Reverential Abandonment: a Termination Ritual at the Ancient Maya Polity of El Palmar Kenichiro Tsukamoto∗

Reverential abandonment: a termination ritual at the ancient Maya polity of El Palmar Kenichiro Tsukamoto∗

Archaeological evidence for Maya termination rituals has been reported from several sites, but spatial analyses based on quantitative data have not previously been undertaken. This study uses spatial analysis of deposits at the Guzmán Group, an Mexico outlying architectural group within the Maya City El Palmar centre of El Palmar in Mexico, to identify the participants and their behaviour in the termination ritual, along with associated public activities. Results suggest that participants were Guzmán Group inhabitants, who intentionally placed particular items 0 km 1000 N in speciﬁc locations. The size and use- wear of vessels suggest repeated feasting events in the plaza. The study highlights the signiﬁcance of contextual analyses for a greater understanding of the spatial dynamics inherent in the abandonment processes of early complex societies. Keywords: Mesoamerica, El Palmar, Maya, abandonment processes, feasting, termination ritual

Introduction The study of abandonment processes through archaeological remains is challenging. Among the wide array of ancient Maya rituals, closure or termination rituals have made it especially difﬁcult for researchers to reconstruct those processes. Although some archaeologists still claim that termination deposits are refuse dumps ascribed to post-abandonment squatters, theoretical and methodological advances in Maya archaeology have recently enabled us to distinguish termination deposits from domestic middens (Freidel 1986; Inomata 2003; Stanton et al. 2008). Case studies from the last two decades have demonstrated that

∗ Department of Anthropology, University of California, Riverside, 1334 Watkins Hall, Riverside, CA 92521- 0418, USA (Email: [email protected]) © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017 antiquity 91 360 (2017): 1630–1646 doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.143 1630 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of California Riverside, on 06 Dec 2017 at 18:00:48, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 available at Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms emnto iul aidi ifrn itrcladrgoa icmtne eg Mock (e.g. circumstances regional and historical different in 1998 varied rituals reported. termination been have rituals termination where centres Maya ancient of Map 1. Figure iul aeas enrpre nohrprso h e ol,icuigMesoamerica, including World, New the of the parts of other territory in reported took the ( often been lowlands within that Maya these also group ritual the have identify architectural in termination rituals Palmar outlying that to a El an of demonstrated on us polity Group, be then major Guzmán enable is will the data emphasis It at quantitative The place context. behaviours. on abandonment ritual based an indiscernible objects, in analyses and here structures spatial of examined rigorous renewal be the to will dedicated they also were rituals termination Walker Although (D.S. remains material the in evidence similar leave they as hssuyi natmtt icr h aiblt neeti emnto rituals. termination in inherent variability the discern to attempt an is study This https://www.cambridge.org/core Pagliaro ; tal. et 2003 .Nvrhls,dfeetaigaadnetpoessi o easy, not is processes abandonment differentiating Nevertheless, ). . . https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 University of CaliforniaRiverside eeeta abandonment Reverential 1631 , on iue1 Figure 06 Dec2017 at18:00:48 .Eet eebigtermination resembling Events ). niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse, 1998 85). :

Research Kenichiro Tsukamoto

the Andes and the American Southwest (Grove 1984; W.H. Walker 1998; LaMotta & Schiffer 1999; Manzanilla 2003;Matsumoto2012;Velásquez2015). Hence close scrutiny of termination rituals in the Maya area can provide insight into the nature of abandonment processes in the New World, and will establish a robust basis for future comparative studies with those of the Old World.

Termination rituals in ancient Maya society Mesoamerican archaeological research has long reported termination rituals in which artefacts and architectural elements were ritually ‘killed’ (e.g. Coe 1959;Grove1984; Freidel & Schele 1989;Mock1998; Sugiyama 1998; Sullivan et al. 2008). In termination rituals, participants defaced, mutilated, dismantled or altered portable objects, human and faunal bones, monuments and buildings (Freidel 1986). Termination deposits are often recovered together with charcoal concentrations, indicating that artefacts were placed on floors and then probably burned. Although archaeologists studying the Maya had previously reported termination deposits (e.g. Coe 1959), Freidel and colleagues were the first to consider termination rituals as a focal point in Maya archaeology (Robertson & Freidel 1986; Garber 1989). During fieldwork at the centre of Cerros in Belize, they discovered structures whose plaster façades had been dismantled. Around these structures, they found numerous smashed artefacts intermixed with white marl. The large quantity of material deposits associated with structures at Maya centres has provoked persuasive, evidence-driven debates amongst scholars as to whether the deposits represent domestic refuse or the remains of termination rituals. To address this problem, Stanton and colleagues (2008) extensively reviewed archaeological, ethnohistoric and ethnoarchaeological sources that describe midden-like deposits across Maya communities. Their reviews suggest that the ancient Maya did not use abandoned structures as refuse dumps, and that domestic floors tended to be devoid of refuse. The ethnoarchaeological and archaeological studies have yielded different patterns inherent in refuse disposal (Hutson et al. 2007). Middens were usually placed near the edge of patios or in non-activity areas. Termination deposits could, therefore, be identifiable in archaeological research. Although termination rituals usually entail acts of destruction, they are not always tied to such behaviours. At Copán, in Honduras, Agurcia and Fash (2005: 209) reported that unbroken artefacts had been placed on the backbench of the central room, located in a substructure of structure 10L-16 (known as Rosalila). Spectacular termination deposits at Rosalila included eccentric flints, chert knives, carved jade, stingray spines, spiny oyster shells, baby shark vertebrae, jaguar claws and several incense burners. Unlike at other centres, the inhabitants of Copán did not dismantle the substructure’s modelled stucco reliefs, but instead carefully covered them with a thick coat of white stucco, followed by a fill of stones and mud. Copán, therefore, exhibits the variability inherent in termination rituals. With the increasing recognition of archaeological termination rituals, scholarly concern has shifted to its range of variation. Pagliaro and colleagues (2003) classify two types of termination rituals. Desecratory termination rituals stem from violent conflicts, such as warfare and internal friction, whereas reverential termination rituals are not associated with © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1632 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of California Riverside, on 06 Dec 2017 at 18:00:48, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 available at Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms lPla slctdi ot-atCmeh,Mxc.TeacetMy initially Maya ancient The Mexico. Preclassic Late the Campeche, during Group, Main south-east the or ( core, period in civic the at located spaces gathering constructed is Palmar El Palmar El at Group Guzmán The (Lamoureux-St-Hilaire conflicts such ietyascae ihta aeilclue(Tozzer been culture have who material affiliates that and/or owners with are ethnographic rituals associated reverential and directly of Ethnohistorical agents them. the conducted that who show in studies lies rituals termination of types ( eaieycer u hi dnicto nteacaooia eodi rbeai.If often problematic. however, rituals, is (Stross dedicatory behaviour record other destructive be entail or should archaeological identification rituals then termination the Copán, Reverential at as straightforward. in traces, material identification left rituals their termination reverential but clear, rival relatively to targeted attached were that powers sites or structures supernatural in lived Inomata the internal who (e.g. owners destroy other the humiliate or to to enemies and sought communities, studies by contrast, who performed In were factions, ceases. site rituals antagonistic or termination structure desecratory artefact, that an of suggest role the when rituals termination oei lPla’ oiia raiaindrn h aeCascpro ( period Classic Late the important during an organisation played have political must Palmar’s Group El Guzmán the in dimensions, role modest its a despite form that, that structures rectangular lower and temple 3m-high plaza. a with group, architectural rhtcua rusi diint h anGop h umnGopi n of one is ( Group Group Guzmán Main outlying The the eight Group. of recorded north Main far 1.3km the located so to groups, has outlying addition survey these in Surface Camacho. groups López architectural Javier with Project tteGzá ru ile ihdt htaeidsesbefrapyn distinctive applying for indispensable are processes. that abandonment data in rituals rich termination understanding yielded Excavations for rituals. Group approaches termination Guzmán of details combines the identify therefore, study, to at illuminates data present deposits quantitative The termination society. with of analyses Maya is spatial analysis ancient (Stanton analysis spatial of rituals process the Quantitative abandonment that termination suffice. the here of not argued is understanding would it better analysis Furthermore, a qualitative for a record, necessary material the in opeincrmn fteheolpi tiwyto lc n1 etme D726 AD September the 13 that on indicate place Olguín studies Esparza took & Epigraphic containing stairway (Tsukamoto ends. 9.14.15.0.0) chamber hieroglyphic (or south vaulted the blocks and of a north stair human ceremony to its modern The completion connects at by respectively. stairway benches caused plaza 0.4m-high The damage the two processes. limited of despite natural sides preserved, and well north activities were and and GZ1 GZ1 east structure structures the of uncovered border excavations (2010–2012), which seasons GZ6, field two During 800). a o nE amrrlr u nofiilwoenm a jah al ecam to claims He Waal. Ajpach’ was name whose official an but ruler, Palmar El an not was c D4060.Sne20,teato a oietdteE amrArchaeological Palmar El the codirected has author the 2007, Since 400–600). AD . h ocpuldfeetainbtenteetotpso emnto iul is rituals termination of types two these between differentiation conceptual The h irgyhcisrpin avdo ml epesara srcueG1 suggest GZ1) (structure stairway temple small a on carved inscriptions hieroglyphic The https://www.cambridge.org/core c 0 CA 5) n tbcm ao oiyatrteMdl lsi period Classic Middle the after polity major a became it and 250), BC–AD 300 . 2003 ). . . https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 University of CaliforniaRiverside eeeta abandonment Reverential 1998 tal. et ..Walker D.S. ; 1633 2015 , on 2015 5) e ifrnebtentetwo the between difference key A 553). : 06 Dec2017 at18:00:48 .Tepoaoiti h inscriptions the in protagonist The ). 1998 1941 .A hylaesmlrevidence similar leave they As ). ;Stross niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse, iue2 Figure 1998 tal. et .Te conduct They ). .I sasmall a is It ). c 2008 D600– AD . 228). :

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Figure 2. Map of El Palmar showing the location of the Main Group and the Guzmán Group.

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Research Kenichiro Tsukamoto

Table 1. List of termination deposits at structures GZ1 and GZ6 of the Guzmán Group. Ceramic type GZ1 GZ6 Subtotal % Other materials GZ1 GZ6 Subtotal %

Monochrome sherd 573 323 896 35.14 Obsidian prismatic blade – 9 9 N/A Bichrome sherd 18 55 73 2.86 Greenstone celt – 2 2 N/A Polychrome sherd 8 20 28 1.1 Groundstone sphere – 1 1 N/A Unslipped sherd 790 462 1252 49.1 Mano –2 2N/A Thin Orange sherd – 2 2 0.08 Shell – 3 3 N/A Eroded or 77 222 299 11.73 Animal bone 1 – 1 N/A unidentiﬁed sherd Total 1466 1084 2550 100 Human bone 1 – 1 N/A

Chert lithic GZ1 GZ6 Subtotal % Biface 10 12 22 12.36 Chisel 1 1 2 1.12 Core – 11 11 6.18 Domed smoother 1 – 1 0.56 Eccentric – 1 1 0.56 Pick 1 – 1 0.56 Pounder – 8 8 4.49 Projectile point 1 – 1 0.56 Scraper 2 1 3 1.69 Decortication ﬂake 7 54 61 34.27 Flake with use-wear 15 29 44 24.72 Flake without 10 13 23 12.92 use-wear Total 48 130 178 100

Inside the chamber of structure GZ1, the artefacts were located along the internal walls. Ethnoarchaeological studies have shown that this spatial pattern of artefact distribution represents refuse disposal (Deal 1985: 254), but it is posited here that the assemblages in structure GZ1 are termination deposits, due to the reassembling patterns described below.

Spatial analyses of termination deposits Before reassembling sherds, the spatial patterns of floor assemblages in and around structures GZ1 and GZ6 were analysed. During fieldwork, we documented the location of each artefact with two total stations, with the exception of materials deposited along the north and south walls of structure GZ1. Due to time restrictions, we collected the material deposits in these excavation units using a 2 × 2m grid. In the laboratory, we classified all of the artefacts based on typology and other modal attributes, including form. The results show different distributional patterns between the inside and outside of the rooms, and between structures GZ1 and GZ6. Structure GZ1 had material concentrations inside the temple and in front of its doorway (Figure 5). Artefacts inside the temple were exclusively ceramic bowls and jars, although some sherds were too fragmentary to allow identification of their form. The platform surface in front of the entrance held several artefacts, including the tripod plate mentioned above, and bowls, jars, a broken biface and unidentified sherds. © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

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Figure 5. The spatial distribution of termination deposits in structure GZ1.

Figure 6. The spatial distribution of ceramic fragments in structure GZ6.

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Figure 8. Distribution of artefacts in termination deposits. Red lines illustrate reassembled sherds.

Table 2. Minimum number of vessels recovered from structures GZ1 and GZ6 of the Guzmán Group. Ceramic form GZ1 GZ6 Subtotal

Apron lid – 1 1 Basin – 2 2 Bowl 34 23 57 Dish 9 44 53 Incense bowl – 1 1 Jar 22 46 68 Plate 5 2 7 Tecomate – 1 1 Vase – 1 1 Unidentiﬁable 5 5 10 Total 75 126 201

As mentioned above, the spatial distribution of jar sherds before reassembly did not present any significant pattern. Nevertheless, we reconstructed the upper halves of three jars (Figure 9), the fragments of which had been found in three separate rooms—the west, central and east rooms of structure GZ6 (see Ramírez Hernández 2015). This may imply that ritual participants intentionally placed each jar on the floor of each room. It is unlikely that scattered sherds coincidently form the upper half of the jar in the room without finding any sherd of the lower part. The pattern further suggests that the jars were © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1640 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of California Riverside, on 06 Dec 2017 at 18:00:48, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 available at Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms omnte.Teesuishv hw htlrevsesoe .mi imtrwere diameter ancient in in 0.3m feasts over vessels and large feasting that ethnoarchaeological of (Nelson shown feasting and for implication have used archaeological studies socio-political in These the vessels communities. revealed ceramic has of research diameters the Measuring deposits termination through feasts Reconstructing therefore, scattered. is, randomly It not room. were each to sherds brought the were that halves concluded upper the and which central after west, the elsewhere, in smashed located were right to left from jars The see GZ6. locations, structure of their rooms (for the respectively in rooms found east jars Smashed 9. Figure il opeevses esebigsed soewyt iiaeti (Rosenswig this mitigate to way one is sherds Reassembling vessels. complete yield Mills xlddfo h nlsso esigbcuelrejr eeotnue o trg n the and storage size. for vessel were used actual Jars often the Group. were represent Guzmán jars not dishes the large does at Plates, because diameter feasting feasting ritual. rim of of of termination evidence analysis identification the the the from the assess in excluded to affect deposited total selected significantly sizes were the not bowls vessel of shapes. do and overall cent symmetrical 20mm towards per relatively and tendency 10 have 5 a to than between tended more ranges Palmar with error El sherds Thus, at rim vessels selected Serving we circumference. results, reliable For 13). rwn ihudr5prcn ftettlcrufrnepeet(e loRosenswig when also (see given increased present a circumference significantly total error in the of vessel, feasting cent whole per and 5 a vessels under with with serving drawing useful experiments a between our provide still relationship During they the overall that context. here of assessing argued however, measure for is, It proxy parameter diameter. best rim in (Rice the 20mm) than not asymmetry (less is from approximation. sherds (Mills an arises the size are vessel procedure from vessels diameter this incomplete maximum in on estimating based problem results common that A recognised is it although https://www.cambridge.org/core 2007 .Apolmwt h rhelgclsuyo esigi htecvtosrarely excavations that is feasting of study archaeological the with problem A ). 1999 0) aagtee yti ehdmyntrflc utechanges subtle reflect not may method this by gathered Data 106). : 1991 . . https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 University of CaliforniaRiverside aktt&Emerson & Pauketat ; iue8 Figure eeeta abandonment Reverential ). 1641 , on 06 Dec2017 at18:00:48 1991 ;Crown niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse, 1994 Spielmann ; 1987 2) and 223), : 2007 1998 2007 ), ; :

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Table 3. The diameter of reﬁtted sherds. GZ1 GZ6 Subtotal

<0.3m 23 2 25 ≥0.3m 22 6 28 Total 45 8 53

Figure 10. Serving vessels found in termination deposits (for their locations, see Figure 8).

The results from measuring vessel diameters suggest that people organised feasts in the plaza of the Guzmán Group. In the termination deposits, 53 per cent of the plates, dishes and bowls identiﬁed (N = 28/53) exceeded 0.3m in maximum diameter (Table 3). The deposits included three plates over 0.35m in diameter (Figure 8f, g & i), a 0.58m-diameter dish (Figure 8o)andtwobowlsover0.6mindiameter(Figure 8n & p). The presence of these vessels may indicate that some of the ceramic assemblages in the termination deposits were used for public gatherings. Many of the large vessels had heavy use-wear and evidence of reuse (Figure 10j & m), suggesting that they were in constant use over a long period prior to the site’s abandonment.

Discussion Who conducted the termination ritual? It is suggested here that external enemies or internal antagonistic factions were not responsible for the termination activities at the Guzmán © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

1642 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of California Riverside, on 06 Dec 2017 at 18:00:48, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 available at Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms ru,atog h osblt antb icutd nta,the Instead, discounted. be cannot possibility the although Group, Z n Z o h olwn esn.Frt hneeistriae tutrsat Inomata structures (e.g. terminated stairways enemies dismantled when First, often reasons. they structures following centres, terminated the Maya have for could other Group, GZ6 Guzmán and the occupied GZ1 who inhabitants the least &Grube a ugs httecetbfcso h tiwyaeeiec fvoetcnit yet during conflict, bifaces violent chert of with evidence spears are long holding stairway Maya the (Kerr the on rituals depict bifaces often chert vessels hieroglyphic or the polychrome the enemies that Researchers targeted Group. been Guzmán suggest probably had the may at participants most monument ritual have significant the ideologically would most If stairway—the they preservation. factions, of state antagonistic good internal a in was Group rdnl.Esweew nepee htagentn etfudi h atro of room east the in found (Tsukamoto deposits celt termination the greenstone with associated a be not that may GZ6 interpreted structure we Elsewhere prudently. ihboe reat usd h etro fsrcueG6 fatceshdwanted had attackers If GZ6. structure of room west the humiliate the to outside artefacts broken with httecl ol lohv enpr ftetriainrta.Teemlil lines multiple These ritual. termination the of the however, part that suggests, indicate been above may described have therefore, jars also evidence, three could of the celt of halves the upper that the of reassembly 210); nin aascey h eta aor ec nasrcuesmoie political symbolised structure In structure. a recorded (Tsukamoto the in artefacts this in bench of to significance masonry number attests its In large central accentuate explored. a (Harrison GZ6 the fully authority bench, society, structure be lateral other of Maya to the placed bench yet ancient on have central has materials also the meaning and few may on the GZ1 a they structures although to inside case, hypothesis, dishes contrast the and this is bowls supports of that GZ6 pattern If spatial The artefacts. intentionally. place artefacts randomly not did o-afjr n h ah tsrcueG6srnl ugssta the that suggests strongly GZ6 three the structure of at placement The cache space. the on perspectives and emic jars also top-half but ritual, termination the termination of desecratory, than rather reverential, a was event ritual. the correct, is interpretation infiac frta vnsi omnt.Ddpol raieafatdrn the during feast a organise the people and Did with status community. feasts social a for representing in used of means vessels events effective Prestige ritual an vessels. of were luxurious significance drinks and and large foods on precious served meals lavish lz,fatn fe eaeacnrlpatc htalwdsca cost ef their reify to actors social were allowed Hayden hierarchy and & that distance (Dietler social practice invisible enhanced which central from through wealth, a visible economic and became fact, generosity often in stone feasting is, the plaza, of bench implication central political The the that highlighted this. ritual suggest to the recovered termination bowl benches. while heights attest the incense meeting, Thus, different may small and plaza. The bench The the reception sleeping. lateral high. for and/or the activities designed 0.2m private from was only for GZ6 was is structure bench which lateral of bench bench, central lateral the the to it h pta itiuino orasmlgshglgt o nytebhvorlaspects behavioural the only not highlights assemblages floor of distribution spatial The esigpoie oilchso n oe eoito.Drn iuleet nthe in events ritual During negotiation. power and cohesion social provides Feasting https://www.cambridge.org/core 2008 1998 3 eme&Awe & Helmke 73; : lakam .Scnl,rta rciinr aeul eoie ah together cache a deposited carefully practitioners ritual Secondly, ). 2001 fcas hywudnthv eoie hs rcosgosso goods precious these deposited have not would they officials, . . ,adtehih ftecnrlbnh(.m tsrcueGZ6 structure at (0.7m) bench central the of height the and ), https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.143 University of CaliforniaRiverside tal et 2001 . eeeta abandonment Reverential 2015 .Rta ot pnoe essweete provided they where feasts sponsored hosts Ritual ). 2016 0) hshih sntbewe comparing when notable is height This 208). : 1643 .Teheolpi tiwya h Guzmán the at stairway hieroglyphic The ). lakam , on 06 Dec2017 at18:00:48 fcaspromdterta.I this If ritual. the performed officials niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse, lakam tal. et lakam fcas rat or officials, 2001 tal. et Martin ; officials 2015 :

Research Kenichiro Tsukamoto

termination ritual at the Guzmán Group? While the presence of large vessels in the termination deposits may suggest a feast in the abandonment process, only a single animal bone recovered from the deposits weakly supports this notion. Heavy use-wear traced on large vessels suggests that the lakam officials organised feasts several times after the creation of the plaza space. Together with the building of a hieroglyphic stairway, these events could have highlighted the officials’ socio-political status. It is suggested here that the Guzmán plaza was designed as a political arena in which lakam officials conducted theatrical performances on the hieroglyphic stairway, providing ritual participants with large meals and drinks.

Conclusion This study has assessed the importance of spatial analyses, based on quantitative data, that allow the identification of abandonment processes in detail. In ancient Maya society, site abandonment often entailed termination rituals that varied according to political circumstances and historical contingencies. Material remains and their spatial distributions at the Guzmán Group of El Palmar were confusing, as chert bifaces have often been identified as evidence for desecratory termination rituals, while artefacts located against internal walls have been identified as domestic refuse. Nevertheless, multiple lines of evidence suggest that the termination ritual detected at the Guzmán Group was reverential. While the available data cannot determine whether a feast was held during the termination ritual, the presence of large vessels with heavy use-wear indicates the socio-political significance of feasting in the Guzmán plaza. Future excavations at other structures of the Guzmán Group will address this question. As previously mentioned, long-standing archaeological research has revealed a wide array of termination rituals and abandonment processes in Classic Maya society. There may still be unidentified processes waiting for illumination through archaeological research. A lesson from the El Palmar case presented here is that we should not automatically identify past events through a few diagnostic artefacts. Comprehensive contextual analyses with sophisticated theoretical and methodological approaches provide a greater understanding of the spatial dynamics inherent in the abandonment processes of early complex societies.

Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to peer reviewers Stephen Houston and David Freidel, who provided thoughtful comments and helpful suggestions. I am also grateful to Marijke Stoll who helped improve the early draft of this manuscript. I extend my gratitude to Javier López Camacho, Hirokazu Kotegawa, Araceli Vázquez Villegas, Aban Flores Morán, Mariana Favlia Vázquez and Dulce María Ramírez Hernández for assistance in material analyses and drawing. Archaeological research at El Palmar was generously permitted by the Consejo de Arqueología of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. I thank the University of California, Riverside, Aoyama Gakuin University, the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia and the Centro INAH Campeche for their support. Fieldwork at the Guzmán Group of El Palmar was funded by the National Science Foundation (BCS-11640); the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Postdoctoral Research Fellowship (15J00280); KAKENHI (21402008) awarded by Kazuo Aoyama; the National Geographic Society; © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

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Received: 17 September 2016; Accepted: 14 December 2016; Revised: 9 January 2017

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