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Functional to Fashionable: Knitwear's Evolution Throughout the Last Century and Into the Millennium

Functional to Fashionable: Knitwear's Evolution Throughout the Last Century and Into the Millennium

Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007

Functional to Fas hionable: Knitwear’s Evolution throughout the Last Century and into the Millennium

Dr J. Power MA BSc ATI CtexT ILTM Senior Lecturer in Technology Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Since the days of the humble , knitwear has expanded into a revolutionary industry that is classified within the high fashion category. This paper presents an investigation into knitwear’s evolution, which can only be described as remarkable from functional items of to fashionable cutting edge styling utilizing the most advanced technology. The first obvious sign of knitwear changing its role from functional to fashionable, occurred during the latter part of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century, and since then knitwear has never looked back. The 1920s brought about the birth of the classic twin -set promoted strongly by the English gentry and reinforced by a huge advertising campaign that pushed knitwear irrevocably to the forefront of fashion. The 30s remained quiet in terms of knitted fashion whilst the knitwear industry struggled to survive against the cheaper foreign imports. By the mid 30s the industry had recovered and had become ever more directional. However, it was not until after the second world war that a strong push was made in terms of design education to promote knitwear as a fashion item in its own right (rather than a mere accessory). Post the Second World War, fabric was in abundance and the classic knitted twin-set once again became high fashion with American film stars promoting the sophisticated image of knit. What a pity by the time we arrived at the forward thinking 50s we had not yet developed the electronics to support the innovation. Pioneers in the field of 3-D development were hindered by the lack of technology during this period and to some extent the technology did not materialize until the birth of the new millennium.

Keywords: Knitwear, Technology, , Functional Clothing, Fashion Knitwear, Evolution

Functional knits could probably be identified as functional clothing rather than items of fashion. The Many Authors have traced the knitting of thinner, more comfortable woven bias cut leg coverings back to 15th and 16th century versions were later adopted as a general men’s [1,2]. However, the coarse trend primarily for factors associated with woolen structures experienced a low comfort and improved production. The first comfort factor in terms of the human notable influence of knitted goods in relation physiological requirements and therefore to true fashion was credited to the birth of

Article Designation: Scholarly 1 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 the fully-fashioned hand knitted hose – fully-fashioning) was completely accepted this had a dramatic effect in terms of in social circles [1]. aesthetic qualities, which was further exploited during the Elizabethan era by rich During the same period of innovation, there embellishment to imply status and wealth; were significant developments in circular Perhaps this is the first example of designer knitting machines, which led this method of knitwear history can provide. Brackenbury production replacing the frames production reports that individuals spent half their of half-hose and [3]. Most of the yearly income on a single pair of hose, thus mechanical operations on the circular indicating the desirability of the product [1]. machine became automatically controlled This provides us with Lee’s reasoning for and by the year 1915, even welt turning beginning the developments that led to the became a reality. The manufacturers of the mechanical action of knitting and eventually straight bar frame responded by creating the birth of the frame in 1589. It coarser gauges to produce underwear. This should be noted that was still brought with it the opportunity to practiced extensively even after the experiment with processes to create a whole commercialization of Lee’s frame around new shaping technology and garment fit. 1620 [1]. However, it diversified into coarser New styles of underwear, such as the union products for crafts and outerwear. immerged (men’s under vest and pants) [3]. By 1914 the transition from a domestic There is also evidence that the hand knitting cottage industry to a factory system was skills developed by the Spanish sailors virtually complete in [4]. The coarser during the 16th century became common machines used for underwear practice in ports around the globe [1]. Again provided advanced shaping technology, this provides us with evidence of knitwear’s whic h could be manipulated to create 3-D place in history as functional clothing. shapes. Individual styles began to evolve Garments produced for seamen served as from the different shaping methods barriers meeting requirements in terms of regarding garment fit and unique styling. protection and warmth without restricting Around this time there were advancements bodily movement [1,3]. in machinery that created mixed options with scope for individual interpretation. Knitwear changing roles Underwear existed were shaping was achieved through a combination of methods The first obvious sign of knitwear changing (fully-fashioning and changing structures); its role occurred during the latter part of the this provided a unique styling opportunity 19th century and the early part of the 20th for design. It was apparent during this period century. Important developments occurred that much had been learned from the toe in English that changed the role of shaping from the prior decade. The new knitwear forever. Men’s dress shifted from styles of the era “raglan sleeves” first to , obviously having a appeared around 1912 generating trends in significant impact on the knitted hosiery hand knitting, this was acknowledged as a industry. The knitters were forced by the well fitting style line and even today change in fashion trends to diversify into remains popular. There was also the new markets. This was an important period controversial development of “cut and sew” in knitwear since the manufacturers had to knitwear, which caused immense unrest in indulge in new product development leading knitwear manufacture especially in into the women’s wear market. By 1910 Nottingham [1], which was not truly accepted knitwear was established as an item of until some later years. fashion in the modern women’s wardrobe, the idea of knit to fit (i.e. the concept of

Article Designation: Scholarly 2 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 The prosperous war goods, especially when made from high quality fabric like interlock’ [4]. Around this The war years (1914-1918) proved to be period there was a boom in American prosperous for the knitwear industry with manufactured machines, integral knitting in many manufacturers working on the form of producing with the government contracts for hosiery and heal and toes shaped during the loop underwear. The demand for woolen jumpers forming operation became popular and with no fastenings, which could be pulled hosiery produced around that period in the over the head, was boosted [5], probably due UK became dependent on these machines. to lack of supplies and manufacture of The old complaint of low-quality hosiery, fastenings. Some authors classify this as the which had frequently been a cause of make-do and mend era in terms of knitted concern in the old days, reappeared again fashion innovation and recognize that much but was directed against Japanese imports, in terms of fashion direction was owed to which had a decisive advantage in the skills of hand knitting [3]. international trade because of the combination of modern machinery and low Generally after the war knitted goods took wages [4]. two directions 1) cut and sew, and 2) knit to shape (fully-fashioned). Fashion had Knitted underwear and hosiery continued to suffered from the shortage of materials generate income after the war. However, during the war, this gave birth to a new era Millington reported that it was only with the likes of Chanel at the helm. moderately successful and the salvation was rose six inches off of the ground by 1916 in reality the ‘great leisurewear boom’ that opening a new era in innovation and trend occurred in outerwear shortly after the war [6]. In terms of knitted fashion there was a [1]. Capital was invested in the knitwear strong masculine influence, this was the age manufacturing industries around 1918/19 of , tubular functional were which led to extensive factory expansions; fashionable, which did their utmost to there was an inflationary boom, which obliterate waistlines, hips and busts [7]. The caused selling prices to rise faster than designer Gabrielle Chanel contributed production [4]. Quality underwear producers significantly to jerseywear developments in in Scotland diversified into high-grade the 1920s. In 1926 she introduced her “little outerwear produced in rare for both black jersey dress” and for the first time export to American and French design hemlines were cut at knee length [6,8]. Chanel houses and for their own classics [3,6]. The took the fabric previously used for men’s amount and variation in styles and colors underwear into the realms of high fashion increased rapidly to provide a wide range of ladies daywear, which was cut and sewn outerwear [7]. Mason acknowledges that only together [3]; this probably influenced the high quality are used in fully- growth of cut and sew. fashioned goods because of the costs machines were producing plain fabric for cut involved in their production (1981) [6]. This and sew garments, however, effort was obviously limits knitwear’s influence on directed to more versatility around this time, fashion and would explain why fashion electric cutters became available to speed up turned to the less expensive jersey fabrics the process [4]. Other circular produced for inspiration, and the reasoning behind the knitted fabrics became popular such as vast variation in fabric quality. brushed structures. During this period there was significant development in the garment The birth of casual dress make-up, flatlock seams were introduced which created a fine join in comparison to Hosiery suffered a series of sharp setbacks the overlocked seam. ‘This innovation did due to the new fashions and cultural change. much to enhance the status of cut and sewn Men’s fashions changed from to

Article Designation: Scholarly 3 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 trousers in the early 20th century and ladies however, by the mid 20s was a skirts got gradually shorter [9]. During this common choice for outerwear, taking its period there is evidence of women claiming influence from the causal lifestyle. By the ever more independence, which was mid 20’s there was a move towards fancy, reflected in the masculine stylelines in novelty garments and manufacturers vogue [8]. Although the hosiery market was satisfied this by utilizing special such general shrinking, the market share of silk as angora, vicuna, camel and alpaca. and (which offered a substitute for However, at the dawn of the 1930s it was silk) was growing in the UK, as rayon from Scottish cashmere that dominated high America became commercially available quality knitwear, which was popularized by from 1924 [9]. ‘The art and volume of Pringles, Jaeger and the other classic British advertising multiplied in the years between manufacturers [7]. However, it was Pringle the wars, and hosiery and knitwear who first realized in the late 20s that manufacturers were not slow to exploit continental fashion was growing rapidly, developments that were already moving in and so in 1934 in order to stay ahead of the their favor’ [9]. It is not difficult to find competition the Austrian designer Otto Weiz reasons for the adoption of knitwear for such was appointed. Otto was responsible for the activities, many authors acknowledged the first styled range aimed at the continental inherent qualities of knitwear in terms of; market [3,7]. Hence, designer knits were born. comfort, freedom, elasticity, and durability (amongst others) [1,2,3]. Knitted underwear

The post war knitwear boom had collapsed The end of the 20s threatened the British by the early 1920s [4]. Knitting goods were underwear industry with cheaper foreign forced to diversify into other markets, the imports. To ensure the stability of the British most notable being casualwear. Influence knitting trade importation duties were was taken from the wealthy British country introduced on all imported knitted goods lifestyle and the landed gentry, enabling the from 1931 [4]. This enabled British hosiery traditional English and Scottish high-class and knitwear industries to grow, which were manufacturers to supply the world markets assisted by the fashion trends of the era [4]. with the ir quality knitted goods [3]. The Skirts got shorter thus there was a classic casual look soon developed into the requirement for stocking, many stockings sport look, which was strongly promoted by were produced from silk but there were intensive advertising campaigns. A major rapid improvements from rayon enabling a advertising campaign took place in 1930 less expensive version to be produced that featuring middle class families wearing the were finer, these were less durable than the new casual knits whilst engaging in a variety silk counterparts, however they met the of leisurely pursuits [7]. fashion needs. The circular knitted hose was developed but there was still bagginess During the 1920s knitted fashions were split around the ankle area and it was for this into two style trends; classic items such as reason that they were considered inferior to the stylish twin-sets for ladies wear, which the traditional fully-fashioned stockings was aided by machine developments such as produced on the straight bar frame [2]. By the the new attachment to produce the V-neck mid 30s the British knitting industry had shape [2]; and knitted ranges recovered from the general depression of the which featured the new technologies of the early years, production of hosiery increased era, 1926 saw the introduction of the ‘…first by half, but underwear almost doubled [9]. motor-driven jacquard flat machine’ [2], Underwear sales grew with the rise in living which allowed patterned knitwear standards (and cheaper production methods, production. At the beginning of this period cut and sew on circular machines) and more Australian high grade wools were popular, variety was demanded by the consumer to

Article Designation: Scholarly 4 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 match the trends in outerwear. ‘Spiers hand knitting was again popular with style produced a successful machine of this type lines turning to short sleeves, due to the lack in 1930, termed the Spensa Purl machine’ [2]. of resources. 1941 saw a decline in silk This machine was a circular weft knitter stocking and their cheaper counter parts capable of producing purl structures with (cotton and rayon) were soon in short supply tubular welts and rib borders. Wools were because of the problems effecting imports replaced with less expensive and lighter during the war. This encouraged the bare leg and ; this prompted the look or hand knitted footlets. The era after popularity of cotton underwear [4]. During the second-world war had a massive impact this period cotton interlock was patented as on the hosiery industry with the introduction a new fabric, this was remarkably fine and of commercially [9]. The most soft in texture, which made it an expensive attractive feature of nylon is its ability to be fabric [4]. Rayons growing popularity was given a permanent set – the value being to evident in stockings – silk was still the best the nylon hose [6]. Nylon’s thermoplastic fully-fashioned hose but for mass demand properties allowed a seamless hose to be circular (seamless) rayon was next best [4]. produced and heat set (in addition it was By the end of the 30s millions of underwear cheap, strong, fine and uniform). Hence, the garment were produced on the circular classic fully-fashioned hose had no longer a overlock machines [7]. Wells acknowledged place in the fashion market. Courtauld’s and that during this era knitted outerwear ICI had licensing agreements with Dupont garments were less important, ‘…but the from 1939 but is wasn’t until the completion vogue was beginning’ [4]. During the years of a new plant in 1948 that major scale between the two world wars knitwear was production for the Nylon begun in UK mainly a woman’s market with men’s items changing the face of stockings for ever [6]. only required in the form of sports shirts, pullovers and cardigans [4]. In terms of Outerwear saw a dramatic change in styling styling this was the era of detailed shaping, as hemlines returned to the ankles during the fitted waists slightly broader shoulders and 40s, this obviously required more fabric and intricately shaped necklines. It was were , Christian Dior introduced his new look woven styles began to be mimicked into 3-D – fitted skirts, which finished 16 inches from knitted goods (most women were proficient the ground [9]. During this period Hollywood dressmakers), darts or holding began to played a highly influential role in fashion appear which were part of the knitting knitwear. The film stars of the day and other pattern. were short, knitted with rib celebrities were sent the classic twin-set [7]. texture, short sleeves and ties necklines It provided glamour and glitz to classic knit proved popular. This was an important era in silhouettes bringing them into mainstream terms of the shift from functionality to fashion by introducing the girls [3]. fashion. ‘The tendency for woolen Gulvin quotes a letter from Deborah Kerr in underwear to be supplanted by fancy woolen 1949 thanking Pringles for the twin-set [7]. outerwear, noted in the inter-war period, This styling exploited the natural stretch continued after 1945’ [7]. It was noted at the properties within the knitted structure to end of this period that there was a lacking in produce figure, skimming sweaters [3]. design education to move the industry However, yet another crises hit the knitwear forward in line with hand knits [7]. market in the early 50s (Korean war) and with it came increases in prices, which The war years and synthetics contributed, to a worldwide recession in [7]. The early war years saw a sharp decline in hosiery and knitwear [4] this was an era of The years after 1953 saw a peak in the make do and mend with rationing on British hosiery industry, nylon fully- clothing introduced in 1941. During this era fashioned stockings produced on straight bar

Article Designation: Scholarly 5 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 frames became finer and productivity rose introduced, opening up patterning possibility [2]. This was prompted by the advancements as previously unseen [2]. of the circular heat-settable seamless stocking, the problems of bagginess was It is interesting at this point to report, solved heat shaping could now occur. This “…berets were the rage of New York” [10]. was one of the dramatic changes in the Further to this we can see attempts by knitting industry [2]. Fashion styles became knitwear pioneers to advance the machine simpler so did machines and make-up technology. Macqueen patented his idea to techniques in hosiery. However, fashions use the beret technique (flechage) progressed and by the end of the 50s the for producing outerwear in the late 50s [25]. bare leg look was the rage [2]. This is Emma Pfauti based her concept of complete confirmed by Brackenbury were he states garment around a yoke [25]. However, the ‘…ladies hose which suffered a dramatic technology of that era was not advanced eclipse in the early 1960s when a fashion enough (variable stroke was a significant change wiped out an enormous industry problem). There appears to be evidence virtually overnight’ [1] from Essingers account of working life that couture cardigans from Paris “Elsa A new word in fashion Schisparelli” (designer label) around late 50s were knitted in one piece with no seams Mid 50s a new word entered the fashion “…there were no seams anywhere because arena “casual” [10], separates became the the welt, sleeves and stole were knitted into trend, (i.e. a and matching unstructured the shape” [10]. Essinger goes on further to ) – these were commonly referred to as descried the fit as superb “…sitting so jumper . Acrylic became popular lightly on the waist and shoulders you because it could be blended with wool in hardly knew you were wearing it” [10]. outerwear garments producing easycare During the 50s large companies such as garments. and techniques Courtaulds and ICI boomed, with M & S also improved around this time extending setting the quality standard; and BHS / the present use of raw materials [4]. Lycra Littlewoods producing cheaper products. became a commercial reality with its The 50s was very much about machine properties suited to the casual market. The development, faster speeds, and increased sleeve sweater of the 50s, which patterning opportunity. If only the had wales, that ran in the vertical direction electronics could have developed in-line rather than in the horizontal became high with the 50s innovation, who knows were fashion [1]. This style line (with folds knitted fashion would have been now. developing under the arms and around the tightly constrained waist) was produced The diversification of the industry from plain . The advantage of plain fabric was its drapeability and ease of The swinging 60s brought wealth and bending in both planes [1]. prosperity to all sectors of the knitting industry. Due to the technical advancements Until the mid 50s had tended of warp knitting machinery during the late to be small, however ‘the development of 50s, it has been reported that by the 60s this the modern specific -purpose raschels dates was the fastest growing section of British from 1956, when a 12 guide bar raschel hosiery industry incorporating mainly man- machine led to the rise of the raschel made fibers [4]. This industry directly industry’ [2]. In addition to developments in competed with woven and by 1969 it was warp knitting, weft knitting had some estimated that 50% of men’s shirts were innovation of its own the first purpose built made from warp knitted fabrics [4]. double jersey circular machine which could produce knit, miss and tuck stitches was

Article Designation: Scholarly 6 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 There were also significant diversifications demand for textiles composed of synthetic in weft knitting by the early 60s, the cotton fibers reached a peak during this period’ [2]. patent machine is reported to have This era is credited to the black poloneck abandoned hosiery production in favor of sweater and Benetton’s colorful ranges [3]. It outerwear [9]. During the mid years 18 firms wasn’t until the mid 70s that the jersey from the hosiery industry [4] had been taken bubble burst partly due to the Italians over, which demonstrates the wide designers who were becoming recognized diversification and modification of the internationally for their classic knitwear industry. Courtauld and ICI grew and so did styling [3]. Coats Paton whose success was attributed due to Jaegers triumphs as a retailer – one The advent of the mini skirt by the mid third of Jaegers payroll were employed on sixties again effected hosiery production as knitwear manufacturer [9] and Otto Weisz individuals moved from wearing stocking to led Pringle to expand into men’s fashion in self-supporting tights [2]. This prompted 1961/62. During the 60s Scottish knitwear innovation and advancement in hosiery grew dramatically and UK exports grew and machinery, and by 1967 toe closing was more than doubled between the mid years [4] possible on the circular machine [2]. During this obviously influenced diversification into the 60s rose to be the leading specifically designed export ranges. The company in UK hosiery, assisted by the USA is reported to have responded to this launch of hold-ups in 1967 [9]. By the late new development faster than UK 60s Pretty Polly had commercially produced particularly in men’s fashion, therefore a the “banana type panty hose” (one-piece substantial export trade was established [4]. tights) [1,2]. In addition to the diversification of weft knitting into the outerwear sector the 60s is Moving to the later years there was a great credited as the double jersey/jacquard boom, belief in the industry that new technology this structure created a shift from woven must be found to drive the fabrics to knitted fabrics. This was the forward. The concept of pressing the knitted advantage of the new technologies, and stitch prior to loop formation was becoming machine builders (Bentley, Stibbe-Monk reality. The Courtauld’s team led by Frank and Kirkland) had many patents in needle Robinson developed the presser foot. This selection mechanisms to carry out the opened up a whole new era for knitted function of lifting needles to knit or leaving patterns and stitch holding techniques. It them down to miss during this period [1, 9]. was found that it was possible to begin During the decade from 1963 the yarn knitting on empty needles with the consumption in double jersey increased assistance of a mechanical device. However, especially filament type yarns such as their patent relating to the production of this assisted in placing seamless garments by producing tubes polyester knitted items at the forefront of prevented other from developing the idea female fashion and by 1969 double jersey further [1]. These early technological had over 50% of the knitting market [1, 2]. advances are now a standard on modern Hence, here fashion was machine led – knitting machines, but it took them twenty without the machine innovation these years to evolve into what we see today. The mechanisms would never have enabled vogue of the period was now producing fashion to have machine jacquard. Again the simpler garments, which called for less properties of the knitted structure were sewing and cutting out. Two important exploited; the stretch nature of rib structures machine developments in this era were the gave rise to a figure-hugging silhouette that launch of the Protti PDE wovens could not achieve. ‘The period from machine at ITMA, which stunned the world. the mid-1960s to 1973 is often regarded by It was the first example of needle selection knitters as a golden age because fashionable

Article Designation: Scholarly 7 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 by electro/mechanical means and Shima’s [2]. According to Black an ‘…explosion of seamless glove machine [2,11]. new ideas created a shift, as knitwear markets polarized into the older age-groups The golden knits buying classic and traditional knitwear and the growing younger, fashion-oriented During the early 70s an unsuccessful attempt consumer buying ‘items’ for impact – often was made to break into the US men’s colorful, hand-knitted, patterned sweater’ [2]. leisurewear market with double jersey The early 70s saw skinny ribbed knitwear in structures produced from filament yarns. cut and sew styles with synthetic yarns, 1973 saw the peak of double jersey which were highly promoted both by the produced from filament yarns and the over manufacturers and fashion outlets. This was expended industry failed to penetrate into not a challenge to technology but was a new area [2]. Ladies fashion around this time move away from the basic classic sweater of was turning back to natural fibers produced the 60s. Knit altogether became sexier for from woven cloth; hence knitwear was not the young and carefree. 1975 saw ‘the first the craze [2]. By the early 70s Milan had fully electronic flat machine’ [2]. This risen to be the fashion capital of the world. enabled jacquard patterns to be produced Italian knitwear such as the sophisticated from “jacquard steels” which enabled unique style of Missoni was highly colored motifs to be combined with other promoted in international publications such stitch variations. According to Brackenbury as Vogue and was the talk of international knitwear dominated fashion in the late 70s fashion conversation [3]. and early 80s [1]. Kenzo wrapped the fashion conscious women in brightly colored knit During the 70s worldwide production was layers in the Jungle Jap label [3]. There are greatly influenced by knitwear designers [3], other examples such as Coogi (Australian this opened up the mainstream fashion company) utilizing a man’s sweater that markets to the knitwear industry, thus combines color (in the form of jacquard) and providing scope for innovation and new texture which is only achievable through technological development [3]. Black partial knitting [3], which was still expensive associates the technological drive with to produce during this era. ‘However, in cut design development [3], but it is clear from and sew knitwear it faced competition from the earlier decades that technological the less versatile but more highly productive advancement pushed opportunities for circular garment-length knitting machines. design as a method of survival, and post war Additionally in the production of classic, design education began catching up and plain fully-fashioned knitwear it was unable utilizing the available technology. During to challenge the shaping facilities of the the 70s knitwear boom, strong influence was straight bar frame’ [2]. taken from the direction of hand knitting, Patricia Roberts, Sarah Dallas and Marion Even knitted underwear slowly was Foale assisted knitwear back into subjected to fashion changes and became mainstream fashion [3]. From the early 80s what we know today as the T-shirt [1] but there was a revival of hand knitting with a this was much less than a challenge for strong emphasis on individualism. Black technological advancements. It has been states, in the 70s and 80s it was clear that suggested that over the last twenty years the design developments led technical progress revolution in modern knitted fabrics has [2], but in reality it was a partnership between come directly from the integration of elastic technology and design driving the industry with enhanced functionality [3]. The rise in forward? The gap was closing. the fitness boom of the 80s was translated into fashion using blends in jersey Many British designers found new knits, according to Black they created a new international markets in Japan and America

Article Designation: Scholarly 8 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 wave of energy in club culture – eventually the fashion arena with cheaper synthetics rolling out into sportswear [3]. being used. ‘The ability to fully-fashion on a wide range of fabric types is now possible’ The fashion led market [1]. Knitting machines now had stitch length control, patterning versatility and The mid 80s brought a new fashion led controllable takedown mechanisms. market hammering costs down, and thus bringing fashion within the grasp of the However, the technological developments, majority of the population [9]. The big name which had been crucial to the continuous in knitwear was now Benetton an Italian reinvention of industrial, knitting from its retail chain and in the UK NEXT and Gap humble beginnings, were hampered by two grew. Power dressing became popular as factors. Brackenbury outlined these to be knit moved away from the figure hugging firstly the skills of the designer and the silhouettes into a casual comfort zone. The technician’s ability to program complex styling thus became softer and oversized patterns and secondly the time factor - often with large colorful imagery. This was prototypes take longer to develop [1]. This classed as a basic wardrobe item and was a idea is later confirmed by Black ‘…but now key design icon of this period. Low cost designers and technologist struggle to keep manufacturing countries (Turkey) gained up with the opportunities afforded by the momentum entering into the mass latest technology’ [3]. production market there was a large investment of machinery at the start of the The return of comfort dressing 90s, which peaked, in the mid years [12]. During the late 90s the Turkish knitting The early 90s moved away from the power sector entered a general restructuring and dressing masculine style lines of the 80s to reached the capacity of today’s markets [12]. comfort dressing. Brackenbury The technological development in the weft- acknowledged in the early 90’s that ‘ it knitting sector that had begun in the would be very difficult to find individuals somewhat earlier years now became more anywhere who are not wearing at least one driven as the developing UK and European knitted article’ [1] in further investigation it markets struggled to survive against was discovered that most individuals wear at increasingly cheaper export. least 2 knitted items every day. This was aided by M & S working with Dupont to ‘The advent of computer controlled V-bed create an important commercialization; knitting machines has changed the situation introducing Lycra yarns to the mass market, dramatically’ [1]. In the 80s simpler initially in hosiery, sportswear and programming systems were devised, cam underwear and then into suits [9]. boxes refined and stepper motors introduced to control stitch length [13]. A research Quality knitwear found its place in formal program was developed between Shima and dress as well as fashion. The classic twin-set Courtaulds (1985) to develop integral has come back to create a comfortable garments [13]. 1987 saw ‘the first of the CMS classic with different twists in terms of series machines’ [2]. This machine was materials, patterns and proportions [3]. important for its holding down sinkers and Decorated (beaded) cardigans were an new reversible motor technology to knit important accessory during this period short strokes were the cam box only moved creating an opening for classics in the over the active needles [13]. This machine eveningwear sector [3]. Again the branded was sold very much due to its ability to knit British classics came to the forefront of 3-D structures. There was a change from the fashion, Jaeger, Pringle, Ballantyne and concept of fully-fashioning only being used John Smedley, the English gentlemen look on quality yarns, to fully-fashioning entering was translated into many collections. Each

Article Designation: Scholarly 9 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 brand worked in unison with a designer to history, a view perhaps considered by Black create an inspirational range that had appeal ‘…knitwear is regularly an invisible but to the younger market. Vivienne Westwood staple element of many collections – not collaborated with Smedley and created a often shown on the catwalk but a significant classic Argyll pattern under the umbrella of turnover nevertheless’ [3]. If we take a look the ‘voyage to Cythera’ collection [3]. It at Pringle the image we conjure up is combined a classic fully-fashioned Smedley “knitwear”, yet Pringle (since 2000) in itself twin-set with knitted long johns in a bold is a whole collection including accessories Argyll pattern. The likes of Clements [15]. It appears that knitwear is the driving Ribeiro reinvented cashmere with bold force here, which appears to be an image patterns and colors [3]. During this period, reflected in many British branded style and fit were extremely important, it collections. It is true that all the brands have was very much about body beautiful and re-positioned themselves within the luxury silhouette, new inset sleeves manipulate the category and redefined their market by knitted structure and skinny ribs become the establishing ranges (e.g.: red, golf). Head of style of the classics, creating a unique manufacturing at Pringle, Colin Anderson is styling. reported to comment on the repositioning of Pringle ‘…it’s all about technical innovation Within knitted fashion there was also a during knitting and finishing to give a strong influence of deconstruction and unique selling point’ [15], which is clearly transparencies creating a suckle nudity in demonstrated in its new cashmere garments fashion [3]. For examples turn to Lainey (2005) produced from 2/28 yarn. Keogh, Lagerfeld and Galliano. In addition Macdonald created some interesting knit Technology advancing towards complete designs based on transparencies [3]. By the garment production mid 90s overdyed fine gauge knitwear, trimmed with feminine touches (lace and It was reported that during the 1995 ITMA beads) often styled over a printed dress were exhibition in Milan knitting technology heavily featured. Missoni’s signature pattern came of age [16]. The technology became (multi colored zigzags and stripes) again more accessible and more responsive to new found vogue in the mid 90s, there was very ideas and it is demonstrated through fashion much a mixing of old and new technologies designers increasingly exploiting the [3]. technology of knitting within their collections. Black comments on … the Numerous Authors have commented that increasing use of integral shaping in design education has not moved with the sweaters we see in the mainstream market, available technology resulting in designers and the extraordinary range of pattern and with very little technical knowledge (with construction now available in tights and notable exceptions) and thus heavily reliant stockings’ [3]. More features were made of on technologists and technicians to interpret seams i.e. the style lines became prominent their ideas, in the same way they depend on features. However, the most noticeable pattern-cutters for woven fabrics [1,3]. influence of modern technology within Brackenbury comments that books on fashion is that shaped garments have clothing technology are many, with just a become mainstream fashion utilizing mere reference to knitted goods, however predominantly acrylic yarns, to create less his book recognizes the ‘particular attributes expensive garments with that hallmark of of knitted fabrics and their handling to quality, (New Look, H & M). Due to produce garments that are both special and advanced technical developments during the unique’ [1]. Perhaps this indicates that 90s; Shima SES Compact digital machines knitwear is striving to become a fashion in capable of producing fully-fashioned pieces itself, worthy of its own special place in knitted sequentially and SES 122RT with its

Article Designation: Scholarly 10 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 extra set of small needlebeds positioned The 21st century above the normal knitting area to facilitate the knitting of shaped ribs [16], quality Fashion styling and lifestyle had become a knitting is no longer limited to the elitist key feature in fashion at the birth of the new traditional manufacturers. This was very millennium. It is the era of “sexy”, as much apparent with all the talk of complete feminine style lines take to the catwalk. This garment production during the 90s [14] and is important for knitwear due to the comfort by 1995 Shima had satisfied this speculation and conformity of the structures. During the by launching its revolutionary first late 90s and early in the new millennium the generation of Wholegarment machines luxury market grew and cashmere was (SWG-X and SWG-V). Hence, providing brought to the forefront of fashion adding a shaping knowledge to an open market. glamorous edge, aided by influential fashion According to Shima, the whole garment designers, Prada and Louis Vuitton by Marc technology within fashion has been Jacob. They promoted ladylike styling; a evolutionary rather than the predicted classic knit with a woven skirt, with the revolution [17]. Many industry experts addition of a cashmere basic slung over the evaluated this to mean the industries mind- shoulders or tied loosely around the waist [3]. set has not progressed at the same pace as It became widely accepted that luxury UK the technical developments [17]. But in reality knitwear required a point to sale to attract it could be that the product range capability customers [15]. Research acknowledged that of the first machines was too restrictive for women will buy a cashmere sweater solely the fashion arena (the early machines were as a fashion statement – however if she has only capable of knitting basic style lines) wealth, other factors such as color, seasonal [17]. fashion, fit and comfort will be key factors for luxury [15]. A male however has not The move into the millennium much interest in seasonal fashion he invests in a luxury sweater every 3 years at high By the late 90s fully-fashioned knitwear cost [15]. However, in contrast other Authors became the common style on the market appreciate the turn in men’s knitted fashion with shapes get smaller and more tailored. at the dawn of the new millennium and The fashioned shoulder technique used for relate this to influences from continental traditional manufacture of high quality trends. Comme des Garcon, Dries Van goods became a hallmark of knitted quality Noten and Kenzo have all used [16]. This is probably an indication that combinations of color and patterning to manufacturers are coming to terms with subvert the traditional classic mans sweater their new machinery and shaping [3]. Even the twin-set has filtered into the techniques, and the flawed early 2000s men’s designer knitwear sector. designer/technician partnership was Cinc is a label producing exclusive cut and becoming more harmonious. The knitted sew twin-sets for men from a combination dress was given new exposure by the likes of different structures and yarns. Designers of Macdonald and Lainey Keogh creating such as Kenzo are reported to have a high inspirational pieces for their collections [3] proportion of their collections in knitwear [3] and much effort was placed on finishing and the move at the end of 2001 is for trims to create a smoother and more modern luxury chunky knits. look, in many cases trims became integral. Eventually fashion geared towards the craft Since the skeptical 90s there has been a lot look, which prompted chunky knitting of technological development regarding promoting a general knitwear revival [3]. developing specialist machines to produce complete garments. It was noticeable that this technology was inhibited primarily by perception. However, 2003/04 saw the first

Article Designation: Scholarly 11 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 examples of complete garments appearing in not playing the key facilitator. Hunter the shops. It appears that seamless reports that the main trend in garment technology is a way forward for the West to technology in 2004 was a wider range of capture a niche market. However, it is gauges especially course gauge, larger bed questionable whether marketing the widths for larger sizes and improved yarn seamless feature of a garment, is adding feeding systems [14]. In terms of benefit to the consumer. M &S and oasis are technological innovation, advancement has certainly examinin g this possibility by been limited in these recent years and again including swing tags on the labels [19]. There design is feeding from the previous technical were many doubtful reports that the developments. Hence, the statement commercial garments produced on ‘Technology is not the leader. New wholegarment were too simplistic for Technology has to handle our design today’s discerning buyer [19]. However, requirements’ [15]. This is still giv ing the recent machinery investment represents a impression that in this techno age major commitment (especially in Italy) and technological developments lead, followed belief in the technology, so it appears it is by a period were design explores the here to stay. Research conducted by Knitting boundaries of the technology and then the International illustrated that this technology cycle repeats. is now being accepted by major retailers and internationally known brands and is set to Technology at its best grow its share of the knitwear market [19]. Hunter identified usage with many ranges, There were many technological listed are some examples MaxMara breakthroughs in the knitting machinery weekend range, DKNY Jeans, Versace, within the millennium period, the Burberry, McQueen, Simona Barbieri importance of the technologies (Italy), Maglificio Imapier based in Barletta influence/partnership with design was (south east Italy) [19]. The situation of 2005 demonstrated in the first International is reported to fall into two categories; cheap Knitting Machinery Exhibition (IKMA) held yarns with elastomeric for young chains, late 2003 in Milan. This was the knitting Holmes estimates ‘…that 35/40 % of all industry breaking away from the prestigious apparel in developed markets may contain long running general fair (ITMA) some elastane in filament form’ [20]; or those signifying the growing strength of this trying to incorporate new technology into method of textile manufacture and its stand the fashion domain [19]. alone status both in terms of textile fabrics and design innovation. Certainly the concept By autumn 2005 the mood was very much of complete garment manufacture has had its about quality, knits are the vogue critics over the last decade, comments have and there is also interest in the crafted style. been made regarding the versatility of the Smedley’s is exclusively merino lambswool, machine and the skills required to operate and for summer high quality (Switzerland) the technology. Machine builders in recent sea island cotton [21]. Trends for 2005 spring years have concentrated on the user-friendly were geared toward lightweight fine gauge concept in terms of programming the new knits (12 gauge etc) [21]. Traditional UK technology (which since 1995 has become companies such as Pringle and Ballantyne much more reliable), the hope is that this have to be more innovative within the will industry acceptance of the new ranges having both classics key items and complete garment concept [17]. Is this a self- contemporary directions in their garments. It confession from the machine builders that is interesting to note that both Pringle and there is an ever-widening gap between Smedley in recent reports claim to be design technology and design? Hence, could the led [15, 22]. Yet with technology moving at the situation be that technology is too advanced current pace it is unlikely that technology is for the current trained knitwear designers,

Article Designation: Scholarly 12 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 are designers now being driven by One Final development that has probably inspirational technicians and machine created the biggest technology debate in capability? Shima appears to be expanding knitwear is complete garment production, heavily in marketing the “techno” concept although this concept was around in the 60’s and is quick to establish that ‘it’s the it has taken some 40+ years to become a technical breadth of the Whole Garment commercial reality. Shima Seiki is reported samples …’ which is ‘…the key to the to be a pioneer of complete garment technology’s future’ [17]. The new First manufacture with no fewer than five machine has the capacity to produce a wide machines [14]. It is reported that Shima sold range of shoulders, necklines and armholes, 700 Whole Garment machines in 2003 [18], which claim to conform to the human figure. which were based on the foundation of the Is this design innovation or technological? glove machine developed in the 60s. By the In addition there appears to be a huge summer of 2004 Shima were inspiring their marketing strategy behind the 3-D product, customers by providing a “kindness” Shima provides a hanger rack and a DVD concept to whole garment knitting. player for promotional videos aimed at the Garments have been produced utilizing a passing customer, not to mention the variety of yarns, that are comfortable, specially designed coat hangers and digital breathable and in high fashion [18]. fitting room linked via a computer to store According to Hunter 15% of the larger customer details [17]. However, it is difficult machine builder’s output is complete to establish if the consumer will understand garment machines [16]. This is a good this technology, after all it takes some know- indicator of how far the technology has how to distinguish from other methods of moved forward. In addition it is reported makeup and there appears to have been very that ‘Garment quality has also improved little work conducted into consumer dramatically and designers now seem to be perception in relation to technology? inspired by the possibilities of the new technology [16]. Notable developments of the millennium ‘…By keeping knitwear fashionable and Multi gauge by Stoll creates novel interplay helping to supply new styles on demand it between finely knit and loose areas. also means less wastage and fewer sell-offs. According to ‘Sophisticated fashion What we must remember is that fashion sells tastes have on occasions, required knitwear knitwear as opposed to bulk textile products, garments containing zones of both coarse for example. If we do not keep fashion fresh and fine gauge stitches’ [2]. Steiger Taurus is then knitwear will lose market share to other seen as a development to watch, the Taurus technologies such as . Fashion must consists of 12 independently motorized yarn be allowed to drive the knitwear market’ [18]. carriers hence, no cam box, therefore, Dr Shima is reported to state ‘…I believe facilitating direct feeding of yarn [16]. In that the culture of knitwear fashion could be addition there are also new needles that in jeopardy. Therefore, the developed facilitates fashioning, each with an countries need to take back this industry, at individual linear motor, the front and back least in part, in order to keep knitwear plates are synchronized but independently fashion both new and dynamic’ [18]. driven [16, 18]. A further advancement within Mowbary quotes Dr Shima ‘Knitwear can pattern creation is a machine launched at the now be much more than just a two- end of 2004 which appears to have gained dimensional apparel item constructed from ground in men’s wear, the “ enabled flat panels and sleeves’ [18]. Integral knitting machine” (a flatbed with the option of 30 is commonly used in knitwear but with intarsia carriers) this has proved popular in complete garment knitting, is it possible to the last year (2005) especially in Italy [17,23]. lead the whole industry forward? High fashion content, low labor intensive - Dr

Article Designation: Scholarly 13 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 Shima stated in 2004 that there is really Machine builders are certainly moving nothing like it in any other area of textiles forward, finding innovative methods of [18]. exploiting the development of complete garments, as recently as 2005 Stoll has filed The classics hang in a patent relating to knitting the body then continuing onto the sleeve [24]. But in reality In 2001 Spencer estimated that ‘…over 7 does the general fashion consumer million tons of knitted goods are produced understand and appreciate this technology? annually throughout the word’ [2]. The Walker shares the opinion (with others) that traditional hose is now a niche market with customer’s cannot differentiate between just a few specialist knitters producing fully- fully-fashioned and complete garment [21]. fashioned stocking. Straight bar frames are What is certain however is a consumer can still being produced according to Spencer, appreciate quality; if quality is associated but existing machines are being modified to with the new technology there will be improve patterning and shaping facilities [2]. market value [21]. Many traditional UK luxury brands still operate straight bar frames, however Whole garments have finally taken off in the increasingly more are enhancing their competitive sportswear market; tennis stars classic ranges with modern electronic V-bed (Linsay Davenport) at Wimbledon manufacturing; Pringle, Smedley, Championships wore garments without Ballantyne (in some cases with 3-D shaping seams [17]. Perhaps this is where seamless facilities), machines that are capable of technology will best be appreciated, this structured knits without decreasing the view is shared by Anderson who predicts ability to shape. It should be noted that the over the next 5 years seamless will have a traditional skills of knitting hand-laying phenomenal future and will be marketed for intarsia are still sought after in the classic comfort and movement [15]. However other British brands [21]. industry specialists see Whole Garment technology addressing the skills shortage in Where now? UK [21] a view the machine manufacturers have tried hard to suppress [17]. There is no question that technology has opened up new areas of innovation and Summary much potential in terms of design; Black acknowledged in 2002 that ‘Looking to the Knitwear has demonstrated throughout the future, the new technologies offer exciting ages that it can swiftly adapt to change in potential for new forms of industrial knitting demand and the many trends of fashion. In which have yet to be fully exploited’ [3]. It the 80s Mason acknowledged that knitwear appeared that this was the logical influences fashion and therefore new progression, since trimless or integral trims demands are stimulated [6]. The advantage of have become a commercial reality. knitwear is that style changes are speedy in According to Black trimless is now classed comparison with other textile industries; this as the ‘norm’, this amounts to the ability to flexibility is reported to account for some of be able to shape integrally as apposed to the fashion knitwear’s success. Although the selvedge areas [3]. This can easily be verified technique of knitting to shape has been from a quick market analysis of the UK utilized for centuries in quality knitwear, classic brands. modern technology has enabled knitted constructions in shaped form to expand into What will be a challenge is the evolution of the fashion market. Traditional fully- complete garment technology into other fashioned manufacture has ‘…suffered a specialist knitting areas such as intarsia [15] considerable decline in fashion demand and patterning of fully-fashioned seams [21]. during the 20 century as a result of the

Article Designation: Scholarly 14 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 improvement of cheaper manufacturing development at this time to fulfill the techniques in other sectors of weft innovation of the machine builders. Warp knitting…’ [2]. Over the past thirty years, the knitting increased its market share from the level of design innovation evident in woven markets in men’s shirts and Jaeger’s knitwear has advanced tremendously [3]. branded knitwear saw huge growth in its Flat-bed weft knitting today is a computer export range. In fashion terms the 60s is controlled highly efficient and versatile credited to the double jersey/jacquard boom, knitting tool for; cut and sew, fully- which is reported to be a result of fashioned, integral knitting and complete technological advancement. By the 70s the garment. In Spencer’s opinion, the biggest jersey bubble burst and again quality challenge for the flat-bed knitting machine is knitwear became the innovator taking when fashion swings from knitwear to t- influence from the Italian styling - Missoni shirts [2] but in reality is this ever likely to was the talk of the fashion world. Again happen given knitwear’s strong innovating knitted fashion but the following? In addition knitwear varies from gap was closing. By the late 70s/early 80s mass market to couture and it is worth knitwear was back at the forefront of fashion mentioning that a small amount of fashion promoted by the fitness craze (Lycra was a collections are knitwear led [3]. Market prominent contributor in this period). The analysis clearly demonstrates that there has 90s introduced partial knitting, which was been a steady increase in the UK knitwear paramount in flatbed knitting gaining market from approx £1,764 million in 1998 ground in the traditional fully-fashioned to £2338 million in 2003 [26]. Knitwear has markets. Later cheap imports caused a now become accepted as a contemporary rethink in the UK and European markets; it fashion item, as recently as March 2006 was very much about survival. Much lifestyle brand Joules appointed a knitwear emphasis was placed on flatbed designer thus, indicating this products development and again the gap between strength within a brand [27]. design and technology grew as designers struggled to keep up with technical With the exception of the silk hose, fashion innovation. Within the 90s again there was knitwear can generally be credited to the pause for reflection as designers came to post war period. There was little terms with the boundaries of the new development in terms of technology around technology. There was a strong focus on this period and much focus was given to integral knits; however, by this period reinventing already existent knitted fabrics. technology is moving at a tremendous pace The structures previously used for with a clear strategy regarding complete underwear moved to external coverings garment production. The millennium promoted by designers such as Chanel. This brought with it glamorous sights of created a two tier knitting industry – quality commercially knitted complete garments, and fashion, by 1930 knitwear had however it is worth noting that the styling recovered in the UK, leading into an era of was basic until techniques were refined. styling inbetween the war years. This was Does this signify design or technological the greatest directional move of knitwear, innovation? This research concludes that bringing the structures into the forefront of throughout history there appears to be fashion, and ultimately changing the periods of innovation were technology leads perception of knits as functional clothing. design, followed by periods of development During this period shortfalls were identified were design exploits the technological in design education and to some extent capability and then the cycle repeats. It is design was catching up with the technology unlikely that design can led the advances in of the day. The 50s and 60s were very much technology, therefore there are grounds to about technological developments however; believe technology is providing a valuable there was a distinct lack of electronic tool for design, and fashion would do well to

Article Designation: Scholarly 15 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007 recognize the valuable contribution of 14. Hunter, B. (Nov 2004) Complete innovative technicians who have been the Garments-Evolution or Revolution? Part 2 facilitators of knitwear’s repositioning in Knitting International. 111 (1319) 19-20. history from functional to fashionable 15. Anderson, C. (March 2005) Pringle: The clothing. renaissance of a Brand. Knitting International. 112 (1323) 24-26 Reference List 16. Hunter, B (Feb 2004) Technology Transfer. Knitting International. 111 (1310) 1. Brackenbury, T. (1992) Knitted Clothing 35-39. Technology. Blackwell Science, UK. 17. Shima, M. (Aug 2005) A Decade of 2. Spencer, D. J. (2001) Knitting Development. Knitting International. 112 Technology 3rd Ed. Woodhead Publishing (1328) 28-29 Ltd. UK. 18. Mowbray, J. ed (Feb 2004) Complete 3. Black, S. (2002) Knitwear in Fashion. knitwear solutions. Knitting International. Thames and Hudson Ltd, UK. 111 (1310) 42-43. 4. Wells, F. A. (1972) The British Hosiery 19. Hunter, B. (Dec 2004) Complete and Knitwear Industry – Its History and Garments-Evolution or Revolution? Part 3 Organization. David & Charles (Publishers) Knitting International. 111 (1320) 20-22. Ltd. UK. 20. Holme, I. (Aug 2005) Stretch to 5. Laver, J. cited in Gulvin, C. (1984) The Polyester Knitting International. 112 (1328) Scottish Hosiery and Knitwear Industry. 43 John Donald Publishers Ltd, Scotland. 21. Mowbray, J. ed (March 2005) A Classic 6. Mason, S.G. ed (1981) British Hosiery Move for Ballantyne. Knitting and Knitwear. The National Trade Press Ltd, International. 112 (1323) 29-30 London. 22. Mowbray, J. ed (May 2005). Smedley 7. Gulvin, C. (1984) The Scottish Hosiery Benefits from Brand Recognition Knitting and Knitwear Industry. John Donald International. 112 (1325) 22-24 Publishers Ltd, Scotland. 23. Mowbray, J. ed (Sep 2005) Fine Gauge 8. Internet 1 BBC Radio4 – Woman’s Hour Market Still Important. Knitting Timeline – 1920 –1929. International. 112 (1329) 56 http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/ti 24. Hunter, B. (May 2005) Novel Seamless meline/1920.shtml [accessed Dec 2005]. Sweater Technique. Knitting International. 9. Chapman, S. (2002) Hosiery and 112 (1324) 26-27. Knitwear. University Press, UK. 25. Presser Foot Portfolio. (1981) Knitting 10. Essinger, M. (2005) In My Fashion. International. 88 (1048) 73-74. Heart of Albion Press, UK. 26. Euro Monitor (2004) Socio/Economic 11. Hunter, B (Aug 2004) Needles and Market Data. [Internet] Euromonitor knitwear Technology. Knitting International. International. www.euromonitor.com 111 (1316) 34-53. (accessed 2004). 12. Gulveren, H. (September 2005) 27. Collins, J. ed (March 2006) In brief. Knitwear Drives Turkish Fashion. Knitting Drapers Record March 25th. Emap International. 112 (1329) 46-48 Communications, London. 13. Hunter, B (Oct 2004) Complete Garments Evolution or Revolution? Part 1. Knitting International. 111 (1318) 18-21.

Article Designation: Scholarly 16 JTATM Volume 5, Issue 4, Fall 2007

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