of cognitive and temperamental processes through which fundamental features of psychobiological models (Rueda, Posner, & the dynamic systems relate, differentiate and Rothbart, 2005; Williams et al., 2008). While move towards dialectic integration (Sameroff, perspectives on temperament and personality tend 2010). Therefore, from this perspective, SR (in all to emphasize the relative rank-order stability of of its conceptual variants) will be referred to as a self-regulatory traits over time and across process or as series of interdependent processes. contexts, cognitive frameworks usually underscore SR has been pointed out as an important the idea that SR encompasses adaptive processes aspect of people´s behavioral adaptation to the and that the executive function components can demands of their social and physical be trained and influenced by contextual factors environments, by means of different emotional (Bornstein et al., 2015). During infancy and early skills, the ability to delay gratification and to childhood, children gradually acquire the SR skills comply with social norms, goal-directed cognitive and strategies necessary to cope with a variety of control, linguistic and mathematical reasoning, developmental challenges, thus gaining autonomy, among other competences that appear to be control and separate identities from their relevant for academic performance and caregivers (Calkins & Fox, 2002; Posner & optimization in multiple areas of functioning, Rothbart, 2007). across cultures (Eisenberg & Sulik, 2012; Lerner, Further on, researchers usually employ 2018). Still, there remains much debate on how to external behavioral measures as proxies to study define and measure SR. Some authors consider internal regulatory processes. Coding systems for that scientific literature in this area lacks direct observation, controlled performance tasks,

14 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 self-reports, as well as caregiver and teacher the design of interventions and development questionnaires are the most common tools found policy. in basic and applied research. However, each type Methods of instrument has often been designed for specific purposes and may carry inherent strengths and Study design limitations (Duckworth & Yeager, 2015; McCoy, Scientific articles on the typical development of 2019). For instance, scales designed for clinical or SR in human populations, published either in experimental settings are often considered limited English or Spanish by peer reviewed journals in validity for studying how behavioral and during the 2000-2018 period, constitute the main emotional aspects of SR unfold in ecological focus of this review. This decision is grounded in contexts like school, work and other “real-world” the exponential growth in the number of social environments (McClelland, Ponitz, publications that has taken place in the fields of Messersmith, & Tominey 2010; McCoy, 2019). In psychology and developmental cognitive addition, many questionnaires are vulnerable to neuroscience in the last two decades, which is reference and social desirability biases and thus related to technical and methodological advances are not recommended for program evaluation, in both disciplines and to the emerging theorical inter-school accountability or individual diagnosis perspectives for the integrated study of cognition (Duckworth & Yeager, 2015). Although we do not and emotion. intend to judge on the appropriateness of such The present review was designed following the methods, we consider it relevant to contextualize Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews the goal of our work in the light of current debates and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher, that permeate this area of study. Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, & PRISMA Group, 2009; Objectives Shamseer et al., 2015). The purpose of this review was to delve into Search strategy, data sources and extraction contemporary developmental research and discern Advanced search engine parameters were the latest theorical, technical and methodological adjusted using keywords: self-regulation OR self- advancements in the conceptualization and control; and incorporated filters: peer reviewed assessment of SR. In order to do so in an journals AND in humans. This choice of keywords exhaustive and replicable manner, empiric is based in the interchangeable use that is often research and review articles published in the made out of these terms (Maranges & Baumeister, current century were considered. We sought 2017; Vohs & Baumeister, 2016). Although a wide answers to the following questions: variety of terms associated to executive 1. How is SR conceptually defined? functioning, temperament and personality could 2. Do operational definitions consider different have been chosen for this query, the lack of levels of organization (i.e., molecular, recursivity among these theorical frameworks cognitive, behavioral) and developmental would have proven an obstacle for the straight settings (i.e., laboratory, home, school, forward identification of relevant literature, as community)? authors do not always align these constructs as 3. Which indicators are used in psychometric stemming from the same group of processes, nor assessments?. make reference to over-arching concepts like SR 4. Which instruments and designs are or self-control. Data bases included in the employed for data collection? EBSCOhost Psychology and Behavioral Sciences The potential benefits of accomplishing these Collection and PubMed Biomed Central search objectives include (a) discerning consistent engines were consulted, as these contain articles conceptual aspects to which other researchers can published in journals from the humanities, health align their own definitions, hence reducing their and social sciences. level of ambiguity; (b) identifying knowledge gaps Data extraction and organization into that call for more research; and (c) issuing clear spreadsheets was undertaken for each article that methodological guidelines to assure that the met all criteria to be selected for the review. This conclusions to which new studies arrive have included ensuing variables: (a) journal name; (b) sufficient validity and result in useful insights for academic discipline and/or subdiscipline (defined

15 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 by authors’ affiliations, journal type, methodology corresponding paper and then making employed and indexing keywords); (c) year of comparisons between them based on other publishing; (d) type of article (original research or variables that distinguish sub-groups of articles review); (e) presence or absence of explicit (discipline, subdiscipline and age range of the definitions of SR; and (f) theorical frameworks and samples). authors cited in the paper’s conceptualization of The purpose of carrying on an open coding SR. For original research articles the following process, also known as microanalysis (Strauss & additional aspects were considered: (g) Corbin, 1998) was to complement the word count psychometric instruments used; (h) indicators approach. Different codes were chosen to observed by the assessment battery; (i) levels of represent relevant conceptual features and organization considered during measurements theoretical frameworks that are usually (inferred from the indicators used); (j) temporal encountered in self-regulation researc, guided by design of the study (cross-sectional or the word count results and the authors’ longitudinal); (k) nationality and (l) age range of understanding of different research lines that their samples. Therefore, sections considered for permeate the field (Vohs & Baumeister, 2016), data extraction were: title; journal and authors’ These codes were then used to label all the information; abstract; introduction and literature definitions in the sample, thus making it possible to review; methods; results; and discussion. pinpoint which theoretical features had a stronger presence in them. For more information on Data analysis grounded theory and qualitative research Data analysis consisted in the following mixed- methods, see Strauss & Corbin, 1998). method procedures: (1) Frequency analysis of previously enumerated variables using R, SPSS Results 15.0 and MS Excel 2016; and (2) Qualitative Study selection and characteristics analysis of semantic categories employed in the Search results in February 2018 allowed the conceptualization of SR utilizing Atlas.ti 7.5.18 initial identification of 5296 articles, , which were software and following Grounded Theory then screened for the following exclusion criteria: guidelines (Justicia & Padilla, 2011; Strauss & (a) duplicate results; (b) unavailable articles; (c) Corbin, 1998). Atlas.ti aided in (a) data storing and unrelated articles; (d) studies using sampling organization by means of a manageable digital file approaches that correspond to clinical, (i.e., hermeneutic unit); (b) segmenting text fragments in which conceptual definitions or psychopathological, deficit or at risk populations (i.e.; socioeconomic risk, poverty, ADHD, cerebral descriptions of SR were listed; (c) coding paralysis, dyslexia, physical abuse, cognitive information; (d) establishing relations between disfunction, autism, perinatal risk, mood disorders, assigned labels; and (e) generating graphical premature birth, low weight at birth, language models for the representation of terms that were found in greater association with conceptual development delay, and drug abuse); (e) studies that do not focus on domain general aspects of definitions of SR. SR, but on domain specific ones (i.e., self- For this last step, the Word Count tool from regulated learning, SR of feeding behavior; SR in Atlas.ti was used over collected text fragments. sexual relationships; SR of health behavior; After filtering personal names, articles, pronouns, prepositions, interjections and redundant words, neurofeedback, SR in sports, SR in meditation; SR in consumer behavior, SR in driving; racism and the most frequent key terms employed in the stigmatization, quality control, substance abuse, conceptual definition of SR were identified. A SR of wake; SR of work behavior, etc.); and (f) separate analysis was carried out to identify top interventions. The final sample was composed by quoted authors in these fragments. The outcome of the first word count was also used to generate a selection of 142 reviews and 326 original research articles retrieved from 170 different categories that correspond to different aspects of journals. Figure 1 outlines these results by self-regulatory processes. They were then applied showing the flow of information throughout the to inquire further into the heterogeneity of different phases implemented in this review, based conceptual definitions in the article sample, by relating one or more category to each on the PRISMA guidelines (Moher et al., 2009). When considering the claim that SR is

16 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 currently an expanding area of study, this review (57%) and transcultural studies are relatively few found in confirmation that the number of published (7%). articles since 2010 doubles the amount In terms of researched age groups, it was corresponding to the 2000-2009 period (Figure 2). found that the whole life course is contemplated in Populations studied in original research these empirical articles, but that studies involving articles cover 40 different countries (Figure 3). only adult participants are the most numerous Despite this great diversity, studies from North (50%) (Figure 4). America hold a majority over the rest of the world

Figure 1. Flow diagram of the studies retrieved for the review.

Figure 2. Number of articles published yearly

Figure 3. Distribution of empirical studies in the sample according to geographic región.

17 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31

Figure 4. Distribution of empirical studies in the sample according to different age groups. Research articles reviewed here belong to four lines of research, this does not imply that they are different disciplinary backgrounds: psychology, mutually exclusive or that they cannot conceptually cognitive neuroscience, health sciences and overlap: education sciences (Table 1). Psychology is the Cognition. It refers to the facet of SR related discipline from which more studies were originated to cognitive control and those functions involved in (~81%). information processing and instrumental Table 1. reasoning, such as working memory, inhibitory Percentage distribution of empirical studies in the control and attentional flexibility (Miyake & sample according to different disciplines. Friedman, 2012). Theories on Executive Functions Discipline Percentage n are the main framework for this category. Emotion. Emotional SR stands for the ability Psychology 80.98 264 to initiate, inhibit, maintain, modulate and change Cognitive Neuroscience 11.67 38 the occurrence of internal emotional processes Health Sciences 6.13 20 and their concomitant behaviors, like facial expressions and gestures (Eisenberg et al., 2000; Education Sciences 1.22 4 Gross & Thompson, 2007). Temperament. Such studies focus on Defining self-regulation from a developmental constitutionally based individual differences in perspective reactivity and SR, in the domains of affect, activity, The present work’s proposal is to generate a and attention (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). conceptual synthesis from the articles reviewed Goal-oriented activity. It refers to the and to analyze the variability in the definitions motivational dimension of SR included in the offered by different article subgroups. Figure 5 management of behavior according to goals or shows the semantic composition of SR, in relation objectives. This approach is distinctive of to the terms that are more frequently used to cybernetic models of SR, where feedback circuits define it. Following this result, eight different play an essential role in the regulation of behavior categories were generated to qualitatively (Carver & Scheier, 2000). compare definitions across articles. Although they Interpersonal factors. It corresponds with the represent diverse features of self-regulatory view that links self-regulated processes to processes, because they derive from different psychosocial phenomena, as social interactions both shape the development of SR competences 18 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 and become targets for self-regulated action arise from the internal and external environments (McClelland et al., 2010). (Gestsdóttir & Lerner, 2007; Kaplan, 2017). Physiology. It points to those perspectives Gene-environment interaction. It deals with that contemplate neurobiological bases of self- views that highlight bidirectional influences among regulated behavior and describe control individuals and their environment (Geldhof & Little, mechanisms for different physiological processes 2011). This category considers how genetic (Graziano & Derefinko, 2013; Khachouf, Chen, variability and environmental factors interact to Duzzi, Porro, & Pagnoni, 2017). shape a phenotype; as for example, the influence Conscious effort. This outlook distinguishes that certain parenting practices have over the the volitional side of self-regulated processes from expression of different alleles corresponding to other automatic or more reactive forms of genes that regulate the development of regulation, as intentional and conscious effort are temperament and attention (Sheese, Voelker, displayed in order to resolve control demands that Rothbart, & Posner, 2007).

Figure 5. Cloud Word corresponding to the most frequent terms used in the definition of SR. Note. Words that appear more frequently in the definitions look relatively bigger and darker. The location of words in the cloud is random, except for the central word (emotion) which has the highest number of occurrences. Resource allocation definitions in the sample of articles. It could be This standpoint relates SR with the ability to synthesized that most articles reviewed here distribute finite resources for the attainment of define SR in terms of conscious, goal-oriented multiple tasks. Studies in this category utilize control of cognitive and emotional aspects of willpower or cognitive load models to explain ego behavior. There seems to be a consensus that SR depletion phenomena and individual differences in refers to the ability to activate, monitor and inhibit task performance requiring sustained self-control behavior, attention, emotion and other cognitive (Kelley, Wagner, & Heatherton, 2015; Vohs & processes in a flexible and adaptive manner, in Baumeister, 2016). response to internal or external stimuli and for the Figure 6 shows how these categories are achievement of desired purposes (Dias, del averagely represented in percentage values by Castillo, & Moilanen, 2014).

19 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 Posner (185), Nancy Eisenberg (161) and Grazyna Kochanska (141). All of them are psychologists based in the United States. Instruments, indicators, temporal design, levels of organization and contexts of evaluation included in SR research Instruments used to collect indicators at the behavioral level of organization, like report measures, performance tasks and structured observations, constitute around 92 percent of the total assessments registered. The remaining 8% is almost evenly distributed between measurements made at the physiological, neuroanatomical and molecular -genetic levels. Figure 6. Conceptual profile of an average SR definition It was found that 14% of original research in the reviewed articles. articles included in this review contemplate Note. This figure shows the percentual distribution of multiple contexts in their assessments (i.e., school, conceptual labels which were used to tag each of the household, community centers). However, 468 studies included in the review. Each paper could be tagged with up to nine different labels. For example, evaluations that take place only in laboratoy Emotion, the most frequently assigned label, was settings represent the most frequent scenario in present in over 78.8% of the studies; and Resource SR research (54%). allocation, the least frequently assigned label, only In addition, longitudinal research (i.e., studies showed up in 25% of the articles reviewed. where measurements are made at different time intervals) accounts for less than a third part of all When different groups of articles are observed the original research articles reviewed. In other separately, it is possible to appreciate that words, cross-sectional design is still prevalent in conceptual definitions of SR can vary according to this field of study based on the reviewed literature. an article’s disciplinary background or to the age of Also, the distribution of the type of instuments the sample which was studied (in the case of empirical studies). Definitions from cognitive used for data collection was found to be the following: Self-report and other report measures neuroscience and psychophysiological studies together comprise 40% of total assessments, more frequently mention the incidence of followed by performance tasks (25%), other physiological factors in SR phenomena. In turn, laboratory tasks (21%), structured observations developmental psychology, health and education sciences studies more often name emotional and (6%), physiological measurements (6%), molecular-genetic analyses (1%) and interpersonal factors. Temperament is a more neuroimaging techniques (1%). In Table 2, the commonly used category in infant and toddler names of the most frequently used measures in studies, while mentions of goal-oriented activity empiric research articles are shown. and cognition increase relatively with the age range of the sample of articles included in the Finally, a list with every variable used in the operationalization of SR in empirical studies was review. generated (Table 3). These indicators are mapped As a final note to this section, the most according to the type of assessment which they influential authors in the conceptualization of SR correspond to (i.e., cognitive, physiological, were determined by the number of citations each molecular-genetic, neuroanatomical, personality author received in text fragments containing and temperament). definitions. Top cited researchers include Mary Rothbart (380), Roy Baumeister (350), Michael Table 2. List of the top 30 instruments utilized in empirical studies. Instrument Type Indicators Frequency 1. Stroop task Performance task Working memory, 27

20 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31

Inhibitory control, Attentional flexibility

Physiological 2. Electrocardiograph (ECG) Heart rate 23 measurement

3. Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone (2004) Trait Self-report Trait self-control 22 Self-Control scale

Externalizing behavior, 4. Free-play situation Structured observation 21 Parent-child co-regulation Effortful control, 5. Child Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Putnam & Other report Negative Affectivity, 19 Rothbart, 2006). Surgency, Extraversion

Physiological 6. EEG recording Event-related potentials 18 measurement

7. Gift Delay task (Kochanska, Murray, Jacques, Laboratory task Effortful control 14 Koenig, & Vandegeest, 1996).

8. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, Internalizing/ Other report 14 1991) Externalizing problems

9. Whole-brain blood oxygen level-dependent Physiological (BOLD) fMRI data acquired using an MRI Arterial oxygen saturation 13 measurement scanner Effortful control,

10. Laboratory Temperament Assessment Laboratory task Negative Affectivity, 13 Battery (LABTAB; Goldsmith & Rothbart, 1993) Surgency, Extraversion

11. Snack Delay task (Kochanska et al., 1996). Laboratory task Effortful control 12

12. Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Self-report Positive/Negative affectivity 10 Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988)

13. Go/No-Go task Performance task Inhibitory control 10

14. Action control scale (ACS: Kuhl, 1994). Self-report Action control 9

15. DNA analysis by proteinase digestion and Molecular-genetic DNA sequence 8 chloroform extraction procedure. analysis

Inattentiveness,

16. Conners (1992) Continuous Performance Impulsivity, Performance task 8 Test. Sustained attention,

Vigilance

Effortful control,

17. Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ; Rothbart, Other report Negative Affectivity, 8 1981). Surgency, Extraversion

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18. Brief Mood Introspection Scale (BMIS; Mayer Self-report Positive/Negative affectivity 7 & Gaschke, 1988)

19. Family interaction tasks (Volling, McElwain, & Externalizing behavior, Structured observation 7 Miller, 2002) Parent-child co-regulation

20. Crossing-out-letter task (Tice, Baumeister, Ego-depletion Performance task 7 Shmueli, & Muraven, 2007). Sustained attention

21. Thought suppression task (white bear; Thought suppression, Performance task 7 Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister, 1998). Ego-depletion

Effortful control,

22. Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire Other report Negative Affectivity, 7 (ECBQ; Putnam, Gartstein, & Rothbart, 2006) Surgency, Extraversion

23. Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Behavioral approach, Self-report 6 Activation Scale (Carver & White, 1994) Behavioral inhibition

24. Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale Self-report Emotional regulation 6 (DERS; Gratz & Roemer, 2004)

25. Selection, Optimization, and Compensation Self-report Goal pursuit 6 (SOC) Questionnaire (Freund & Baltes, 2002)

26. Self-Regulation Scale (SRS; Schwarzer, Attention control, Self-report 6 Diehl, & Schmitz,1999) Goal pursuit

Physiological Electrical activity produced 27. Electromyograph (EMG) 6 measurement by skeletal muscles

28. Clean- up sessions were coded for parent Compliance, and child behaviors in 60-s intervals (Kochanska Structured observation Parent-child 6 & Aksan, 1995) co-regulation

29. Delay of Gratification task (Mischel, 1974) Laboratory task Delay of Gratification 6

Ego-depletion, 30. Anagram puzzles (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Performance task 6 Muraven, & Tice, 1998). Sustained attention

Table 3. List with indicators associated to the operational definition of SR in empirical research articles Genetic Tempera- Neuro- Cognitive Behavioral Physio-logical Emo-tional Personality mole- ment anatomical cular abstract arterial oxygen- activation cortical surface action control anxiety agreeableness 5-httlpr thinking saturation control area character effortful cortical appraisal adjustment blood pressure caring BDNF strenghts control thickness asimilation/ correct-related- Conscientious- grey matter agression coping CHRNA4 fearfulness accomodat-ion negativity ness volume

regulatory- attention anticipatory subcortical cortisol depression extraversion COMT capacity/ focusing looking volume orienting

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cumulativ emotion attention antisocial critical fusion e white matter suppres- neuroticism soothability processing behavior frequency genetic- volumen sion plasticity

emotional cognitive diastolic blood drd4 attachment dysregulati regulatory mode surgency control pressure genotype on

dynamic maoa-u cognitive behavioral functional- emotional shyness vntr flexibility aproach network function-ing genotype connectivity cognitive behavioral electromyogra emotional social SNAP25 functioning functioning m intelligence fearfulness

state cognitive behavioral error-related emotional orientation/ planning inhibition negativity reactivity action- orientation cognitive self- behavioral emotional error positivity regulation outcomes resilience

feedback- emotional constructive behavioral related- self- thinking self-regulation negativity regulation

child crystallized frontal externalizing empathy intelligence asymmetry behavior delay competence glucose uptake frustration discounting

interperson ego-depletion compliance glycaemia al affect- regulation

conformity to error correction social- heart period irritability expectations

delay mood error detection heart rate gratification lability error interbeat mood state engagement monitoring interval regulation

negative/ executive facial late positive positive- attention expression potential affectivity executive proneness eye gaze n1 erp control to anger

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socio- executive emotional- goal pursuit n100 erp functioning competenc e

socio- fluid hyperactivity n2 erp emotional- intelligence outcomes future impulsivity n200 erp stress discounting

Implementation stress inattention nc erp - intentions reactivity

internalization Inhibitory of rules- of p1 erp control conduct

internalizing/ intelligence externalizing p2 erp

problems

Intentional Self- joint attention p3 erp regulation interference lack of effort p300 erp suppression memory mastery p450 erp

mastery parasympatheti mental effort motivation c- flexibility

physiological- metacognition motivation responsivenes s mindfulness motor control respiration rate

respiratory monitoring obedience sinus- arrhythmia

resting state negativity bias oppositionality fmri

skin parent-child orienting conductance co-regulation level

parent-child perceptions of mutually- slow waves control responsive orientation

parental self- systolic blood planification control pressure problem patience testosterone solving abilities

24 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 promotion/ prevention- peer vagal activity regulatory cooperation focus

persistence/gr psychological it/persev- vagal recovery flexibility erance

positive youth- vertex positive reappraisal development potential private reasoning speech reflective problem awareness behaviors response prosocial inhibition behavior selective risk behavior attention self-assurance self-change self-awareness self-control

self- self-concept determination self-efficacy self-motivation

self- self-esteem regulatory- competences

self- self-regulatory regulatory- thought strategies self-worth self-reliance shifting self-soothing subjective self- self-talk control sustained social attention competence task theory of mind attentiveness thought urgency suppression thoughtful visual information- attention processing updating

25 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 visuospatial working- memory willpower working memory Note. ERP = Event Related Potential; 5-HTT = Serotonin Transporter; BDNF = Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor; CHRNA4 = Cholinergic Receptor Nicotinic Alpha 4 Subunit; COMT = Catechol-O-MethylTransferase; DRD4 = Dopamine Receptor D4; MAO-A = MonoAmine Oxidase A; SNAP2 = Synaptosomal-Associated Protein, 25kDa. characteristics of the population they study. In Discussion other words, the description of self-regulatory Summary of main findings processes that a researcher chooses can be Since the number of published articles on SR biased by grounding disciplinary practices and is rising, and since studies usually approach the also by the developmental stage which is being subject from different theoretical and disciplinary studied. Factors from the socio-cultural context frameworks, defining SR can often result can also shape research practices, acting like problematic (Bridgett, Oddi, Laake, Murdock, & ideological frameworks (Kuhn, 1962; Latour & Bachmann, 2013). Some authors consider that Woolgar, 1979; Lerner, 2018). scientific literature in this area lacks theoretical Growing interdisciplinary collaboration in the order, and that disagreements in how to define study of SR holds a hopeful prospect for unified self-regulatory constructs generates confusion that definitions. Developmental scientists (i.e., hinders the coherent integration of this body of psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, health knowledge (Cervone et al., 2006). It has been and educational practitioners) tend to utilize SR to noted that some works offer vague designate processes involved in the development conceptualizations, with insufficient clarity or of conscious self-control over intentional activity, tautological statements (Burman, Green, & which includes cognitive, emotional, physiological Shanker, 2015). In fact, the present study found and social phenomena that can be influenced that over a 30% of the articles reviewed did not across the life span by different biological and define SR explicitly, but that readers are often left contextual factors. to make their own inferences or forced to interpret Furthermore, original research articles the meaning of the concept from the context in contemplate SR phenomena at different levels of which it is used or from the presence of associated organization, including physiological, attentional, constructs. This finding is not incidental and has emotional, other cognitive and interpersonal been reported previously (Barkley, 2001). functioning domains (Calkins & Fox, 2002). Many The results from the semantic analysis of text of these studies have paid attention to the fragments that conceptualize SR can be everyday settings in which people develop and summarized by stating that aspects which interact with each other, in their own houses or at generally have a stronger presence in the educational institutions, for instance. However, this conceptual definition of the construct are conception is not always followed by the use of emotionality, cognition, goal-oriented activity, appropriate instruments, methods and design to conscious effort, interpersonal and physiological capture SR phenomena in a naturalistic or factors. There seems to be a consensus that SR ecological manner. Despite this diversity in refers to the ability to activate, monitor and inhibit assessment contexts, the laboratory setting behavior, attention, emotion and other cognitive continues to be the most frequent scenario for SR processes in a flexible and adaptive manner, in research. response to internal or external stimuli and for the In the last decades, developmental theories achievement of desired purposes (Dias et al., have strived to leave behind simplistic approaches 2014). It was found that the way in which and conceptual reductionism, by taking into researchers operationalize SR can vary according account the interactions that occur over time to their disciplinary background, theoretical among different systems involved in human framework, or even in relation to the development (Lerner, 2006; 2018; Posner &

26 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 Rothbart, 2007). A shift into interdisciplinary Despite SR has been studied in different perspectives is necessary to achieve real cultures, the great majority of articles analyzed progress, with the incorporation of methods here have worked with North American samples. emerging from computing sciences, economic This means that not every conclusion to which sciences, neuroscience, molecular biology, these studies arrive to are generalizable to other sociology, statistics and psychology. cultural contexts, because variability in Another of our objectives was to understand sociocultural patterns, like socialization practices, how researchers operationalize SR. This crucial condition the development of SR processes (Liu et phase in research design, in which variables or al., 2017). Efforts to tackle the study of SR and its indicators are defined for their effective development in local cultures through original observation and measurement, allows phenomena research proposals, scale adaptations and to be approached empirically and quantitively replication studies, continues to be an imperant (Hernández Sampieri, Fernández Collado, & necesity for public policy planning. Baptista Lucio, 1991). The detailed inspection of Concerning the debate on whether SR should methodological sections in empirical studies offers be considered a number of fixed, context- a general overview on how SR has been independent traits or a group of skills that can be operationalized in recent years. While it is possible improved, the present scientific consensus holds to appreciate the inclusion of genome sequencing that despite the construct appears to show techniques and physiological measures, like vagal relatively rank-order stable features over time in autonomic nervous system activity, salivary the absence of exogenous forces (i.e., intentional cortisol concentrations and neuroimaging (i.e., intervention, life events, changes in social roles), FMRI, EEG, PET), their use is not widespread evidence is at odds with the connotation of (Bell & Deater-Deckard, 2007; Sheese et al., immutability, because it has been demostrated 2007). The behavioral level of organization that such personal qualities are potentially continues to be the focus of descriptions on responsive to intervention and dependent on cognitive and emotional control. Report scales, situational factors for their expression (Duckworth cognitive performance tasks and other laboratory- & Yeager, 2015). As for the problem of increasing based procedures are among the main reliability and validity in the assessment of SR, instruments implemented during empiric perfectly unbiased, unfakeable, and error-free assessments of SR. Physiological and structured measures do not exist at the present time, so observational measurements in other than multimethod, application-dependent approaches to laboratory settings are scarse. measurement are desireable in order to transcend Both experimental and correlational methods the limitations and exploit the strenghts of are used in the study of SR (Eisenberg, individual tools (Duckworth & Kern, 2011; Duckworth, Spinrad & Valiente, 2014). The Duckworth & Yeager, 2015; McCoy, 2019). present work focused in the temporal aspect of Limitations research design, because different reviews The purpose of this review was to identify highlight the importance of chronologic sensitivity contemporary conceptualizations of SR in in the study of development and SR (Lerner, 2006; normative developmental research, including McClelland et al., 2010). Findings show that two- theoretical definitions and methods used to assess thirds of original research articles employed cross- it. This reduction constitutes the scope of our work sectional designs, but an increase in the number and it necessarily leaves out contributions form of longitudinal studies could be expected in the clinical research, interventions programs and upcoming years. Many authors that make use of domain specific studies on SR, like self-regulated cross-sectional designs remark the need to adopt learning or SR of health behavior. Although such longitudinal approaches as an imortant future studies definitely provide different and valuable direction. In addition, while the study of how SR views on SR research, the amount of published develop takes into account the whole life cycle, our works on these issues alone would justify that they results show that adult samples are are reviewed separately. overrepresented. The study of SR during infancy, It is possible that the databases that were childhood and adolescence constitutes a crucial consulted did not index all existing articles on the target for future research.

27 Nachon, J. I., Segretin, M. S. y Lipina, S. J. / RACC, 2020, Vol. 12, N°3, 13-31 normal development of SR. In such case, relevant However, there is still not sufficient agreement on studies that could modify the results of our the specific pathways that coact in the analysis may have been left out, unintentionally. development of SR, nor on the exact degree in Because of this, the conclusions to which this which SR processes can be altered for the benefit review has arrived must be contemplated within of individuals and their communities. These will the limits of our sample. Furthermore, the probably continue to be important isssues during restrained or simplified use of keywords in our the next decades of research. search strategy can be considered another Author Contribution Statements important limitation, because the number of J.I.N, and S.J.L. were involved in the design of articles associated to constructs like executive the study. Data were collected by J.I.N. with the functions, temperament and personality (which are assistance of S.J.L. Data analysis and writing were intertwined in the theorization of SR) greatly performed by J.I.N., M.S.S., and S.J.L. exceed those that are properly labeled or addressed as part of the SR literature. Conflict of Interest Statement Another limitation is that despite abidance to The authors declare that the research was PRISMA criteria and the sole consideration of peer conducted in the absence of any commercial or reviewed journals, in order to guarantee some financial relationships that could be construed as a methodological rigor, the authors cannot potential conflict of interest. completely control the publication bias and Acknowledgments therefore cannot guarantee full access to the data in the realm of this review. The authors thank Mariana C. Smulski for Comparing the strength and suitability of assisting us with the Atlas.ti analysis. different instruments for the assessment of SR Research was supported by Unidad de requires a meta-analytical approach that is beyond Neurobiología Aplicada (UNA, CEMIC-CONICET) the scope of this review and it is therefore an issue and FONCYT. Corresponding grant identifiers: that should be addressed by future studies CONICET (PIP 2015 N° 0794, PIP-2014 N° 0500), (readers interested in this discussion are advised Fondo para la Investigación Científica y to look into the following essays: Duckworth & Tecnológica –FONCYT- (PICT 2017: “Análisis del Kern, 2011; Duckworth & Yeager, 2015; McCoy, impacto de las experiencias infantiles asociadas a 2019). diferentes condiciones socioeconómicas en el desempeño cognitivo, emocional y académico”. Conclusions Investigadora Responsable: María Soledad Developmental science has seen profuse Segretin). conceptual, methodological and technical advancement in the study of SR over past References decades. Current efforts in this interdisciplinary Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior field seek to implement research designs that Checklist. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, reflect a longitudinal, multidimensional and Department of Psychiatry. ecological view of self-regulatory processes, Barkley, R. A. (2001). The Executive Functions and through diverse, age-appropriate, reliable and Self-Regulation: An Evolutionary valid measures, that are sensitive to cultural Neuropsychological Perspective. Neuropsychology variability and contextual influences (Bell & Review, 11(1), 1–29. doi: Deater-Deckard, 2007; Bridgett, Burt, Edwards, & 10.1023/A:1009085417776 Deater-Deckard, 2015; McClelland et al., 2010). Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, The main aspect of SR that is usually emphazised D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a in its definition is that multiple general domain limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1252–1265. doi: 10.1037/0022- processes are involved in the development of 3514.74.5.1252 conscious self-control over intentional activity. SR Bell, M. A., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2007). Biological processes include interlocking cognitive, Systems and the Development of Self-Regulation: emotional, physiological and social phenomena Integrating Behavior, Genetics, and that can be influenced across the life span by Psychophysiology: Journal of Developmental & different biological and contextual factors. Behavioral Pediatrics, 28(5), 409–420. doi:

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