Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts 4.2013

Bruxelles, 2013 EDITORIAL BOARD

Chief editor Burganova M. A. Pletneva A. A. (Russia) — Candidate of Sciences, research associate of Russian Bowlt John Ellis (USA) — Doctor of Language Institute of the Russian Academy Science, Professor of Slavic Languages of Sciences; and Literatures in University of Southern Pociechina Helena (Poland) — Doctor California; of Science; Profesor of the University of Burganov A. N. (Russia) — Doctor of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn; Science, Professor of Stroganoff Moscow Pruzhinin B. I. (Russia) — Doctor of State Art Industrial University, Full-member Sciences, Professor, editor-in-chief of of Russia Academy of Arts, National Artist of Problems of Philosophy; Russia, member of the Dissertation Council Ryzhinsky A. S. (Russia) — Candidate of of Stroganoff Moscow State Art Industrial Sciences, Senior lecturer of Gnesins Russian University; Academy of Music; Burganova M. A. (Russia) — Doctor of Sahno I. M. (Russia) — Doctor of Sciences, Science, Professor of Stroganoff Moscow Professor of Peoples’ Friendship University State Art Industrial University, Full-member of Russia; of Russia Academy of Arts, Honored Artist of Sano Koji (Japan) Professor of Russia, member of the Dissertation Council Toho Gakuyen University of Music of Stroganoff Moscow State Art Industrial (Japan) — Professor of Toho Gakuyen University, editor-in-chief; University of Music; Glanc Tomáš (Germany) — Doctor of Shvidkovsky Dmitry O. (Russia) — Vice- Science of The Research Institute of East President of Russian Academy of Arts and European University of Bremen (Germany), its secretary for History of Arts, and Full and assistant professor of The Charles member; Rector of Moscow Institute of University (Czech Republic); Architecture, Doctor of Science, Professor, Kazarian Armen (Russia) — Architectural Full member of Russian Academy of historian, Doctor of Fine Arts in The State Architecture and Construction Sciences, Full Institute of Art History, Advisor in Academy member of the British Academy; of Architecture and Construction Sciences; Tanehisa Otabe (Japan) — Doctor of Sience, Kravetsky A. G. (Russia) — Candidate of Professor, Head of Department of Aesthetics Sciences, research associate of Russian at Tokyo; Language Institute of the Russian Academy Tolstoy Andrey V. (Russia) — Doctor of of Sciences; Sciences, professor in the History of Art at the Lavrentyev Alexander N. (Russia) — Moscow State Institute of Architecture, a Full- Doctor of Arts, Professor of Stroganoff member of the Russian Academy of Fine Arts Moscow State Art Industrial University and and President of the Russian National section Moscow State University of Printing Arts; of International Association of Art Critics Misler Nicoletta (Italy) Professor of Modern (AICA) affiliated with UNESCO; East European Art at the Istituto Universitario Tsivian Yuri (USA) — Doctor of Science, Orientale, NaplesPavlova I. B. — Candidate Professor, University of Chicago, of Sciences, Senior Researcher of Institute of Departments: Cinema and Media Studies, Art World Literature of the Russian Academy of History, Slavic Languages and Literatures. Sciences; Editor Smolenkova J. (Russia)

ISSN 2294-8902 © TEXTS, 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Alexander N. Burganov The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time 5

Roman M. Perelshtein A Failed Saint in Archie Mayo’s the Petrified Forest 12

Nadia V. Japova Claude Debussy: le génie français contre l’influence allemande 16

Dmitriy N. Antropov Representation of a technical object in a work of art 25

Kirill N. Cheburashkin Project and art aspects of using inner stressed structures in residential ambiance 35

Elena A. Cheburashkina Le phénomène du “design inviellisable” sur l’example des travaux des créateurs américains des années 60 du XX siècle Charles et Ray Eames 47

Nikolay K. Solovyev Religious interiors of feudal disunity period 63

Olga G. Makho La pièce la plus intime des appartements publics des souverains italiens de la Renaissance (Le studiolo dans la structure architecturale de la résidence) 77

Vera A. Dubrovina The idea of fatal beauty in the image of the Sphinx during the period of Symbolism 91

Alexander N. Burganov. The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time

Alexander N. Burganov Doctor of Art Science Professor of The Stroganoff Moscow State Art Industrial University Full-member of Russia Academy of Arts [email protected] Moscow THE ALBERTINA, VIENNA: MICHELANGELO AND HIS TIME

Summary: Stepping into the twilight of a large room, in which the only illumination comes from small shining windows, the viewer inevitably feels a sensation of being invited into another, unearthly, world. “Another” it may indeed be -but in no way an unearthly one. The windows concerned are chalk and pen sketches which illustrate “Michelangelo und Seine Zeit” (Michelangelo and his time), now on display in the Albertina museum in Vienna. The old sheets of paper in simple classical frames seem to shine from within with some magical, unreal light. They are known to bear the touch of the hands of many of the greatest artists of the past: Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and others. It is the inspiration, name and personality of each of them that is evident in these antique drawings marked with the artist’s passion, tenderness or despair. Laboring on those sheets, the masters concerned may have been conversing with god — and the viewer feels in some way, almost involuntarily, that their holy murmurs can be overheard. Keywords: Albertina, Vienna, Michelangelo.

Graphic art, as perhaps the most mystical of the fine arts, reveals like no other form the lurking beat of the artist’s heart. Achieved in a flash of inspiration, a sketch rejects the very idea of any gradual elaboration or further perfection, any varnishing, embellishing, second thought or resolving effort. It is touch-and-go — God’s momentary pat on the hand — or the kiss of an angel.

— 5 — Alexander N. Burganov. The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time

1. Michelangelo Buonarroti. Seated male nude and studies for two arms. Fragment

— 6 — Alexander N. Burganov. The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time

And here is the result, directly before the viewer: the precious evidence of the master’s intimacy with God, at a moment when his love for Him is met with response. Michelangelo’s heritage consists of works of art that are colossal in their scale. Today, when we come to look at and venerate the fruits of his divine labour, we feel like pygmies in comparison. His immense, almost infinitely broadening, ceiling and wall frescoes for the Sistine Chapel or the breathtaking giant marble statues strike anyone with their enormousness, and the sheer “Brobdingnagian” character of his titanic work. But among Michelangelo’s prodigious legacy there are also some priceless small pieces of paper, complete with pen-and-ink sketches, which actually comprise the gist of the revelations of the genius; these drawings were actually not meant to be works of art in the sense accepted for such terms in the 15th and 16th centuries. Instead, they register the birth of an idea of a future work of art -and, as such, were destined to be cast aside, treated as some “discard”, something “in- between”, to be used only in an applicative way; a kind of spadework, the inevitable waste that any creative work entails. But such “rubbish” was also supposed to be the kind of “blue ground” which produces the shining diamonds of a real masterpiece. For the artist himself, these pieces of paper often carried a certain mystic charm, because it was on them that he actually saw his future creations for the first time. Examining the sketches, the artist met the eyes of the Creator who had blessed him with talent, and was watching the master’s work approvingly — or disapprovingly. All of this may explain why true connoisseurs tend to look on Michelangelo’s sketches with particular interest: some time would pass before he would paint his famous murals, and the world would marvel at the singular eminence and grandeur of his works, while these drawings, both piercingly true and intense in their simplicity, witness something far more eloquent. For that reason, the works displayed at the Albertina Museum in this historical retrospective make the collection unique among counterparts in other countries.

— 7 — Alexander N. Burganov. The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time

2. Raphael. Two full-length studies of male nudes. Fragment. Pen, brown ink, drawing with lead on paper. 46.5×32 cm

There is no doubt that European graphic art derives from the classical vase-painting tradition that laid the basics of its principles, techniques and materials; first among them was monochromatic and linear drawing, with further inclusion of tones and overtones to give relief to the pictures. Thus, vase-painting paved the way for painting. Through adding colors and light and shade it started to flourish, progressing beyond the two- dimensional surface of the sheet of paper. What was appreciated most in classical painting was the illusion: the grapes in the picture looked so real that they would attract flies; the curtain, seemingly thrown over the picture, turns out to be impossible to remove. Such wonderful

— 8 — Alexander N. Burganov. The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time achievements, however, were nothing more than the tricks of the trade: two or three hues of tone, a line, a shadow and an overtone. The striking sensation of a third dimension was in no way achieved by following the artist’s possibly chaotic imagination, or through a careful imitation of nature — but by observing the strict rules and combination of the techniques concerned. In the Renaissance, drawing assumed and developed the classical traditions; the use of toned paper, line, two or three tones and void intervals that helped to create the illusion of dimensional relief were the most common devices of artists’ imagery. The sketches of Michelangelo and his contemporaries are all based on that principle: effectively, they are monochrome. The color effect is usually achieved by contrasts in the tone of the materials: sepia ink, charcoal sticks, scratching with strands of silver, heightening with sienna or umber. The Old Masters were, of course, seeking a way to give relief to their paintings, but they confined themselves to the traditional symbols of three-dimension drawing, returning to exclusively classical techniques and black-and-white monochromatism. Two or three techniques prevail in the drawings of that period: varying shades of natural black and brown pen-and-ink, red- or sanguine-colored or black chalk on various sorts of colored ground. Some drawings demonstrate a more complicated combination of techniques, such as colored wash or white and colored heightening with a brush. The Michelangelo drawings at the Albertina are mostly made in delicate light sanguine and pen-and-ink — and one of them, a figure study of a nude boy for the Sistine Chapel ceiling is, by any judgment, a masterpiece of which the Albertina can be proud. It should be noted that the nude figure study is a specific genre typical of the great Italian Renaissance masters. Michelangelo was known to excel in anatomical details: he was able to show the harmony and vital force of the human body, the natural beauty of the muscles, in the depiction of which he was unrivalled. Michelangelo’s profound knowledge of the interactive functioning of all parts of the human body made his drawings from nature a kind of model design for the three- dimensional representation of man on paper. The drawing in question,

— 9 — Alexander N. Burganov. The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time

however, demonstrates a quality that singles it out from the rest of the collection, displaying a unique sensation of the third dimension which is so striking, that it makes other of Michelangelo’s pictures look like collages in comparison. It actually heralds principles which are not to be found in European art before the late baroque. This figure study leaves an impression so deep and lasting, that it relegates drawings by Raphael exhibited in the same room to the position of scholastic routine, devoid of the magic aura of divine art. Perhaps only one small sketch by Leonardo, drawn on blue paper, in Leonardo’s inimitable sfumato, equals this masterpiece of Michelangelo. Moreover, this sketch looks unusual even for Michelangelo himself because it is his only drawing that shows the huge potentials of three- dimensional graphic representation that would later be developed by the great masters of the Venetian school and by Rembrandt. The sketch looks so true to life not for its perfectly disciplined pen technique or luckily-found form, but for the absolutely new aesthetic principles of picturing three dimensions on the two-dimensional sheet of paper; with that single achievement, Michelangelo managed to glimpse ahead to a future era of art. It was only at the time of the High Renaissance that drawing began to be viewed differently, as a separate art in itself. In previous periods its role was far from independent, as compared to that in the Middle Ages when drawings were used for book illustration or popular pictures. In the days of Michelangelo the church did not yet treat drawings as a means of decoration: they served instead as a preparatory stage in the creative process — its most mystic part, perhaps, but not its ultimate goal. As Leonardo put it: “All art stems from a sketch”. The Renaissance encouraged resolving the process of creation into its elements, and drawing became recognized as a pivot — for the first time in history, it became independent. While there were individuals who could draw fairly well even in ancient times, drawing became an art only in that period. Thus we can enjoy and marvel at these “utility” sketches by the great Michelangelo and other titans of his time, masterpieces destined in their time to gather dust on the shelves of the artists’ studios.

— 10 — Alexander N. Burganov. The Albertina, Vienna: Michelangelo and His Time

They constituted personal supporting archives, at the same time as they are now understood as the most important element of their craft; consequently, they have become very tempting both for other artists and for collectors. The collections of sketches belonging to Peter Paul Rubens, Giorgio Vasari, Antonio Raimondi and Benvenuto Cellini are well-known. While the rich and mighty used to collect works of art — paintings, sculptures, jewellery — artists and intellectuals preferred to collect such “doodles”, and the sketches of such past masters were cherished as peerless treasures. “Michelangelo und seine Zeit” is the name of one such treasure. It brings the viewer into the testing laboratory of experiments by geniuses whose inner creative ideas and imagery are esoteric. Our appreciation of an artist is usually based on the strength of his creative potential: looking at these small drawings we are left in no doubt as to which of them is the most prodigious talent. Even if from all the huge heritage of Michelangelo only this tiny figure study of a nude boy with knuckled knees had remained, originating as it does from the Rubens collection, the answer would have been obvious: it is Michelangelo Buonarroti the great martyr of Florence, who deserves the title of “Artist of All Times”.

— 11 — Roman M. Perelshtein. A Failed Saint in Archie Mayo’s the Petrified Forest

Roman M. Perelshtein PhD S. A. Gerasimov All-Russia State Institute of Cinematography [email protected] Moscow A FAILED SAINT IN ARCHIE MAYO’S THE PETRIFIED FOREST

Abstract: Using the film The Petrified Forest by Archie Mayo as an example, the author formulates one of the universal themes of cinematography, named “the ideal and the reality”, and suggests a name for a movie plot that corresponds to said theme: “the failed saints”. Keywords: ideal, reality, cinematography, movie plot, theme.

The theme of The Petrified Forest, a 1936 film directed by Archie Mayo and adapted from a Robert Emmet Sherwood stage play of the same name, can be stated as “the ideal and the reality”, as these two principles collide in the film’s plot. Whereas the ideal, as defined by Mikhail Bakhtin, is the world of “the highest aims of human existence”, the reality, as described by Oswald Spengler, is the world of “soul- expression”, firmly connected to the “obscure courses of being”, which Nietzsche called “the philosophy of wild and naked nature”. Ideal and reality complement each other. They gravitate towards the image of unity that can be found in the mutual osmosis of the Apollonian and the Dionysian in the Mediterranean culture. But, at the same time, the heightened state of the soul that announces itself with such mental constructs as dreams, desires, and ideals, and the excess of life force, that blindly expends itself as one of the manifestations of reality or nature, move in the opposite directions. This is even more blatantly obvious. The Petrified Forest demonstrates the helplessness of a dream in the face of reality, and the magnitude of our desire to yet again pit the dream and the reality in a fight. The devil of disappointment has filled

— 12 — Roman M. Perelshtein. A Failed Saint in Archie Mayo’s the Petrified Forest the Arizona desert with his presence. He has grown bored with tempting the tumbleweeds and the righteous, and has taken on the regular men. All of them are relics of idealism, but each has been fooled by life in his particular way. And those who have not yet been fooled or disappointed must hurry. The writer Alan Squier is seeking a beautiful death in the desert, and he finds it. It comes as a bullet shot by another disappointed romantic — the famed killer Duke Mantee. Duke is not as much the “last great apostle of rugged individualism”, as yet another victim of the century, whose religion is either pragmatism or skepticism. Even Gramp Maples, the child-like old skeptic of the gas station who took the wandering writer’s words as a joke, is disappointed. The old man realizes that the writer didn’t lie when Alan Squier demands of the devil that their contract be fulfilled. And thus the devil guides Duke’s murderous hand that offhandedly and unenthusiastically squeezes the trigger. The devil, perhaps, is already regretting appearing at the old gas station, for it is now people that tempt him, one after another, testing the resilience of their destinies. Bose, the football jock in love with Gabrielle, challenges the gangsters but suffers a fiasco. Because of Duke’s unsteady hand, Boze gets away with only a light wound. As he is not yet ready to die, the devil tosses him off the chess board, not so much as a “captured” piece, but as a skittish one, unable to follow the strict ritual of the game. Mrs. Chisholm is disappointed in her husband and her life. Mr. Chisholm is, too, disappointed. Gangsters refused to play by the rules: they are not so much cold-blooded killers or angels of death, as they are undiscriminating vultures, complete with street riffraff habits. The owner of the gas station, who hasn’t finished playing a hero, is shamed in front of his companions, clients, and family. His dressed up troop is disarmed and morally destroyed. And yet the devil of disappointment is, too, disappointed. It is with too much ease that these stray souls wander into his hands. They occupy fairly respectable shells and they are armed with ideals, even though they never find any use for them. Gabrielle is the one around whom the trouble brews. The girl that spends her time reading François Villon is destined to escape from the Arizona desert and perhaps even win over Paris. Gabrielle has an artistic talent, and it would be a sin to bury it. Even the devil of the desert is

— 13 — Roman M. Perelshtein. A Failed Saint in Archie Mayo’s the Petrified Forest helpless here: the girl is out of his league. She has not yet matured enough for skepticism. She has not yet learned those special mental arguments that paralyze the will and make one take on heroic acts, to sweeten one’s demise with fireworks. That is precisely what the wandering writer, Alan Squier, accomplishes. He turns his death into a work of art, into a masterpiece that will outlive him. And perhaps art will rid Gabrielle of the smell of gasoline and hamburgers, but the devil of disappointment will come visiting from the desert again and again. He will appear with a smirk of a gangster and stay silent all night, or remind Gabrielle of his existence with the exalted chatter of a passerby intellectual. But we remember that Gabrielle’s future was bought for a high price. She’s the hope of the nation of pragmatists and skeptics, as the playwright Robert Emmet Sherwood saw America in the days of his youth. And yet the devil is uneasy paying his visit to the gas station lost in the sands. Love hasn’t yet run out in the human hearts. Love pushes them towards self-sacrifice: a compulsory one in the case of Duke Mantee, who is awaiting his girlfriend, and an inexplicable one in case of Alan, who signs off his life insurance to Gabrielle and trusts her to live life in his stead. The strange flame of love, fanned by the desert wind, feverishly lights up the entire universe, which, though the size of a gas station, still remains a universe. Idealists, to use the language of the Bible, are rarely “sons of the bondage of the law”. They abhor a system of moral statutes; indeed, they reject a measured, fulfilled life. They are outcasts, derelicts, hunted by the nation, and it is unimportant who they are — rudderless intellectuals or wandering ruffians. Idealists, should they remain faithful to their great dream until the end, like prophets and righteous men, are destined to be the “sons of Grace.” But heroes of The Petrified Forest are not prepared for that level of openness. They haven’t become transparent enough to let through the light that comes from beyond. The heat of the desert, which burns everything that’s alive even in the most tender of souls, has clouded their hearts. The world literature offers us a plethora of models created in the image of the ideal. Leading this procession is El caballero de la triste figura, Don Quixote of La Mancha. Spanish writer and philosopher

— 14 — Roman M. Perelshtein. A Failed Saint in Archie Mayo’s the Petrified Forest

Miguel de Unamuno refused to believe that “Don Quixote is a fantastical or fictitious entity, as if it is feasible for the human imagination to give birth to such a stupendous figure.” The light that comes from beyond was carried through Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra, and to an even greater extent, this heavenly light was carried by his timeless hero. In The Petrified Forest, the writer Alan Squier, like all Don Quixotes, sets off on his path with empty pockets. He could pay for his stay at the inn or his meal at the gas station restaurant with the heightened state of his soul, but minting such a coin is not an easy task. It requires having a vivid imagination and good manners. The lover of poetry, Gabrielle, accepts this form of payment, but her admirer, with the ambitious air of a maître d’, protests. “He then asked Don Quixote, whether he had any money? Not a cross, replied the Knight, for I never read in any history of chivalry that any knight-errant ever carried money about him.” — this quote from Cervantes perfectly matches the image of the write in The Petrified Forest. Nonetheless, let us not rush to conclusions. There is something that prevents me from seeing Alan Squier as the new Don Quixote. Alan undoubtedly sacrifices himself, but the demon of narcissism, one of the most insidious spirits of the desert, continues to torment him. Alan is an uncompromising aesthete and, perhaps, that is precisely what destroys his soul. Alan is a lofty idealist, a failed saint. The movie plot based on the contradiction between the desired and the mundane could be called “the failed saints” and the topic corresponding to it may be named “the ideal and the reality”. REFERENCES 1. Bakhtin, M.M. 1984. Rabelais and His World, Trans. by Helene Iswolsky. p. 9. 2. Spengler, O. 2013. The Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History, vol.2. pp. 120–121. 3. Nietzsche, F.W. 1923. The Birth of Tragedy, or Hellenism and Pessimism. p. 83. 4. Unamuno, M. 2005. Vida de don Quijote y Sancho, según Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, explicada y comentada. 5. Cervantes Saavedra, M. 1993. Don Quixote. p. 19. 6. Perelshtein, R.M. 2013. “New Testament Motifs in Russian cinematic dramaturgy of the 1960—1980s”, Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts, vol.1, pp. 76-79.

— 15 — Nadia V. Japova. Claude Debussy: le génie français contre l’influence allemande

Nadia V. Japova Master of Literature Université Paris IV — Paris Sorbonne Collège Universitaire Français de Moscou [email protected] Moscow CLAUDE DEBUSSY: LE GÉNIE FRANÇAIS CONTRE L’INFLUENCE ALLEMANDE

Summary: In this article, the author discusses the influence of Wagner’s music and ideas on French art and culture. The article considers the Debussy’s work in opposition to the French Wagnerisme, describing the process of assimilation of the German lyrical drama and its influence on the formation of French cultural identity. Keywords: Pelléas et Mélisande, Debussy, Wagner, symbolisme, opéra français, musique impréssioniste.

L’œuvre de Claude Debussy est un phénomène éclatant de la musique française à la limite des XIX et XX siècles. La vie culturelle en France de cette époque réunissait des tendances inverses. D’un côté, l’apparition de l’opéra Carmen de Georges Bizet — cette culmination du réalisme musical, des expériences novatrices de César Franck, de Camille Saint-Saëns, de Gabriel Fauré; de l’autre — l’essor des traditions académiques conservatrices prospérant au Conservatoire national de Musique de Paris et à l’Académie des Beaux-Arts, où six fauteuils étaient réservés à la section de musique. Dans cette atmosphère contradictoire on voyait l’enfantement du mouvement impressionniste qui eût une grande influence sur l’art de cette époque, la peinture bien sûr, mais aussi la littérature et la musique. Les peintres impressionnistes, qui se veulent réalistes, choisissent leurs sujets dans la vie contemporaine, dans un quotidien librement interprété selon la vision personnelle de chacun d’eux. Peintres d’une nature changeante, d’une vie heureuse saisie dans la particularité de l’instant,

— 16 — Nadia V. Japova. Claude Debussy: le génie français contre l’influence allemande

ils sont indifférents à la recherche, chère aux classiques, d’un bel idéal et d’une essence éternelle des choses. L’impressionnisme pictural et l’impressionnisme musical trouvent beaucoup de traits communs. L’intention d’exprimer les impressions immédiates produit l’intérêt aux genres mineurs de peinture et au genre de miniature en musique. La musique impressionniste apparaît de même comme une réaction aux traditions académiques. On reconnaît dans cette musique, pour son couplage entre une tonalité très recherchée et la modalité, une grande sophistication. Le terme impressionnisme en musique fait depuis longtemps débat, les compositeurs eux-mêmes ayant exprimé en leur temps une grande réticence devant cette appellation. On considère que la première œuvre de musique impressionniste est le poème symphonique Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune de Claude Debussy créé en 1894. Le génie de Debussy est né dans le sein des traditions nationales de l’art français. Plus encore que les romantiques, Debussy marque une rupture avec la forme classique, bien que la perfection formelle et le sens de l’unité qui structurent ses compositions en fassent, d’une certaine manière, un “classique”. Sa musique se distingue en effet par une architecture secrète mais souveraine: inspirée parfois des musiques orientales, elle anticipe tantôt le jazz, tantôt la musique contemporaine, mais n’exprime souvent que son propre mystère. Les thèmes sont épars, disséminés, les recherches harmoniques audacieuses, les nuances infinies et les rythmes complexes. Ses œuvres sont sensorielles, elles visent à éveiller chez l’auditeur des sensations particulières en traduisant en musique des images et des impressions précises. Achille-Claude Debussy naît dans la maison familiale de Saint- Germain-en-Laye le 22 août 1862. Son entrée au Conservatoire le 22 octobre 1872 a prédéterminé le caractère de son œuvre. Étant un des meilleurs étudiants en solfège et en accompagnement il expérimente avec de nouvelles couleurs harmoniques et rythmiques. La première collision des intérêts du jeune compositeur aux méthodes du conservatoire surgit dans la classe d’harmonie. L’harmonie enseignée au conservatoire était une discipline à laquelle Debussy n’éprouvait presque aucun intérêt. Il la considérait comme futile et n’y attachait pas beaucoup de crédit.

— 17 — Nadia V. Japova. Claude Debussy: le génie français contre l’influence allemande

Comme il le rapporte lui-même plus tard: “Je vous assure que dans la classe d’harmonie, je ne faisais pas grand chose”; ou encore: “L’étude de l’harmonie telle qu’on la pratique à l’école est bien la façon la plus solennellement ridicule d’assembler les sons. Elle a, de plus, le grave défaut d’unifier l’écriture à un tel point que tous les musiciens, à quelques exceptions près, harmonisent de la même manière.”1 Avant d’achever sa période d’études au Conservatoire Debussy entreprend un voyage en Russie à l’invitation d’une mécène russe, Nadejda von Meck. Lors de ce voyage il prend connaissance avec la musique russe, à laquelle il portait toujours un grand intérêt, surtout à celle de Tchaïkovski et de Moussorgski. En 1884, le jeune musicien décroche un premier prix de Rome avec sa cantate L’Enfant prodigue et obtient une bourse et un séjour de trois ans à la Villa Médicis. Il commence alors à voyager à travers l’Europe, rencontre Brahms à Vienne et Wagner à Venise. Il admire profondément ce dernier et commence à composer. De retour à Paris, il rencontre la poésie en la personne de Mallarmé, également grand admirateur de Wagner. Debussy se rend alors à Bayreuth en 1888 et 1889, mais il va bientôt connaître de nouvelles influences: sa rencontre avec Pierre Louÿs sera décisive, ainsi que la découverte du théâtre extrême-oriental à l’exposition internationale de 1889. Arrive en 1890, sa Suite bergamasque pour piano, son premier succès dû probablement à son inspiration verlainienne et à son influence fauréenne, suivi du Quatuor à cordes, créé le 29 décembre 1893 à la Société Nationale de Musique par le Quatuor Ysaye, puis du Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune pour orchestre, paraphrase d’un poème de Mallarmé. La première à Paris, le 22 décembre 1894, fut mal exécutée et l’ouvrage s’attira les foudres d’une majeure partie de la critique, tout en faisant bonne impression auprès de certains cercles artistiques présents. Cette composition remporta un franc succès dans toute l’Europe.

* * * Compositeur de son époque, Debussy était très sensible aux mouvements contemporains. Les motifs apocalyptiques du syndrome “fin de siècle” se sont manifestés dans l’idée de décadence. Le Décadentisme, le Symbolisme et l’Art Nouveau, inséparablement

— 18 — Nadia V. Japova. Claude Debussy: le génie français contre l’influence allemande

liés, sont remarquables par le discours permettant d’examiner le début des déformations architectoniques de la culture. La permutation des intonations et des positions conceptuelles, les oppositions binaires, la négativité exaltée font sentir l’époque comme Apocalypse. A cet égard l’iconostase de l’époque est très significative. Une des places privilégiées y occupe un des derniers grands romantiques — Richard Wagner. Nous ne pouvons pas considérer Wagner comme symboliste, mais il est également impossible d’imaginer le symbolisme sans influence de Wagner. Pour la plupart des symbolistes européens le compositeur allemand était un personnage de culte. Ce n’est pas un secret que les pères du symbolisme — Baudelaire, Verlain, Mallarmé admiraient Wagner. On sait que la Revue wagnérienne (paraissant de 1885 à 1888 sous la direction d’Edouard Dujardin, disciple de Stéphane Mallarmé) était indissolublement associée au symbolisme français. Il y avait plusieures raisons pour lesquelles Wagner était un repère des recherches symbolistes. D’abord, c’est l’intérêt de Wagner aux grands mythes européens auquels les compositeurs européens ne s’adressaient jamais. Selon Nietzsche, le symbolisme littéraire doit à Wagner le retour à la vraie tragédie. Les principes dramaturgiques de Wagner, son rêve de théâtre synthétique étaient très proches aux idées des symbolistes. L’ambivalence des personnages archétypiques des drames wagnériens est devenue un des critères des personages du théâtre symboliste. Il est important que Wagner sanctionnait dans son oeuvre littéraire la position prioritaire de la manifestation artistique. L’esthétisation complète de la vie quotidienne, la nécessité de projeter les principes de l’art sur toutes les sphères de la vie humaine trouvaient la justification dans les ouvrages théoriques de Wagner. On sait que Wagner refusait toutes les tentatives des symbolistes de mettre en train les contacts créateurs. Ils avaient pourtant un but commun, celui de conférer à l’art la pûreté et la sévérité, d’en remplir tous les réservoirs de l’existence humaine. Les symbolistes favorisaient la mode européenne au wagnérisme. L’union des arts dans le cadre d’un projet artistique a eu beaucoup d’influence sur les premiers symbolistes. “La réunion, la coïncidence de plusieurs arts, comme l’art par excellence, le plus synthétique et le plus parfait. Or, si nous écartons un instant le secours de la plastique,

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du décor, de l’incorporation des types rêvés dans des comédiens vivants, et même de la parole chantée, il reste encore incontestable que plus la musique est éloquente, plus la suggestion est rapide et juste, et plus il y a de chances pour que les hommes sensibles conçoivent des idées en rapport avec celles qui inspiraient l’artiste.”2 Le théâtre symboliste de manière ou d’autre s’en tenait à cette maxime wagnérienne. Il est évident que pour les premiers symbolistes Wagner est devenu une sorte de symbole de l’art contemporain. Ils lui assignent un rôle du porte-parole de la nouvelle perception du monde. Après l’Exposition Universelle des Beaux-arts en 1869 à Munich les peintres et les écrivains français déclarent que Tristan et Yseult et L’or de Rhin étaient les premières oeuvres ayant parfaitement incarné les positions esthétiques du symbolisme. La dernière phase du wagnérisme en France était liée à l’essort de la nouvelle esthétique du symbolisme. Après le triomphe de Parsifal, tous les leadeurs du symbolisme français se réunissent dans la Revue Wagnérienne au milieu des années 1880. Dans le prospectus de la revue, Dujardin nomme parmi les collaborateurs l’Isle-Adam, Mallarmé, Verlaine, Laforgue, Moréas, Verhaeren, H. de Régnier, Maeterlinck. La conception de l’art total de Wagner et l’ambition de son art de devenir une espèce synesthésie totalisant l’âme humain, attire les poètes cités. Pour Charles Baudelaire, qui avait découvert Wagner en 1861, au moment où le symbolisme n’existait pas en tant que mouvement, la synthèse des arts signifiait l’union de la poésie et de la musique. En 1861 il publie un ouvrage nommé Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris, écrit sous l’impression du concert de Wagner vu en 1860. Il devient aussitôt l’apologet de l’estétique wagnérienne. La première audition de la musique de Wagner produit sur lui en tel effet qu’il écrit au compositeur pour le remercier. Baudelaire fait de la musique un langage universelle esthétique par excellence. “J’ai souvent entendu dire que la musique ne pouvait pas se vanter de traduire quoi que ce soit avec certitude, comme fait la parole ou la peinture. Cela est vrai dans une certaine proportion, mais n’est pas tout à fait vrai. Elle traduit à sa manière, et par les moyens qui lui sont propres. Dans la musique, comme dans la peinture et même dans la parole écrite, qui est

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cependant le plus positif des arts, il y a toujours une lacune complétée par l’imagination de l’auditeur.” 3 Baudelaire cite ici Wagner lui-même: “Nous nous étonnons à bon droit aujourd’hui que trente mille Grecs aient pu suivre avec un intérêt soutenu les tragédies d’Eschyle; mais si nous recherchos le moyen par lequel on obtenait de pareils résultats, nous trouvons que c’est par alliance de tous les arts concourant l’ensemble au même but, c’est-à-dire la production de l’œuvre artistique la plus parfaite et la seule vraie.” 4 Baudelaire nous dépeint ainsi un Wagner romantique, capable d’englober la grandeur de l’âme et la consience collective de l’humanité. Le drame wagnérien en dépit de la critique et un grand nombre de reproches attirait tous les symbolistes. Comme le drame wagnérien, le théâtre symboliste s’addressait aux récits mythologiques. Selon Baudelaire, le compositeur allemand était le premier à se rendre compte du caractère sacré du mythe. Mallarmé au contraire considère la syhthèse des arts comme un support mutuel des arts différents consolidés par la poésie, dans son essai Richard Wagner, rêverie d’un poète francais, publié en 1885 dans la Revue Wagnérienne. Cet essai est un exposé de la théorie du drame symboliste. Mallarmé reproche à Wagner ignorer la danse. Du point de vue du poète français, la danse est capable de devenir le centre de l’œuvre d’art. Mallarmé de même critiquait les mises en scènes de Bayreuth, surtout les décorations somptueuses et réalistes. Selon Mallarmé, les décorations doivent porter le caractère convenu et ascétique pour juste faire allusion au symbole et pas pour le nommer. Il est nécessaire de remarquer que l’esthétique du symbolisme s’est manifestée pleinement dans le genre de l’opéra, le genre préféré de Wagner. Le système des personnages de l’opéra de cette époque gravite souvent au symbolisme. Surtout lorsque il s’agit de la prédominance de la littérature. Si l’opéra romantique est orientée d’abord à l’écriture musicale (dont parlait Wagner), l’opéra symboliste est orientée aux écrivains symbolistes et leurs sujets. Dans ce sens le théâtre musical symboliste a subi l’influence des poètes (dramaturges) symbolistes ainsi que de Wagner qui contribuait à cristalliser les principes esthétiques de l’époque. Grâce à cette influence on voit se former les thèmes communs pour la scèce dramatique et musicale,

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c’est le mythe de la nouvelle lecture qui erre du théâtre dramatique à l’opéra (mythe d’Ariadne — Massenet, Schtrauss), soit une légende (La Barbe Bleue — Maeterinck, Ducas, Bartock). Pour certain nombre d’hommes de la culture en France de l’époque, le génie de Wagner était incontestable, mais restant toujours étranger à la France. La croissante conscience de nation exigeait d’avoir un compositeur pouvant exprimer en musique l’esprit français. Selon certains critiques, Claude Debussy aurait pu occuper cette place. En témoigne Romain Rolland dans son article Pelléas et Mélisande de Claude Debussy: “La victoire de Pelléas et Mélisande marque une réaction légitime, naturelle, fatale, — je dirai même: vitale — du génie français contre l’art étranger, surtout contre l’art wagnérien, et contre ses maladroits représentants en France. <…> Pour nous, ce que nous avons le droit d’affirmer, c’est que le drame wagnérien ne répond en rien à l’esprit français: — ni à son goût artistique, ni à sa conception du théâtre. Ni à son tempérament musical. Il a pu s’imposer par conquête, il a pu — et peut encore — dominer l’esprit français, par le droit du génie victorieux: rien ne peut faire qu’il ne soit étranger chez nous.” 5 Aussi féconds qu’ambigus — enthousiasme et distance mêlés — les rapports de Debussy à Wagner sont à replacer dans un contexte partagé entre fascination wagnérienne et idéologie germanophobe, au moment où les musiciens français oscillent entre assimilation du drame lyrique venu d’outre-Rhin et recherche d’un modèle lyrique national. La relation ambiguë de “Claude de France” à celui qu’il nomme “le vieil empoisonneur” serait-elle à l’image de Parsifal dissipant les charmes empoisonnés du vieux Klingsor? Bien que Debussy soit à une mesure à un autre pôle estéthique que Wagner, on ne peut pas nier une énorme influence de Wagner sur la conception esthétique de Debussy. Tout d’abord c’est l’impression de 1888, après une visite de la représentation de Parsifal à Bayreuth. Une extrême force suggestive de la musique s’est vivement manifestée grâce au caractère mystique du livret. L’action transportée du plan extérieur au plan intérieur pour Debussy a eu une grande importance. En dehors de la monumentalité et de la spécificité sonore, Parsifal laisse en héritage au symbolisme la rhétorique spécifique de l’expression du massif

— 22 — Nadia V. Japova. Claude Debussy: le génie français contre l’influence allemande thématique. Quelques œuvres du compositeur subissent l’influence directe de Wagner. C’est sans doute dans le genre de l’opéra qu’on peut observer ces liens. Quant à Pelléas et Mélisande, la référence, pour le livret, est plutôt Tristan… Mais le contraste ici l’emporte sur la ressemblance. La référence, pour la musique, est plutôt Parsifal. Sa dette envers Wagner cependant ne doit pas se comprendre comme une simple continuation de la musique wagnérienne. L’influence de Wagner fut pour lui oblique. Mais il va plus loin. Debussy comprend que Wagner est peut-être le dernier grand génie du romantisme, qui appartient plutôt au passé. En reformulant Victor Hugo, Debussy dit: “Wagner fut un beau coucher de soleil que l’on a pris pour une aurore”. Somme toute, Debussy aurait mieux réalisé que Wagner les théories d’Opéra et Drame. La collaboration des arts, la tendance de réunir l’intérieur et l’extérieur sont des moments-clé de son oeuvre.

ENDNOTES 1 DEBUSSY (Claude), M. Croche et autres écrits, Musica, 1902, p. 65. 2 BAUDELAIRE (Charles), Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris, Collection Litteratura.com, p. 5–6. 3 Ibid, p. 6. 4 Ibid, p. 789. 5 ROLLAND (Romain), Musiciens d’aujourd’hui, Paris, Librairie Hachette, 1908, p. 198–199.

REFERENCES 1. Bablet, Denis. 1965. Esthétique générale du décor de théâtre de 1870 à 1914. Editions CNRS, Collection Le Chœur des Muses. Paris. 2. Baudelaire, Charles. Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris, Collection Litteratura.com. 3. Cor, Raphael. 1912. La sensiblité contemporaine. 4. Debussy, Claude. “ Lettre à Ernest Chausson du 2 octobre 1893”. Correspondance, 1884–1918. 5. Debussy, Claude. 1902. M. Croche et autres écrits, Musica. 6. Dessons, Gérard. 2005. Maeterlinck, le théâtre du poème, Paris, Laurence Teper. 7. Lecler, Éric. 2006. L’opéra symboliste, L’Harmattan. 8. Lesure, François. 1992. Claude Debussy avant Pelléas ou les années symbolistes, Paris, Klincksieck.

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9. Maeterlinck, Maurice. 1998. Le trésor des humbles, “Novalis”, Bruxelles, Edition Labor. 10. Moindrot, Gérard. Le Symbolisme de Pelléas et Mélisande (à propos de la musique de Claude Debussy et du livret de Maurice Maeterlinck), Rose Croix, N 211, automne 2004 11. Raynaud, Ernest. 1920. La Mêlée Symboliste (1870–1890) Portraits et souvenirs, Paris, La Renaissance du livre. 12. Rolland, Romain. 1908. Musiciens d’aujourd’hui, Paris, Librairie Hachette. 13. Japova, N. V. 2013. «Le théâtre du silence de Maurice Maeterlinck», Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts, vol.1, pp. 36-54

— 24 — Dmitriy N. Antropov. Representation of a technical object in a work of art

Dmitriy N. Antropov Postgraduate student Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia [email protected] St. Petersburg REPRESENTATION OF A TECHNICAL OBJECT IN A WORK OF ART

Summary: The article explores modes of representation of a technical object in visual art from drawings of Leonardo Da Vinci to modern art practices. Author shows reasons of depiction or use of a technical object as a part of an artwork. The main point of the article is that technical object was a source of inspiration for artists by virtue of its connection with human’s genius and its’ significance for social and economic progress. It is shown that the appeal to a machinery becomes the most popular when artists realize themselves as inventors and creators. Keywords: technical object, industrial theme, avant-garde, modern art.

Today in era of digital technologies with their loss of materiality, classical work of art and technical object could be both interpreted as anachronisms. Each art project, which involves manual work and uses palpable objects, produces nostalgic reminiscence of a lost material world. Virtual realities of computer games and social networks replaced real objects and human social connections. We speak about simulacra, which have “no relation to any reality”1, as argued by Jean Baudrillard. “In the developed world at least, we live in a society supersaturated by digital technology”2. If we look at well-articulated forms of work of art or technical object, we shall feel a presence of material objects such as canvas with paints or mechanical parts. However, materiality is not only affinity between technical object and piece of art and they have some points of contact in art history. Technical object is indisputably an evidence of a human’s genius just as a work of art. Of course, piece of art is not utilitarian object,

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as opposed to machine. Nevertheless, both of them at first appear in mind in the form of idea, and then author realizes it into material. Work of art is embodiment of human’s emotions and technical object is of pure rationality and pragmatism, but they have more resemblance as it seems. Figure of Leonardo Da Vinci shows that one person can be an artist and inventor at the same time. He worked on his paintings and drafts with the same fervor, as if his inventions were artworks, and his art was invention. Leonardo tried to give art status of a science, according to tradition formed by the artists and theoreticians of the Quattrocento 3 We must notice that artists returned to that attitude to art only at the beginning of the XX century. Technical object has long history of its appearance in art after Leonardo Da Vinci. However, during different periods of art history technical object has been represented in different ways. Throwing a light upon that problem needs a special research, which we cannot realize in this short article. However, we bring forward an approach to its solution, based on several methods. Dmitrii Severyuhin finds two historically opposite tendencies in art history, which he calls mimesis (from Ancient Greek: μίμησις, “to imitate”) and symbol (or symbolical generalization) 4. Both tendencies were born practically at the same moment. Cave painting at the same time gives us examples of anatomically right images and schematically simplified pictograms. Mimesis and symbol lives hand to hand during art history and influences on each other. We can find these tendencies in works of different artists and whole art movements or even art styles, where one of them always played the main role. This applies to early representation of technical objects. For example, drawings of Leonardo Da Vinci’s inventions, illustrations of Renaissance tractates on metallurgy, like “De La Pirotechnia”, written by Vannoccio Biringuccio, or Georgius Agricolla’s “De Re Metallica”, shows truthful representation of technical object. At the same time, such pictures as “Construction of the Tower of Babel” (1563, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria) of Piter Breughel the Elder and “Construction of the Tower of Babel” (1594, Louvre Mouseum, Paris, France) of Lucas van

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Valckenborch are examples of symbolical interpretation of technical object as an alienation of human from the nature. Speaking of Breughel or Valckenborch, nobody will argue that their works were art, but early tractates’ illustrations and drawings of Da Vinci’s machines can be determined as pieces of art quite arguably. So how can we separate artworks from technical drawings and drafts? In early times, the fundamental difference between them was in decorative and esthetical effect. Illustrations of Agricola’s “De Re Metallica” are not only technical drafts, but also they plays a role of decoration of a book, and we consider them as an art. Hereafter such illustrations as drawings in “Encyclopaedia or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts”, largest encyclopedia of the XVIII century, edited by Denis Diderot, will become colder and drier since they need to befit standards of scientific publications. During centuries, technics never laid in a sphere of special interest to artists. We can adduce several exceptions, works of art mainly made by artists, who lived in regions with developing industry. For example, English artist Joseph Wright of Derby, acclaimed as “the first professional painter to express the spirit of the Industrial Revolution”5, made five “night pieces’ between 1771 and 1773, taking as his subject the blacksmiths’ shops and forges of Derbyshire. Between them are “A Blacksmith’s Shop” (1771, Derby Museum and Art Gallery, UK) and “Iron Forge” (1772, Tate Gallery, London, UK). “The Iron Forge viewed from without” (1773, Hermitage State Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia) was bought in 1774 by the Russian Empress, Catherine the Great 6, but that fact shows respect to Wright’s talent as a great artist rather than interest in that particular theme. Practically at the same time Sweden artist Pehr Hillestrom depicted furnace-lit interiors of forges and foundries connected to the Swedish iron making manor estates. We can name his famous works on that theme, such as “In the Anchor-Forge at Söderfors. The Smiths Hard at Work” (1782, National museum, Stockholm, Sweden) and series of views of the copper mine, for example, “Gallery in Falun Copper Mine” (XVIII, National museum Sweden).

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Leonard Defrance, a Frenchman by birth, spent almost all of his life in the region of Liege in Belgium that had been a center of metalworking for centuries. In Defrance’s “Interior of a Foundry” (1789, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool) or Hillestrom’s “Iron forge”, which was described previously, we can spot some well-dressed visitors. Such a motif was widespread in industrial plots, because for high-society members a visit to the factory was a kind of entertainment and at the same time a ritual. However, artist made such work for not only money, but also depicting of foundries and forges was a test of their professional skills. Foundries gave unusual environment and luminous effects, produced by the fire and reflexive metals, and this was a challenge for artistic skill. Society has come to understanding that industry made a great impact on culture only by the XIX century and many artists began to work on that theme. The industrial era had its own symbols. Trains and steamships with their speed, noise and smoke was the most impressive of them. Invention of steam engine let increase power of humankind, and the world met modern era with mixed feelings of self-confidence and fear. Great Britain gave world one of the earliest railroads, so British artist have become the pioneers of that theme. Thomas Talbot Bury, British architect and lithographer, made a series of drawings, engraved by Pyall for “Colored Views on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway” published in 1831 by Ackermann. John Wilson Carmichael painted “Corby Viaduct, the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway” (1836, Yale Center for British Art, USA). Then James Pollard created “The Louth-London Royal Mail Travelling by Train from Peterborough East, Northamptonshire” (1845, Yale Center for British Art, USA). Nevertheless, Joseph Mallord William Turner has made the most impressive image of coming era in the XIX century. Не created “The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last berth to be broken up” (1838, National Gallery, London, UK) and “Rain, Steam and Speed — The Great Western Railway” (1844, National Gallery, London, UK). Both works are overfilled with allusions and symbols, revealing main conflict between old and new that is in the center of the author’s message. Gerald Finley wrote about Turner’s works: “these pictures are essentially poetical representations that express his deeply felt, but

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ambivalent, response to technology”7. Turner felt inevitable approach of modernity, expressing it with power of his talent. Speaking of the industrial theme, we should not forget about another type of artworks that shows factories. An English designer and painter Godfrey Sykes made interiors of ironworks, mills and forges, such as “Interior of an Ironworks’ (1850, Yale Center for British Art, USA), “Interior of a Rolling Mill” (1855–1865, Science Museum, London, UK), “The Tilt Forge” (c. 1855, Museums Sheffield) et cetera. However not only British Islands gave us extraordinary examples of poetical celebration of forthcoming era. Adolph Friedrich Erdmann von Menzel from Germany made one of the earliest images of railroad “The Berlin-Potsdam Railway” (1847, Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany), where he tried to show speed of the train, using dynamical bend of the railroad and blurring aerial effects. In 1872, Menzel travelled to Königshütte in Upper Silesia in order to familiarize himself with factory conditions there, and spent weeks making hundreds of preparatory sketches. As a result he created “The Iron Rolling Mill (Modern Cyclopes)” (1872–1875, Old National Gallery, Berlin, Germany), where he symbolically compared steelworks with a cavern of a monster. As we can see, a symbolical interpretation of technical object became more prevalent during XIX century. We find its culmination in work of Symbolists. Russian symbolist Mstislav Dobuzhinskiy created convincing image of collision between tradition and modernity in his series “City dreams” (1910). All the artists in a varying degree felt the same loss of roots. Between XIX and XX centuries artists realized that it is possible to refuse strait imitation of nature. Following Cezanne, they declared value of pictorial field itself. Avant-garde artists made artistic means of their works prominent, and formalistic method became the basis of creative process. Work of art lost its sacral status and became a mediator between inner world of an artist and a viewer’s heart and mind. Work of art became an object designed by combination of different elements. All that concurred with general obsession with technology in the beginning of XX century. Old forms of art could not give voice to incredibly

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accelerating world. One of the solutions of that problem was to make work of art similar to machine to reveal its logic and aesthetics. Here we face another way of representation of a technical object in art, namely, approximation of an artwork to machine. Artists formerly just depicted technical objects in their works, but avant-garde artist could borrow materials and technics from industrial world, or even they could work like industrial workers. The traditional way of representation of a technical object remained in work of impressionists and neoimpressionists. Probably the most famous example is Claude Monet’s series of Saint Lazar Train Station’s view, which he made in 1877. Paul Signac created “Railway junction near Bois-Colombes” (1885, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, Netherlands), “Gasometers at Clichy” (1886, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia). The same descriptive manner of representation of technical object we can follow in works of artists associated with social realism. First, it applies to American artists, such as regionalist Thomas Hart Benton, Mexican muralists José Orozco and Diego Rivera and also Ben Shahn, Raphael Soyer and Moses Soyer, Philip Evergood, William Gropper et cetera. Russian artists, belonged to socialist realism, such as Yuri Pimenov, Alexander Deineka and others, had given its own realistic interpretation of that theme in 1930–1950. New attitude to machine had been expressed with, one might say, furious aggression by Italian futurism. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti wrote in his “The founding and manifesto of futurism” that a racing car “is more beautiful than the Victory of Samophrace”8. For Futurists technical object became an object of desire and awe 9. Carlo Carra, Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini, Giacomo Balla under the leadership of Marinetti discovered new aesthetics of mechanics and technology, but instead of showing appearance of the machine, Futurists tried to express feeling and emotions produced by interaction with technics. It is enough to mention Carra’s “Jolts of a cab” (1911, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, USA) or Luigi Russolo’s “Dinamism of a car” (1913, National Museum of Modern Art, Paris, France) to see how Futurists were inspired by new experiences.

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Industrialism gave new visual experience of broken lines, straight angles, regular rhythms and extensive planes, sparkling and shining electric lights. Many artists tried to express it in adequate form. Here we can name American precisionists (Charles Demuth, Elsie Driggs, Georgia O’Keefe, Louis Lozowick, and Charles Sheeler). In France machine aesthetics inspire Fernard Leger on his “tubism”. Amedee Ozenfant and Le Corbusier Purism created Purism, where they with help tried to find a “mathematical order… [to] be sought among universal means”10. Russian group of artists OST also sought to create an image of new life by new artistic means. However, all these artists held moderate direction, creating and using industrial aesthetics, but saving usual art borders. Another way to give voice to the technical object and industrialism was to create a work of art that looks like machine or machine-made. Balla was the most consistent follower of the chronophotography 11, which inspired him to create such works as “Dinamism of a dog on a leash” (1912, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY, USA) or “Young Girl Running on a Balcony” (1912, The Modern Art Gallery, Milan, Italy). Dadaism was another avant-garde movement, obsessed by the technical object. As opposed to Futurists, who focused their attention on aggression and masculinity of machine world, Dadaists introduced elements of play and irony by using drafts (Francis Picabia “Love Parade” — 1917, Private collection) or objects of mass production (Marcel Duchamp (“Fountain” — 1917). Marcel Duchamp’s the most radical gesture, introducing a mass fabricated object as a piece of art called “Fountain”, has indissoluble connection with theme under discussion. First, his objects, such as urinal or bicycle wheel, refer to industrial world with its universal standardization. Second, Duchamp, as well as Picabia, became first artist, who placed technical object on the same footing as artwork since Da Vinci’s times. However, Russian Constructivists could contend leadership in introduction of a technical object to a world art. According to Ekaterina Bobrinskaya, constructions of Vladimir Tatlin, Mikhail Matyushin, Pavel Mansurov and Petr Miturich combine engineering and biological principle. In fact, Constuctivist’s artworks were constructed just like machines from rough materials (Tatlin’s counter-reliefs)

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and had rational structure (Vladimir Tatlin “Monument of the Third International” — 1919–1920), and they had pragmatic function of transformation of the human’s mind. Thus, industrial world gave new materials and avant-garde artists legitimized their usage. Combination of search for new formal solutions and modernist idea of capacity of artwork to change the world brought to creating of machine instead of work of art. Following step was a transformation of an artist in an industrial worker. Russian Productivism became most prominent conception of 1920. Vladimir Mayakovski, Osip Brik, Boris Kushnir, Nikolai Punin and other members of LEF created its theory. Main thesis was that art should not decorate, but create life. Finally, that concept took up main position in INHUK12, Productivists call upon to go to factories, so artist himself transformed into creator of machine of the world rearrangement. Ironically, the same conception was the method of work of Andy Warhol, who lived in the capitalist world, quite opposite to Soviet Russia. Quintessence of all the processes, we described above, is in cybernetic and a digital art. Charlie Gere calls our modern culture digital, supposing that development of computer technologies formed it, but “technology is only one of a number of sources that have contributed to the development of our current digital culture. Others include techno- scientific discourses about information and systems, avant-garde art practice, counter-cultural utopianism, critical theory and philosophy, and even subcultural formations such as Punk”13. Computer allowed to realize avant-gardists’ hopes of creating independent interactive artwork that can act according an environment and viewer’s actions. Works of Michael Noll, Herbert Franke, Manfred Mohr, Vera Molnar, Gordon Pask, Roy Ascott, John Whitney and Charles Csuri created the face of computer art. In their works desire to give voice to machine and to submit human to machine realized itself in full. Artists became an engineers and programmers, and in fact majority of them were professionals in technics. However, supposedly that is not a result of returning to the integrity of Renaissance. Because artist creates machine or code and organize situation, where the machine itself creates a work of art, as in

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Charles Csuri’s “Random War” (1967). Therefore, this is the last step on the way to dematerialization of art and supremacy of artistic idea. Thus we saw that technics was an object of artists’ interest during a quite long period time. Of course, that theme became one of the leading just at the end of the XIX century. Avant-garde artists made this theme major, and they created preconditions of appearance of technological art, as they used materials and created machine-like artworks. Since that time, machine became an integral part of art and made its way through the cybernetic and digital art, there the machine became an art medium. Artist trained us to get used to mechanical aesthetics. Expressing new feeling, they helped modern society to overcome the birth trauma.

ENDNOTES 1 Baudrillard, J. Simulacra and simulation, Translated by Sheila Faria Glaser. 2 Gere, C. Digital culture, p. 201. 3 Zöllner, Frank. 2003. Leonardo da Vinci. The Complete Paintings and Drawings. Köln. 4 Severyukhin, D. Ja. 2009. “Mimesis symbol method”, Art-City, vol. IV (23), pp. 46–48. 5 Klingender, F. D. Quoted in The Oxford Dictionary of art. p. 769. 6 http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_3_1_6.html. 7 Finley, G. Angel in the Sun: Turner’s Vision of History, p. 139. 8 Futurism. An anthology. Edited by Lawrence Rainey, Christine Poggi, Laura Wittman. p. 51. 9 Poggi, C. 2008. “Inventing Futurism”, The Art and Politics of Artificial Optimism. New Jersey: Prinston University press. p. 445 10 Le Corbusier and Ozenfant, Amédée. “Purism.” Translated by Robert L. Herbert. Modern Artists on Art. (Dover Books. Mineola, NY: 2000), p. 54. 11 A term coined by Étienne-Jules Marey means photographic technique, which captures movement in several frames of print. 12 Institute of Artistic Culture (1920–1924). 13 Gere, C. Digital culture, 18, London, Reaktion books Ltd.

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REFERENCES 1. Galkin D. V. 2013. “Inspiration from the machines to artificial life: Stages of development of technological art”, Bulletin of the Tomsk State University: Cultural and Art Criticism, vol. № 1 (9), pp. 44–51. 2. Bobrinskaya, Е.А. 2006. “Russian avant-garde: the boundaries of art”, New Literary Review, p. 304. 3. Khan-Magomedov, C.O. 1996. “Forming Problems. Masters and flow”, Soviet avant-garde architecture. vol. 1, p. 709. 4. Lavrentiev, A.N. 2013. “Where Rodchenko Meets Calder and Calder Meets Rodchenko”, Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts, vol.1, pp. 61-67.

— 34 — Kirill N. Cheburashkin. Project and art aspects of using inner stressed structures

Kirill N. Cheburashkin Head of The Furniture Design Department Stroganov Moscow State Art Industrial Academy [email protected] Moscow PROJECT AND ART ASPECTS OF USING INNER STRESSED STRUCTURES IN RESIDENTIAL AMBIANCE

Summary: Inner stressed structures are well known and successfully widely applied since many thousands years ago in architecture, engineering and everyday life. Musical instruments, gymnastic apparatus, hiking outfit, war and building machinery, furniture, lamps, and many other things contain blocks of inner stressed structures. Nature itself prompted humans the way of using energy of internal stress of different materials for making convenient and practical things. Indeed, almost for every invention, made by man in this field, direct or indirect prototype can be found in nature. Beginning with direct citation (fish fin — a ship sail), ending with complex reframe (wood substance structure — stressed reinforcement). Keywords: inner stressed structures, tensile structures, internal stress, bionics, furniture.

Rationale:

Inner stressed structures are well known and successfully widely applied since many thousands years ago in architecture, engineering and everyday life. Musical instruments, gymnastic apparatus, hiking outfit, war and building machinery, furniture, lamps, and many other things contain blocks of inner stressed structures. Nature itself prompted humans the way of using energy of internal stress of different materials for making convenient and practical things. Indeed, almost for every invention, made by man in this field, direct

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or indirect prototype can be found in nature. Beginning with direct citation (fish fin — a ship sail), ending with complex reframe (wood substance structure — stressed reinforcement). Inner stressed structures (hereafter ISS) are a closed structure, where deformed condition of tough or elastic materials is fixed by restraining rigid or semi-rigid parts of the construction. All variety of inner stressed structures that can be found in nature nominally can be divided into two main kinds: static inner stressed structures and dynamic inner stressed structures (tab. 1). Those constructions, where energy of resistance to forced deformation of tough parts of the system imparts advanced rigidity to the whole construction — are qualified as static inner stressed structures. Those constructions, where efficient outcome is based on instant release of energy, accumulated in tough part of a system due to the forced deformation — are qualified as dynamic inner stressed structures. At a micro molecular level, elastic strain capacity of any material is denominated by distance and bond character between its molecules. The kind of mechanical strain can vary: bend extension, pressure or spin.

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Process of construction stress may happen not only as a result of external action upon a tough part of a system, but also due to changing of physical and mechanical material properties at a micro molecular level, for example during chemical reaction (prestressed concrete, foam material etc.), heat treatment (thermoplastic goods, metallic products etc.), reducing percentage of moistrure (leather and paper cover etc.). There are also combined methods of stressing parts of ISS, where chemical reaction is combined with mechanical force and so forth. In some sense, inner stressed structures compete and frequently resists to global system created by earth gravity. Whereas earth gravity force divides all objects into bearing and being beared, ISS sets its own coordinate frame, in which all parts divide into straining and being strained. Strictly speaking all parts of any ISS are being mutually deformed in a variable degree, but as a rule, main stress is created by strain of the most tough or elastic part of a system. There are ISS in which force of resistance to mutual deformation of different parts is practically equal in strength but opposite in direction

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1. Shelving Veliero based on the cable structure. Franco Albini. 1939.

(for example, in a wind ball stretching force of leather cover resists to compression force of air). Earth gravity influences any ISS and is frequently a part of it as a straining element (masonry arch, braced bridge girder etc.). In local ISS resisting force of a material many times exceeds gravitational force, which in practical sense allows considering them as independent closed system (and also uses them for space works in zero-gravity state). Common pattern of gravitational force role in ISS is like this: the bigger size of ISS, and the more horizontally it’s bearing weight and effective load of the structure parts are oriented — the bigger is gravitational force influence. For example, column crane, constructed from vertical support member, gibbet and cable structure becomes an inner stressed structure when in the course of its construction the jib is brought into horizontal position. At this moment under action of gravity all cable and lattice girder-like elements of the crane construction begin to experience mutually straining tension, both stretching and compressing.

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What inner stressed structures are used for and when their usage is mostly prudent? Analysis of inner stressed structures usage examples in material culture of mankind (tab. 2) draws to a conclusion that usage of inner stressed structures is more reasonable in the following cases: Creating longest, highest, widest or biggest possible unsupported load carrying structures of minimum weight (television towers, bridges, stadium covering, railway station shield etc.). Creating load carrying structures with minimal area resisting to dynamic load (sailing ship rigging, column cranes, fairground attractions etc.). Creating mobile precast and dismountable load carrying structures (carcass canoe, tents, sunshades, exhibition boosts etc.). Creating self-building constructions (self-folding tents, laundry baskets, solar batteries, antennas etc.). Creating mobile transformable carrying structures, able to reduce its surface and volume many times when being folded, for transportation and storage convenience (umbrellas, tent capes of transport vehicles, wheelchairs, baby cars etc.). Creating pneumatic carrying structures (car tyres, folding boats, football balls etc.).* Creating constructions, able to generate sound waves of different frequency when stimulated (musical instruments). Creating various types of antivibration systems (mechanisms containing springs, resilient fabric, straps, belts, air damper*). Wheel construction evolution brightly illustrates man’s thoughts in this direction. Roundwood — rolls that were used for heavy loads transportation — is considered to be wheel’s prototype. Later, when a wheel was provided with a shaft and a hob, in fact it still remained a cylinder, roughly hammered together of wood panels. Such wheel was heavy, very sensitive to all mechanical or wind impact, its manufacturing demanded too much material. Manufacturers * Gas contractibleness under pressure gives ground to consider pneumatic structure as a kind of inner stressed structures where gas acts as a being deformed element.

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cut grooves to reduce its weight, and strengthened them with side-to- side cramps for rigidity. As a result wheels with wooden spokes were made. As a matter of fact this very construction, but made from steel, was used for making railway and steam vehicles’ wheels. But with gasoline-powered engine invention, when wheels turned from driven into driving, and pavement road surface was still far from perfect, a new challenge appeared — to diminish wheels’ weight at most and maximize shock resistance at the same time. Invention of wheel with metallic wheel crown, pneumatic tire and tensioning spoke (combined ISS), solved the problem for a long time. And regardless of forming technique and metal casting development together with widespread pavement road surface quality improvement ousted spoke wheels from automotive manufacture, constructions of this type are still successfully used in motosports and bicycling, where high rigidity joined with light weight and wind resistance is essential. Such constructions are successfully used in other fields of human activities, for example in fairground “observation wheel” construction, for it provides ruggedness, light weight and good wind resistance.

Distinctive psychoemotional effect of ISS on people

According to tables 1 and 2 inner stressed structures literally girdle round man both in wild life and created material world. However subconsciously one, by no means, always can single out and spot ISS in everyday life. Analysis of all variety of inner stressed structures in wild life and material world allows dividing ISS into latent and evident constructions. Component interaction in latent constructions does not come into the view of man because of specific location or because it is integrated into other construction or system (tree trunk, prestressed concrete, mattress strings etc.). In evident ISS deformed and deforming components withstand openly to human glance. However organic matter and physical purposefulness of these kind constructions does not always allow an observer to set

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them apart as separate system type (bat’s wing, column crane, cable- stayed bridge etc.). As a rule, inner stressed structures appearance origin in engineering and architecture (see tab. 2) is merely practical. However since the early days of creating and using ISS, people paid attention to harmony and natural aesthetic appeal of evident constructions of this type, which excited their artistic interpretation. It can be brightly illustrated by history of stringed musical instruments’ or bow-shaped weapon’s design. Compositional solution of these things as a rule is based on revealing confrontation between straight lines of stretched strings or bow-string, and smooth graceful curves of support frame. Link up point of cable- stayed elements with body frame is traditionally emphasized by including additional parts, used for binding and tension adjustment. Vast experience of their imitation in architecture and applied and decorative arts may be considered as an indirect indicator of inner stressed structures’ aesthetic value. As well as application of ISS for decorative purposes, when there is no practical need. For instance compositional solution for French company Roсhe Bobоis’ office

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2. The project of chaise lounge by using the internal voltage by Forester. 2012. Ivan Basov & Elena Cheburashkina. furniture collection is based on crosswise strained wires. Despite representation of all the elements of inner stressed structure, they play solely decorative role, for they perform no practical function. In furniture decor of Empire style images of stringed musical instruments are very common. Meanwhile not so much sense bearing of the object is being exploit as compositional backbone.

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In some elements of classical architectural orb one can plainly follow themes, representing strain of inner stressed structures, where large mass and volumes are interacting (entasis, capital etc.). Early in the 20th century representatives of Russian art advance guard created non-utilitarian spatial structures, based on inner stressed structures (works of Iogansen, Rodchenko, Tatlin), later on in the middle of the 20th century these ideas were developed in USA (works of Fuller, Snelson) and USSR (works of Koleitchuk, Kuznetsov). Works of these artists definitively established aesthetic value of inner stressed structures. Where lies the attractiveness of inner stressed structures? Possibly the main answer to this question is that construction with use of evident ISS excellently fits classical triad of Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius: “utilitas, firmitas, venustas” — commodity, firmness and delight. Indeed it is in structures of this type, that practically full conjunction of construction and composition with maximum economy of materials and expressive means can be observed. Compositional expressiveness of inner stressed structures as a rule does not need additional decor (for instance sculptural decoration of the Krimean Bridge, built 1938 in Moscow, is completely interrupted by cable construction expressiveness and is taken as some facultative supplement). Another reason of evident inner stressed structures visual attraction is that they clearly demonstrate stored energy. Condition of maximum stress of a structure just before the moment of possible release of the accumulated energy attracted artists and designers at all times. Thus in his work “Discobolus” Ancient Roman sculptor Myron captured accumulation point of pre-flight position of athlete before discus throwing. The same moment is captured in “Hercules the Archer” by Antoine Bourdelle. Theme of lurking animal just before glomping was widely used not only in different works of art but also in design.

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Since 1964 American industry produced so called muscle-car. Back wing of these cars resembles tense muscular hind leg of carnivorous animal ready to jump. Same tendency can be followed in design of Russian cars of 1960s. Third factor determining aesthetic value and visual attractiveness of ISS structures is that constructions of this kind represent alternative forming system, different from interactive system of bearing and being beared elements, created by terrestrial gravitation. As a rule structures including inner stressed structures are distinguished by visual lightness and transparence. From point of view of formal composition this fact allows them broadly involve surrounding space.

Usage pattern of inner stressed structures in residential ambiance

Analysis of use of inner stressed structures in engineering and architecture (see tab. 2) gives ground to come to the conclusion that ISS are generally used when light and as firm as possible mobile constructions with maximal wind resistance are required at short notice. All these qualities are highly demanded in those fields of human life where prompt buildup, mobility and technical benefit prevail over aesthetic value (sports, tourism, military arts, transport, cinematography, concerts, etc.). However these ISS qualities loose relevance for the purposes of residential ambiance, where people seek atmosphere of supreme comfort, stability and safety. In residential ambiance use of inner stressed structures has its own specificity and impediments. For instance, structural resistance energy concentration, specific to all evident inner stressed structures, in residential ambiance can be taken as a potential danger signal. The outside possibility of uncontrolled release of this energy makes an observer subconsciously keep such a structure within eyeshot. This specificity gives ground for using ISS in creation of dominant accent objects, organizing and placing under control three-dimensional object

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environment of living interior (ceiling lamp, floor-lamp, extensional- spatial installations etc.). So which qualities of ISS are mostly requested in creation of three- dimensional object ambiance of living interior? Analysis of use of inner stressed structures in residential ambiance (see tab. 3) shows that ISS is an integral part in everyday life, from safety pin to stretched ceiling. Considerable proportion of inner stressed structures in residential ambiance belongs to hidden ISS, for it is at home where a person is eager to create comfort and have lasting relaxation in prone or sitting position. Normally these processes are provided by large quantity of different latent antivibration system both in seating and cabinet furniture (where smoothness of opening and closing drawers is provided by special mechanism, based on ISS). Evident ISS in residential ambiance are assigned a special role and meaning in terms of above-described comprehension specificity of this type constructions. Capability of evident inner stressed structures act as dominant or organizing centre of objective outfit of residential ambiance is not the only distinctive feature. of these systems. Practically for all constructions containing ISS using minimal quantity of material, minimum thickness and minimal cut set of all main parts of the system is typical, which makes objects, designed to this principal visually light and weightless (thus being highly robust, loadable, and functional constructions). This specific character allows using inner stressed structures in tasks, when from general compositional point of view at objective ensemble of the interior it is necessary to obtain visual lightness and completeness of space. Console-based sitting furniture items, where inner strain increases many times under the action of person’s weight (i. e. earth gravity), should be singled out into a special kind of inner stressed structures. Most of the time constructions of this kind do not stand under load and may be considered as latent ISS. Multiple stiffness capacity of tough elements is provided by special structure of prestressed supporting frame elements, made of wood, heat-treated metal or composite material. Dynamic influence of person’s weight on a console-based sitting furniture item can be compared with affection of wind on a tree trunk.

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At the moment of confrontation to external load constructions of this type acquire characteristic of evident ISS: they contain little parts, have minimal cut set, and their composition is identical to construction. In conclusion we’d like to say that studying and isolation of inner stressed structures and qualifying them as independent field of knowledge should lead to extensive use of constructions of this type in founding environment. This argument is based on high efficiency if these systems, minimum material consumption for their production and also maximum expressiveness of their compositional solution.

REFERENCES 1. Koleychuk, Vyacheslav. 2012. My ABCs, Stroganov Moscow State Art Industrial Academy, Moscow. 2. Hurley, Michael. 2012. The world’s most amazing bridges, Raintree. 3. Lavrentiev, Alexander. 2009. Experiment in design, Moscow. 4. Koleychuk, Vyacheslav. 1989. V.ATLIN Leben, Werk, Wirrkung. 5. Lavrentiev, A.N. 2013. “Where Rodchenko Meets Calder and Calder Meets Rodchenko”, Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts, vol.1, pp. 61-67. 6. Smolenkova, J.A. 2013. “Stroganov School of Sculpture. VKHUTEMAS period. VKHUTEMAS: Sculpting Methodologies and Programs”, Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts, vol.2, pp. 35-43.

— 46 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames

Elena A. Cheburashkina Lecturer of The Furniture Design Department Stroganov Moscow State Art Industrial Academy [email protected] Moscow LE PHÉNOMÈNE DU “DESIGN INVIELLISABLE” SUR L’EXAMPLE DES TRAVAUX DES CRÉATEURS AMÉRICAINS DES ANNÉES 60 DU XX SIÈCLE CHARLES ET RAY EAMES

Summary: Charles and Ray Eames one of the most legendary designer couples of the 20th century. They created the architecture, film, sculpture, toys and a special place in their work took the furniture. For 40 years they generated a series of revolutionary furniture designs that combined Charles’ architectural training with Ray’s passion for painting and sculpture. Their furniture is still in production and still in demand. Why is it still inspiring, still beautiful? Maybe the furniture of Charles and Ray Eames is still relevant today because it continues to be animated by the vitality of its conception. The sincerity, playfulness, imagination and technological rightness of their design have made them stable inhabitants of a changing world. Keywords: Eames, Charles & Ray Eames, design, American designers, furniture.

Tous les peintres, créateurs, architectes, metteures en scène, donc toutes les professions liées à la création — sont aspirés par la perfection dans leur art creatif. Créer des chefs d’oeuvres auxquels le temps ne nuit pas, qui sont hors de la mode, qui ne perdent pas leur actualité –peuvent trés peu de personnes. Les articles de Charle et Rey Eames — c’est un des exemple unique du design inviellisable. Leurs meubles crées il y a un demi-siecle, sont produits aujourd’hui par milliers sans aucun changement extérieur. Les architectes contemporains tels que Norman

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Foster, Remment Koolhaas, Santiago Calatrava utilisent les articles de leur design dans leurs projets. Les bureaux des transnationales comme Microsoft, IBM et beaucoup d’autres sont équipés de leurs Aluminum Chairs. Et cela n’est pas l’histoire d’une chaise unique devenue l’icône du design et qui a immortalisé son auteur, car presque tous les articles de leur bureau “Eames office” sont produits et vendus aujourd’hui et restent actuels et rechershés comme il y a 50 ans. On ne peut pas parler d’un simple talent ou de la chance mais d’une régularité qui est à la base de leur création et d’un systéme specifique que leur permet au cours des années de créer des meubles qui ne perdent pas leur actualité aujourd’hui.

Biographie

Charles est né en 1907 à Saint-Lois (Missouri). Ayant reçu une formation d’architecte il a ouvert son bureau. Plus tard il soulignait le rôle du savoir la planification des bases architecturales pour le design: “Je vois tous les problèmes autour de moi comme étant des problèmes structuraux” D’après Charles le design — c’est un projet de regroupement d’élements pour atteindre un but précis. C’étant interessé au design Charles entre à l’Academie des Beaux Art à Crainbourg Michigan où il commence ses recherches dans le domaine des meubles et ou plus tard il devient doyent de la faculté du design. Ray est née en 1912 à Sacramento en Californie. Avant son entrée à l’Academie des Beaux Arts à Crainbourg elle a fait ses études dans l’atelier du peintre allemand Hans Hoffmann à New York ProvenceTown. Ayant fait conaissance de Charles elle l’a aidé dans son travail sur son projet mutuel avec Eero Saarinen pour un concourt “Le design organique de l’habitat” organisé par MOMA. Leur collection de meubles faite de contreplaqué courbé a apporté a ses auteurs le 1 et 2 prix (cette collection comportait 10 modèles differents de fauteuils au siège-coque) Charles et Rey se sont mariés en 1941 et ont déménagé en Californie ou ils ont contunué leurs recherches dans le domaine du design des meubles avec le contreplaqué moulé traité sous pression. Les Eames

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1. Сharles et Ray Eames. créaient des prototypes de meubles de leurs propres mains et leur atelier ressemblait plus à un laboratoire de haute tecnologie. L’ordre de la Marine Militaire Americaine sur une grande quantité de balafres fabriqués en contreplaqué moulé leur a permis d’ouvrir leur propre bureau. Ils ont rassemblé autour de soi un groupe de decorateurs tels que Harry Bertoia, Gregory Ain. Dans leur expériments les Eames ont crée non seulement des compositions abstraites et des sculptures, mais aussi des chaises, des tables et même des joujoux en contreplaqué.

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2. Charles et Ray Eames, Lahaise — Le chaiselongue inspir par la sculpture Floating Figure de Gaston Lachaise. 1948.

Ses articles étaient exposés à l’exposition “Les nouveaux meubles de Charles Eames’ organisée en 1946 à New York par MOMA. Le principe essentiel des Eames — l’economie des materiaux et d’efforts a été realisé dans la chaise “LCW Chair” fabriquée en contreplaqué moulé. Cette chaise était nommée “chaise du siecle” par un critique connu en architecture.

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3. Charles et Ray Eames, Les articles fabriques par Vitra.

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4. Charles et Ray Eames, Les balafres pour la Marine Militaire Americaine.

— 52 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames

5. Charles et Ray Eames, LCW chair. 1941.

En 1946 la compagnie Evans Products a commeçé la production des meubles des Eames en conterplaqué courbé. Bientôt la sosiété “German Miller” a commençé la production des meubles de Charles et Ray et les produit jusqu’a aujourd’hui. La personnalité et l’oeuvre des Eames ont beaucoup influencé la conception du monde, la compréhension du design et l’attitude envers leur entreprise le consortium “Vitra”, qui aujourd’hui produit presque toute la ligne des meubles Eames. En 1949 dans le cadre du projet de batiment bon marché Case Study House, Ray et Charle ont construit leur propre maison a Saint –Monica en Californie. C’était une construction en acier aux portes et fenêtres mouvantes. Il n’a fallu que 16-heures aux ouvriers pour

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6. Charles et Ray Eames, Ray & Charles Molded-plywood sculpture.

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7. Charles et Ray Eames, Lounge chair. 1956.

édifier la carcasse et encore 3 jours à un ouvrier pour assembler le toit. Cette maison spacieuse, lumineuse aux couleurs vives a été décrite par Pet Kexem comme une oeuvre de Mondriant sur une pelouse de Los Angeles. Le design original, l’usage de materiaux nouveaux ont fait de cette maison la Mecque des architectes et des decorateurs du monde entier. Cette maison et l’une des plus remarquables maison de l’habitat construite dans la periode d’après guerre. A la fin des années 40 Eames a utilisé pour la planification de ses chaises le plastique renforcé par fibre de verre en decouvrant un potentiel de composition de formes dans cette nouvelle tecnologie. Les contours fluides du siège et du dos contrastent avec les 4 lignes légères des pieds verges. Ses fins pieds metalliques sont devenus la particularité des meubles Eames des années 50. Au debut des années 50 les Eames se sont emballés dans la production de films. En 25 ans dans le cinéma ils ont crée plus de 85 films court

— 55 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames

8. Charles et Ray Eames, wire chair. 1951.

métrage sur des thèmes differents. Les Eames ont souvent utilisé leurs film au cours de leurs discours publics et dans leur oeuvre pédagogique. Dans les années 60 Ray et Charles planifient des meubles de bureau, des chaises et des tables pliantes en plastique, des lampes, des appareils radio. Les Eames élaborent aussi le style de marque IBM et projetent le design des expositions IBM et d’autre sociétés. Dans les années 70 en continiant le travail dans le domaine du design des meubles ils introduisent des idées nouvelles dans cette branche de l’industrie où la base architectonique de Charles est unie avec l’amour de Ray pour la peinture et la sculpture. Les dernier projet de Charles était la planification du parc à Saint Louis. Charles est mort en 1978, Ray l’a survecu du 10 ans. Toutes ses années Ray a consacré a achevé leurs projets communs et à la propagande de leurs idées dans le design.

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Les matériaux et les technologies innovantrices appliquées aux besoins principaux de l’homme

La Fascination des matériaux anime le travail de Charles et Ray Eames. Leur travail sur bois stratifié a inauguré une recherche incessante de nouvelles possibilités afin que les matières solides puissent exprimer les courbes souples du corps humain. Pour la construction du Plywood Group (1946) le bois stratifié est d’abord assoupli, façonné avant de retournera l’état rigide. La Fiberglass Chair (1950) est faite défibres de verre, imprégnées de résine, formant une coque résistante. La Wire Chair (1951) en fil d’acier chromé crée une sorte de “panier” soutenant le corps. Les études des Eames sur les structures façonnées culminent avec le Aluminium Group (1958), dans lequel des profilés d’aluminium contrastent avec le rembourrage en tissu (plus tard également en cuir). Les idées techniques et sculpturales réalisées dans le Aluminium Group devinrent la base pour d’autres importantes innovations des Eames, que ce soit le Tandem Seating System (1962) ou le Soft Pad Group (1969). Avec leurs meubles Charles et Ray Eames se sont référés au monde naturel qui est tout à la fois métaphore et concret. Ils abandonnent le géométrique strict de la génération précédente au profit d’une composition répondant aux exigences physiologiques et aux désirs émotionnels. Le langage eamesien de coquilles, cadres et lignes graphiques tire son inspiration aussi bien de la nature que des paysages imaginaires de Klee, Mirô et Calder. Ces meubles n’épousent pas seulement la forme du corps humain, ils sont également conçus dans le respect des exigences écologiques. Une construction durable, des matériaux de haute qualité assurent la longévité de chaque modèle tandis que les éléments individuels peuvent facilement être remplacés, réparés et recyclés. Ce souci écologique rend leur travail particulièrement actuel aujourd’hui. Le Plywood Group est le résultat de longues recherches de design et de construction de Charles et Ray Eames pour une véritable production de masse d’une chaise en bois stratifié en ig46. Les fines surfaces du siège et du dossier soutiennent le corps humain dans des courbes complexes. Des rondelles en caoutchouc souple relient les éléments

— 57 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames

en bois stratifié à l’armature en acier. Les modèles du Plywood Group comptent parmi les projets les plus célèbres et les plus aimés de Charles et Ray Eames. La beauté, le confort et la légèreté du Plywood Group en font le mobilier approprié pour attendre, se rencontrer, dîner ou tout simplement se relaxer. Le rebord protecteur du plateau de la Plywood Table ajoute une structure nette au charme visuel. La Fiberglass Chair a été la première chaise en plastique fabriquée en série. Aussi bien par son usage résolu de matériaux modernes que par son confort d’assise pour le corps humain, elle illustre la philosophie de design de Charles et Ray Eames. La Fiberglass Chair est humaine de par sa forme convexe et organique, et humaine dans sa recherche d’une solution économiquement accessible. La Fiberglass Chair a meublé des milliers de cafés, d’écoles, de salles de lecture, lieux de réception et autres espaces publics à travers le monde entier. Au regard du problème écologique posé par l’impossibilité de recycler le polyester renforcé défibres de verre, Vitra a stoppé la production de cette chaise en 1993. L’évolution des technologies plastiques et en particulier du moulage par injection permet aujourd’hui de rééditer la Fiberglass 9. Charles et Ray Eames, Chair en polypropylène dans la forme Ray Molded-plywood d’origine. Elle peut ainsi être proposée dans sculpture. une version à la fois plus écologique et plus

— 58 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames

économique. Cette nouvelle version en polypropylène est éditée sous le nom de Eames Plastic Chair. La pureté et la sobriété de cette chaise, en particulier dans sa version empilable, sont jusqu’ici inégalées. Le nouveau matériau et les nouvelles couleurs font de la chaise une interprétation moderne d’un classique et un véritable produit contemporain. La Wire Chair est un dessin tridimensionel en métal. Les courbes complexes de la Wire Chair rappellent une voile gonflée, les câbles d’un pont et le tressage d’une corbeille. Les petits coussins de couleur juxtaposés au filet de métal rappellent les peintures de Paul Klee et les mobiles d’Alexandre Calder, où les formes organiques contrastent avec les signes linéaires et graphiques. En utilisant du fil d’acier pour créer cette chaise, Charles et Ray Eames ont célébré un matériau simple en mettant l’art au service du quotidien. Dans la Wire Chair un filet d’acier chromé forme une surface arrondie, portée par un châssis en fil d’acier ou acier tubulaire. La transparence délibérée du fil d’acier en fait une chaise particulièrement claire — aussi bien visuellement que physiquement. La Wire Chair s’approprie aux cafétérias, espaces de réceptions, salles de lecture aussi bien qu’aux cuisines, terrasses et autres lieux d’habitat. Dans le Aluminium Group un squelette de métal soutient un revêtement robuste en cuir ou en tissu. Les profilés, subtilement modulés, des cadres en aluminium injecté soulignent la précision et la clarté de la chaise, la sculpture se fondant à la technique. Pour la construction du Aluminium Group une pièce, soit en cuir, en tissu ou résille, est fixée le long de deux cadres. Ces cadres sont soutenus par une paire d’étriers de tension étirant le tissu, formant un support stable et élastique. Le cuir ou le tissu est davantage employé en tant qu’élément structurel que comme revêtement extérieur. Produit avec ou sans accoudoirs, avec dossier mi-haut ou dossier haut, le Aluminium Group est un classique dans les bureaux, salles de conférence, espaces d’attente et l’habitat d’aujourd’hui. Tandis que les chaises en résille célèbrent la transparence, celles réalisées avec du cuir ou du tissu créent une présence physique nette avec un minimum de matières.

— 59 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames

L’esthétique de l’art de collage dans les traveaux des Eames

Le collage est l’art de l’association. Alors que les traditions du métier avaient jusqu’alors favorisé l’utilisation d’une seule matière pour le siège, le dossier, les accoudoirs et les pieds d’une chaise, un collage esthétique permet un audacieux mixage d’effets et de sens. Osant explorer les possibilités inconnues de matériaux inédits, Charles et Ray Eames ont travaillé à un collage esthétique. Leur approche s’inspire d’une part de la sculpture moderne, d’autre part de la construction mécanique qui emploie les matériaux selon leur qualité structurelle. Le Aluminium Croup démontre le talent des Eames à exploiter les qualités matérielles et les associations culturelles des opposés: le dur et le souple, le brillant et le mat, le technologique et le familier. Ce travail lincessant sur les matériaux a exigé une expérimentation dans un atelier bien équipé. Le bureau des Eames à Venice, a été décrit à la fois comme “musée, salle de jeux, studio de film ou atelier de design” Les employés se souviennent de l’atmosphère de bricolage inspiré et d’enthousiaste créativité qui y régnait. Eames Office En parlant du design de Charles et Ray nous ne pouvons pas nous restreindre à leur personalité. Bien sûr ils étaient les organisateurs et idéalogues principaux mais tous leurs projets étaient un travail collectif d’un grand groupe de professionels. Leur lieu de travail commun était situé à l’adresse LA 901 West Washington Boulevard, c’était “Eames Office”, le bureau de design crée par Charles et Ray en 1943 dans le bâtiment d’une ancienne usine de production militaire. Ce n’était pas un simple bureau mais un vrai laboratoire moderne de planification et de production de meubles; d” architecture; de graphique; de jouets et de cinéma. Sans comter les bureaux personnels de Charles et Ray; une grande salle de travail; une salle de séjour commune et une salle de conférence il y avait aussi une salle de cinéma; une grande bibliothèque; un studio photo; un atelier de prototypage equipé d’une tecnologie moderne. Les anciens employés du bureau comparent leur travail à un voyage cosmique et leur conaissance avec le couple Eames comme une rencontre avec des extraterestres. “Le travail était notre vie, notre vie était notre

— 60 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames loisir, notre loisir était notre amusement et notre amusement était notre travail” — ce sont les souvenirs d’une employée. Les Eames passaient la plupart de leur temps au bureau en analisant; en expérimentant; en explorant; en essayant sans s’arrêt — ils travaillaient avec acharnement, obstinement avec enchantement. Ils créaient pour l’homme et pas pour le client, c’est pourquoi leur articles étaient si amicals, si humains et recherchés par des milliers.

Epilogue

Evidement les oeuvres du design de Charles et Ray Eames peuvent être attribuées aux articles du design industruel “hors temps”. En quoi consiste le secret d’une telle durabilité de leur design. Plusieurs specialistes et chercheurs dans différents domaines se posent la question: est-ce qu’il existe un système qu’on peut utiliser pour inventer, créer et planifier ce qui va repondre aux demandes utilitaires et esthétiques des gens de toutes les époques. En étudiant l’heritage créatif des Eames, en analysant leurs déclarations leurs films éducatifs et leurs oeuvres elles-même, crées dans leur bureau, on peut souligner quelques principes majeurs de planification, grâce auxquels peut-être, ils obtenaient de tels resultats. L’optimisation Les Eames pouvait unir des materiaux différents dans un seul objet en prenant en compte leur structure et leurs caractéristiques en économisant les matériaux et les efforts. Respect de l’environnement Tenant compte des formes naturelles, leurs meubles étaient planifiés suivant les régles éclogiques. La construction solide et les matériaux de haute qualité garantissaient la durabilité d’exploitation de chaque objet. En même temps chaque pièce détashé pouvait être échangée, réparée et recyclée. Poly-matériaux Les Eames utilisaient dans leurs projets tous les matériaux et technologies existantes et expérimentaient avec des nouvelles.

— 61 — Elena A. Cheburashkina. Charles & Ray Eames

Et bien sûr leur principe majeur — с’etait l’humanisme, l’amour envers les gens. Ils planifiaient avant tout pour les gens, pour leur confort et secondement pour l’augmentation des ventes de la compagnie commanditaire. Par leur oeuvre les Eames ont prouvé que l’art et la tecnologie au XX siècle se complètent les uns les autres

REFERENCES 1. Demetrius, Eames & Fehlbaum, Rolf. 2007. The Furniture of Charles & Ray Eames, Vitra. 2. Neuhart, Marilyn & Neuhart, Djoh. 2010. The Story of Eames Furniture, Gestalten. 3. Coenig, Gloria & Gossel, Piter. 2008. Eames, TACHEN. 4. Eames/Vitra. 1996, Vitra.

— 62 — Nikolay K. Solovyev. Religious interiors of feudal disunity period

Nikolay K. Solovyev Doctor of Art History, Professor Stroganov Moscow State Arts Industrial Academy [email protected] Moscow RELIGIOUS INTERIORS OF FEUDAL DISUNITY PERIOD

Summary: In the second quarter of XII century process of Russian lands division into separate feudal principalities was finished. Politico- economical and cultural centers are formed and developed on territories of Russia. In capitals of specific princedomes is a great concentration of builders, decorators and painters. Feudal division of Rus lands intensified the process of local traditions formation process and consequently appearing of different architecture schools creatively converting Kiev architectural heritage. Only stone cultic buildings of that time are in a good state of preservation — six-foot (in big cities) and four-foot (in ancestral lands and cloisters) variants of cruciform churches with a domed roof. Interiors of these temples were usually decorated with fresco paintings, colourful incrustations and stone relief on external walls. Keywords: religious interiors, feudal disunity period, architectural composition.

Cultural prosperity of ancient Rus state in 1237–1240 was interrupted by Mongolian and Tatar invasion which delayed development of Russian architecture (destroyed cities, chaos in economy, population losses and political dependence). Monumental building was carried only in western and north-western parts of Rus and stopped in Kiev and Chernigov. In the north-east region despite the fact of Tatar-Mongolian yoke rises up a new political center — Moscow which will be midpoint for Rus lands gathering and new common Russian architecture. Architectural traditions of Kiev state of XII — XIII centuries were preserved mainly in cultic interiors of Kiev and Chernigov principalities.

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1. The Cathedral of Assumption in Vladimir. 1158-116.

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The main building material is brick (size 30 × 20 × 5,5 centimeters) and deepened row in laying disappeared. Interiors are close on their structure to Kiev Rus. In many cases traditions of inner decoration is the same. For example interiors of Dmitriev cloister in Kiev (1108 A.D.) were enriched with mosaics not usual for decorations of interiors in XII century. At once a number of new features in constructive and structural- special concept used in buildings and interiors (close connection of internal space and external volume as in Byzantine architecture is almost identical) of that time must be mentioned. In XII century cross vaults covering corner cells (between cross parts), choirs (as in Eletsky cloister and Chernigov Borisoglebsk cathedrals) appeared. In the interior of Piatnitskaya church in Chernigov (end of XII — beginning of XIII centuries, supposed author is Peter Miloneg) arches between pillars of under cupola space are placed above semicircular vaults of cross parts. This method of “stepped arche” is a variation of Byzantine crusiform church with a domed roof, will be abundant in ancient Russian architecture. In external volumes it is represented as a second stage of zakomaras (arched gables) above the cupola basement and main zakomaras of outside walls. Kiev and Chernigov architecture have a great influence on a building process in western principalities — Polotsk and Smolensk where up to XII century a method of raw laying, without any further facade stuccoworks, was applied. About 15 stone churches were created in Smolensk in a short period before khan Batiy invasion. Six-foot Borisoglebsky cathedral of Semyadynsky cloister (1145 A.D.) was closest to southern Transdnieperia models, copying compositional scheme of Borisoglebsky cathedral in Chernigov. Later four-foot type of cross-cupola temple with centric volume (like restored in 1963 church of Peter and Paul of XII century) became the most wide spread type in Smolensk. It was usual for Smolensk and Polotsk churches to apply semi- circular arches above the corner cells which endure loads from parts of a cross to aisle walls and represented external volume of temple as three-bladed curves topping facades. Such ceilings can be counted as the most organic method because it combines good formal expressiveness

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2. The Church of the Intercession by Nerl, interior. 1165.

— 66 — Nikolay K. Solovyev. Religious interiors of feudal disunity period

(accretion of the mass to a cupola), constructional logics and functional rationality (withdrawal of atmospheric precipitations). The most famous building of Smolenk architecture using this architectural method — is a church of Archangel Michael (Svirskaya 1191–1194 A.D.). Gradation of external volume is visualized in interiors as increasing to the top composition: understated side ledges and narthex — side cells covered with rampant vaults; more high semicircular vault of cross parts — cupola, raised on a tholobate, dominating all internal space. Identical correspondence of interior and external volumes is represented in a perfect form by unity of mass and internal space in its complexity, dynamics and building up to the top. A number of perfect ancient Rus buildings were created in lands of Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Intensive building process was carried in XII century under the son of Monomah — Yury Dolgorukyi who built on a raw of reinforced cities on the south border of principality: Yuriev- Polsky, Periaslavl-Zalessky, Dmitrov, Moskow and others. Andrew Bogolubsky, son of Yury, moved the capital to Vladimir, this city will soon became the most beautiful ancient Rus city and its architecture under the rule of Andrew (1157–1174) and his brother Vsevolod Bolshoe Gnezdo (1176–1212) made a great progress. In contrast to bricks buildings of Kiev, Chernigov, Polotsk and Smolensk principalities cultic art of building in Vladimir-Suzdal lands used local white limestone as a main building material after the first half of XII century. It affected the structure of applied visualization means (appearance of decorative anaglyphy), but not crippled unified structure of a four-foot cross plane — space structure of a temple. It was used in the oldest white-stone building of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus — Savior-Transfiguration church in Periaslavl-Zalessky (1152) which interior is strictly divided by four square under cupola pillars and have choirs on the back side. Churches of Boris and Gleb in Kideksh (1152), Church of the Intercession on the river Nerl (1165), the nativity of the Mother of God cathedral in Andrey residence in Bogolubovo (1158), Dmitrievsky cathedral in Vladimir (1194–1197) — have the same structure, vertical intensification to cupola space of interior. Interior decorations of these churches are almost lost. It is known that interiors of

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cathedrals in Periaslavl-Zalessky, Bogolubovo and Dmitriev cathedral in Vladimir were enriched with fresco paintings (partly preserved in Dmitriev cathedral), altar floors of church in Bogolubovo were covered with shining copper plates, sealed with stannum and choirs’ floors were of colored majolica plates. Doors, portals and dome on pillars over the throne were covered with talmi gold. Fretworks usual for facades are rare event in interiors. Places of contact between pillars and arch walls are decorated by figures of lions in Church of the Intercession on the river Nerl. In the interior of Bogolubov cathedral was used non typical for middle age Rus architecture round columns with attic basements and fretted gilt deciduous chapiters (probably foreign builders took part in creation of this cathedral). One of the biggest monumental buildings of principality — the Dormition Cathedral in Vladimir (1158–1161) built on a high abrupt coast of Kliazma River is the main dominat structure of the city. Height of its cupola (32,3 meters) overtop the height of Kiev and Novgorod Sophias. Cathedral was built as a six-foot single-dome construction with choirs from west side. Its interior was light, aerial and spatial as opposed to Vladimir-Suzdal churches. Such effect become possible due to perfect proportion of columns: height was eight times bigger than profile (in Kiev Sophia — 1:5,5). After conflagration of 1185 cathedral was reconstructed and its area increased more than twice. Construction was built up with wide galleries from three sides, apsises become more elongated in shape and four small cupolas rose on tholobates. So the Dormition Cathedral become the main building not only in capital but in all Zalesskaya lands as a burial vault for Vladimir dukes and leading Orthodox clerics whose sarcophaguses were placed in special niches of galleries. Originally single-dome cathedral was preserved in a “holder” of new surrounding buildings, overhanging above their roofs with a second level of rounded gable heads. As the result of reconstruction, image of interior also become different. Space of galleries connected with interiors of “Andrew” cathedral by arch apertures in walls and periphery of main area of church are relatively gloomy (contrary to bright under cupola part).

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As the main temple of principality the Dormition Cathedral was to compete with famous Kiev Sophia in magnificence of its interior luxury. According to chronicles church was richly decorated with items of precious metals. There were a lot of silver and gilt church chandeliers, golden or silver ambon, doors bind with gilded copper, golden dishes and utensils incrusted with gemstones and pearl. Floors were made of yellow-green majolica plates and altar — of majolica mosaic. On the Dormition of the Mother of God feast north and south parts of transversal nave were decorated with precious veils from cathedral vestry put outside through the special portals making a kind of “corridor” of colored textile. As in church of the Intercession on the river Nerli interior of the temple was decorated with carved figures of lions (symbol of duke power) placed in springing of arches. In 1161 cathedral was painted with frescos, fragments of which preserved to this day 1. Creation of the Dormition Cathedral was of great importance for further Russian architecture development. Moscow builders will take it as example in the period of assembling of Rus land in XIV–XV centuries. Vladimir-Suzdal art of building made a great contribution into united Russian culture formation. A special place in Russian artistic culture of XII–XV centuries is taken by architect of Novgorod and Pskov lands that in a great extent connected with specifics of socio-economical and political situation in these regions. From 1163 Novgorod was of popular assembly governing — a kind of republic where power was in hands of boyars and the superior merchants. Novgorod and Pskov lands were the only territories not touched by Tatar-Mongolian invasion. It made building process democratic and increased the number of civil buildings, as well as decreased sizes of temples and expansion of parish churches importance. Construction of stone buildings in the end of XII–XIII was not stopped but their spatial and constructional structure was simplified. Building material in Novgorod monumental architecture as in XI– XII centuries was a stone (red limestone and slabstone). All Pskov stone buildings were made of grey slabstone on a rosy floured bricks solution. Bricks were used elementally. Stones were quarry-faced of an irregular

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shape. Roughness of architectural surfaces and curvilinearity of a profile made constructions look more plastic as a distinguishing feature of Novgorod and Pskov art of building. Traditional single dome four–foot cross cupola system was still basically in plane-spatial organization of church interiors 2. Striking example of such temple is Savior church on the river Nereditsa (1198)3 — the last Novgorodian duchy cultic construction. Its interior partitioned less than in Vladimir-Suzdal churches. Pillars are not of cross but of square profile, internal walls have no piers, side conches are lower than average. All cells except central are covered with torispherical arches. Small choirs are placed on a wooden counter floor and only central part of choirs was opened to internal area of the church, side sections were isolated by dead walls. Narrow stairs led to the choirs from the west side. Interior of the church can be characterized as a relatively simple chamber place with architectural forms deprived of sculptural decorations. Frescos completely covering walls, vaults, conch and cupola were the only decorations. Monumental solemnity and severity pointed strict architectural — artistic image out. Stacked disposition of fresco paintings their composition in each register was free and asymmetrical. Multi-figural scenes and singular pictures are randomly combined with medallions, compositions move from one wall to another. Supporting and supported elements of construction are not differentiated as in Byzantine temples where paintings decorate arches or parts of walls indicated with framings but interpenetrate. Frescos of Novgorod masters differ from Byzantine canons in their bold and picturesque mode of painting. Close in style interior paintings of the second half of XII century in church of the Annunciation in Arkazhe close to Novgorod, temple of George in Staroya Ladoga and Mirozhsky cloister cathedral allow to point out existing Novgorod school of fresco painting. St. Parasceva “Friday” church on Yaroslav court (1207) takes a special place as a stage of Novgorod architecture. Interior of this church have a strong vertical perspective. Corner cells are covered with rampant barrel vaults supporting the central nave 4. This rational construction can be seen in Smolensk (the Archangel Michael church,

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3. The Church of St. Parasceva-Good Friday in Chernigov, section drawing, plan. Late XII — early XIII century.

1191–1194) and Chernigov (Good Friday church XII–XIII centuries) and will be common for Novgorod building art in XIV–XIV centuries. In external volumes such construction set conditions for three-bladed image of facades 5. The most known cultic buildings of such type are cloister churches of St. Nicola on the Lipna River (1292), Assumption church on a Volotov field (1352) and heavy Novgorod city temples — St. Theodore Stratelates church on a rivulet (1361) and Savior Transfiguration cathedral on Iline street (1374). Interiors of these churches with four internal pillars have

— 71 — Nikolay K. Solovyev. Religious interiors of feudal disunity period wide under cupola part by moving columns closer to walls. Choirs of city churches were made upon stone arches and had small attached chambers used as storages. Choir place in Savior Transfiguration church are two small closed chambers connected with a wooden pass. Interiors of these churches were enriched with frescos. Paintings of Savior Transfiguration cathedral made by Theophanes the Greek in 1378 have especial value 6. His expressive artistic paintings made by use of strong dabs and juicy blinks were based on early palaeologus traditions and represented strengthen psychology of the image. His paintings were placed one above another in horizontal registers. Singular paintings of saints interchanged multi-figural scenes where every person had its own life. Interior frescos of St. Theodore Stratelates church are close in type with paintings of Savior Transfiguration cathedral and obviously were made under influence of Theophanes the Greek works 7. Interior paintings in Assumption church on Volotov field made by unknown master at the same period of time are even more expressive in composition. Figures on these paintings were made in swift lines and in rapid motion. Their waving clothes and expressive gestures make interiors of the church especially dynamical. All Novgorod churches of XIV century — St. John the Theologian church in Rodokovitsa, Nativity of Christ cemetery church, St. and Glorius Demetrius of Thessalonica on the Moscow street, the Patronage church in Zverin cloister and others were created cloning St. Theodore Stratelates church. Cultic architecture of XV century is widely presented by small churches having the same compositional structure. Some temples were constructed on podklets used as utility rooms. At the same time some buildings were constructed in old manner of arched gable composition of XII century (St. John the Precurser church in Opoka, 1454, built on a fundament of the church with the same name of XII century, Savior church on a Russa, 1422 and Resurrection church on Miachina, 1465). Several civil stone buildings persisted: buildings of Novgorod Archbishops court, including Faceted Chamber — a big hall of boyars meeting, covered in a gothic manner with nervure vault, and so called Archiepiscopal palace — six rooms with torispherical vaults.

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4. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour in Ilyin street in Novgorod, mural painting of Michael the Archangel by Theophanes the Greek. 1378.

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A first stone building of Pskov, which was a part of Novgorod lands up to the middle of XIV century, appears in the XII century. Building materials were local limestone as the main part of bed and bricks implemented in “striated laying” technique of Kiev Rus (arches and zakomaras plating out on white walls). Building materials and traditions of their use conditioned aberration from the strict geometry of architectural forms, and sculptural artificial picturesqueness. Such things like a free volume-space composition of separate buildings, combination of symmetrical main part of the building and asymmetrical aisles, belfries as high walls with bays for bells overtoping the facades, appeared in XV century — facilitate this. One of the first Pskov churches — Savior temple in Mirozhsky cloister (about 1156) — takes special place in Russian architecture of XII century. Interior of this cathedral is strictly cruciform in the place of central nave intersections by means of enhancing height of the vault with respect to corner cells. This cruciform structure affected proportions of external volume. That is why the Savior temple in its original state was close to Byzantian and Transcaucasian cross-cupola buildings 8. Archbishop Nifont as a philhellenist was initiator of building the Kliment temple on Ladoga Lake with similar to Saviour temple cruciform structure, which not survived to our days. Cruciform interior is also can be seen in some XIV — XV century buildings — Snetogorsky monastery cathedral (1311), reproduction of Mirozhsky cathedral; many times reconstructed ancient Trinity cathedral which image in the end of XV century can be restored with help of iconic pictures; Dormition of the Mother of God church in Meletovo (1462–1463). According to the chronicles there were 22 stone churches, sometimes on basement for economic targets, in XV century. These temples were smaller with respect to temples of the previous age, and their architecture became more simple and democratic due to social changes. Pskov churches of that time have several distinguishing features in interior like absence of galleries, more complex system of stepped vaults, round or chamfered in the bottom columns for space saving, multiple additional buildings. Resonant clay pots called “golosniki” were often

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laid in walls to improve acoustics. A typical example of such churches is the Church of St. Basil on the Gorka (1413). The increasing complexity in the design of vaults is particularly evident in the interiors of small temples, with overlapping stepped arches allowing to create prop-free area system (for example, Nicholas Kamenogradskoy abbey church). Fresco paintings traditional for interiors of ancient Rus temples have its own specific features in the Pskov architecture. In the oldest wall paintings of Pskov — murals of Savior Mirozhsky Monastery created at the same time with its construction, canonicity of the interior layout and iconography that goes back to Byzantine models mix with the fact that shapes inherent linearity and an almost complete lack of shape modeling. In the later frescoes of the Nativity church in Snetogorsk Monastery (1313) we can feel the influence of the Novgorod school (restrained palette and energetic manner of painting with sharp dynamic highlights). Most of the Pskov churches did not have wall paintings in the interiors. Their walls and vaults were covered with whitewash, against which the iconostasis stood out like a bright cloud. In Pskov religious interiors of the XVI century all the architectural traditions of the previous century remain the same. Pskov masters having centuries of building experience and authority are invited for the construction of temples to different Russian cities. Pskov master Postnik Yakovlev with Barma built St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow. Earlier (in the 80s of XV century) in Pskov builders construct the Annunciation Cathedral and the Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God church in the Moscow Kremlin.

ENDNOTES 1 In 1408, interior of the Assumption Cathedral was painted by great Russian painters Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny. These paintings have survived fragmentary. 2 The only known exception ─ great six-pillar church of Boris and Gleb (1167), the ruins of which were discovered by archaeologists in 1940–1941 in the Novgorod Detinets. 3 Church was destroyed by Nazi occupiers during the Second World War. 4 Analogs of such design techniques can be found in architectural school of Auvergne Romanesque period. Roman decorative motifs in Russian architecture have been noted in art books (see Ikonnikov AV Thousand Years of Russian architecture. — Moscow, 1990. — P. 76).

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5 In the XV century three-flanged roofs have been replaced by octagonal tented roofs. 6 Theophanes came to Novgorod from Constantinople in the 70s of the XIV century. According to published sources, he painted more than forty churches in Constantinople, Chalcedon, Galatia, Cafe, Veliky Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, and also created many icons, including the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow. 7 Some researchers (Anisimov, I. Grabar, MK Karger) attributed these frescoes to Theophanes the Greek. 8 In the Mirozhsky cathedral arched globes were replaced by straight roofs, and then over the corner parts appeared a second floor, thus cathedral became relatively traditional for the Pskov architecture.

REFERENCES 1. Komech, A.N. 1987. Architecture of Ancient Russia in the Late X — Early XII Centuries, Moscow. 2. Ikonnikov, A.V. 1990. Thousand Years of Russian Architecture. Moscow. 3. Maksimov, P.N. 1976. Creative Methods of Ancient Russian Architects, Moscow. 4. Voronin, N.N. 1945. Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal Architecture of XI — XII Centuries, Moscow-Leningrad. 5. Ushakov, Y.S. & Slavina, T.A. 1993. History of Russian Architecture, St.Petersburg. 6. Solovyev, N.K. 2013, “Religious Interiors of Kiev Rus”, Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal Texts, vol.3, pp. 64-77. 7. Burganova, M.A. 2011, “Russian Religious Sculpture XV-XIX centuries. Collection of A. Smolenkov and M. Burganova”, Literature and Music Scientific and Analytical Journal “Burganov House. The space of culture”, vol. 1, pp. 226 – 241. 8. Burganova, M.A. 2010, “Image of God Father: canon and feeling”, Literature and Music Scientific and Analytical Journal “Burganov House. The space of culture”, vol. 1.

— 76 — Olga G. Makho. Le studiolo dans la structure architecturale de la résidence

Olga G. Makho PhD State Hermitage Museum [email protected] St. Petersburg LA PIÈCE LA PLUS INTIME DES APPARTEMENTS PUBLICS DES SOUVERAINS ITALIENS DE LA RENAISSANCE (LE STUDIOLO DANS LA STRUCTURE ARCHITECTURALE DE LA RÉSIDENCE)*

Summary: The studiolo of the humanist ruler — a small room for intellectual pastime — is a phenomenon of the Renaissance culture. Its place in the structure of the residence is very peculiar. Being part of personal apartments, the room plays an important role in creation of a sovereign’s image and carries out a representative function. At the same time this representative role is veiled by the small size of the room and its private nature. Keywords: studiolo, Renaissance, intellectual space, architecture, decor.

Le studiolo, une petite pièce destinée au passe-temps intellectuel, est un nouveau type de local que la Renaissance a fait naître et que l’époque précédente ne connaissait pas. Sa nature c’est dévoilée surtout dans les cabinets que l’on faisait construire pour les souverains plus ou moins humanistes ou, au moins, ayant à cœur de montrer leur goût pour l’humanisme. Il y a tout lieu de le considérer comme un phénomène de la culture italienne de la Renaissance reliant plusieurs aspects du développement de cette culture, qui se révèlent particulièrement dans l’architecture et les arts plastiques. L’un des plus important de ces aspects est la question du rôle du studiolo dans la structure de la résidence. * L’auteur remercie Marie Volkova de l’aide à la traduction.

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1. Urbin. Palais Ducale. Étage noble (d’après Rotondi). 124 – studiolo.

L’examen de ce problème est compliqué par le fait que quelques cabinets de ce genre ne se sont pas conservés jusqu’à nos jours. Certains ont disparu complètement, comme le studiolo du palais de Belfiore (palazzo Belfiore) aux alentours de Ferrare — le palais a brûlé en 1662, et les peintures du studiolo ont été partagées entre différentes collections. D’autres ont perdu leur décor — parfois complétement, parfois il a été dispersé, comme dans le cas des studiolos de Frédéric de Montefeltro à Urbino et Gubbio ou d’Isabelle d’Este à Mantoue, ce qui ne change pas la question de principe pour le problème qui nous intéresse. Certains studiolos n’ont changé leur structure que partiellement comme le cabinet de François Ier de Médicis au Palazzo Vecchio, qui a perdu la décoration de la partie inférieure des murs et où on a percé une nouvelle entrée du côté de la Salle des Cinq-Cents (Sala dei Cinquecento). Comme beaucoup de choses à cette époque, l’histoire des studiolos de la Renaissance remonte à Pétrarque qui écrivait sur la nécessité du recueillement solitaire pour le travail intellectuel1. Il parle de la maison de campagne liée à la nature comme de l’endroit le plus convenable pour de telles occupations: “… ego nusquam felicius quam in silvus ac montibus ingenium experiar, nusquam niche paratius et magnifici sensus occurant…” 2. Pourtant, pour Pétrarque l’impossibilité pour l’intellectuel

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de ne vivre qu’au milieu des forêts et des champs est également évidente. Les circonstances qui l’ont forcé de passer une partie considérable de sa vie dans d’autres conditions l’obligent à créer “la solitude imaginaire” pour lui-même: “Nam et unum hoc hoc in necessitate rimedium inveni, ut in ipsis urbium tumultibusimaginariam michi solitudinem secessu aliquot, quantum sinor, et cogitatione conficiam, vincens ingenio fortunam — quo remedii genere sepequidem hactenus usus sum; et quoniam future simper incerta condition est, an ad huc usurus sim nescio; certe, libera si contingat electio, solitudinemveram propriis in sedibus quesiturus”3. Leon Battista Alberti souligne que le cabinet exige un certain isolement, inaccessibilité non seulement pour une personne étrangère, mais même pour les membres de la famille: “Solo e’ libri e le scritture mie e de’ miei passati a me piaque e allora e poi sempre avere in modo rinchiuse che mai la donna le potesse non tanto leggere, ma nè vedere. Sempre tenni le scritture non per le maniche de’ vestiri, ma serrate e in suo ordine allogate nel mio studio quasi come cosa sacrata e religiosa, in quale luogo mai diedi licenza alla donna mia nè meco nè sola v’intrasse, e più gli comandai, se mais’abattesse a mia alcuna scrittura, subito me la consegnasse”4. D’ailleurs, les deux humanistes écrivaient à propos de la place que le cabinet devait occuper dans la maison de l’intellectuel contemporain attiré par un mode de vie solitaire. Bien sûr, l’image de “vita solitaria” influençait également en partie la vie des souverains de la Renaissance, mais leur position exigeait, au contraire, un mode de vie plus ouvert au public, mêlant deux idéaux: le dominant, “vita activa”, et “vita contemplativa”. Au XVème siècle le studiolo, en tant qu’élément de la résidence d’une personne noble, fait partie de ses appartements privés représentant en quelque sorte un ensemble indépendant dans la composition générale du palais. Ici on peut remarquer une certaine similarité avec un cabinet dans la maison d’un riche citadin intellectuel, dont les appartements privés étaient composés de “camera”, “anticamera”, “scriptoio” et “agiamento”, c’est-à-dire “le cabinet”. D’ailleurs, il est assez difficile d’imaginer d’une manière certaine la structure de ces appartements puisqu’aucun exemple des ensembles conservés jusqu’à nos jours n’est connu5.

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2. Gubbio. Palais Ducale (d’après Papini). 1 – studiolo.

Cette partie du bâtiment, réservée à l’usage privé et liée étroitement à la personnalité du maître, est empreinte de ses inclinations individuelles, de ses passions, et la caractérise ainsi vivement. Cependant, faisant en même temps partie de la résidence, c’est-à-dire de l’habitation n’étant pas complétement privée, le cabinet doit créer en quelque sorte l’image de son possesseur. Un exemple qui nous montre l’importance d’avoir un studiolo dans la résidence de souverain de Quattrocento est celui de Frédéric de Montefeltro qui a fait en sorte de créer de tels cabinets à Urbino et Gubbio. Dans la perception des contemporains, Frédéric de Montefeltro était presque un meilleur exemple de prince idéal. Ce n’est pas par hasard que Vespasiano da Bisticci le caractérise de la façon suivante: “Furono in messer Federigo molte singulari virtù, et per uno uomo degno

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in tutte le specie delle virtù l’età sua non ha avuto il simile” 6. Il aspirait à faire de ses résidences à Urbino et Gubbio des modèles de résidences princières, et au XVème siècle elles l’étaient en effet. L’architecture de la Renaissance la plus marquée est typique pour le palais d’Urbino: d’abord Frédéric de Montefeltro a invité le maître florentin, Maso di Finiguerra, adepte de Brunelleschi, puis la construction a été poursuivie par un dalmate Luciano da Laurana et, enfin, par un siennois, Francesco di Giorgio Martini, qui travaillait beaucoup pour le duc non seulement en qualité de l’architecte, mais aussi comme ingénieur militaire. Ce choix nous fait remarquer que le duc embauchait coup sur coup des spécialistes de provenances différentes, en tenant compte de la nécessité de résoudre à chaque étape des problèmes différents que le spécialiste choisi puisse résoudre. Ce n’est pas par hasard que dans la biographie susmentionnée Vespassiano da Bisticci écrit: “Aveva voluto avere notitia de architettura, della quale l’età sua, non dico [di] signori, ma di private, non c’era chi avessi tanta notitia quanto la sua signoria. Vegansi tutti gli edifice fatti fare da lui, l’ordine grande et le misure d’ogni cosa come l’ha oservate, et maxime il palagio suo, che in questa età non s’è fatto il più degno edificio, si bene inteso, et dove sieno tante degne cose quante in quello. Bene ch’egli avessi architettori apresso della sua Signoria, nientidimeno nell’edificare intendeva il parere suo, dipoi dava et le misure et ogni cosa la sua Signoria, et pareva, a udirne ragionare la sua Signoria, che la principale arte ch’egli avessi fatta mai fussi l’architettura, in modo ne sapeva ragionare et metere in opera per lo suo consiglio, non solo in edificare palagi o alter cose…”7 La partie extérieure la plus expressive du palais est une partie de façade dominant sur la ville, encadrée de deux tourelles entre lesquelles se trouve une loggia couronnée d’un aigle héraldique. Il est évident que ce détail n’est pas simplement décoratif: c’est une partie du palais où se situaient les appartements privés du duc Frédéric, y compris le studiolo créé en 1478 et situé à côté de la chambre à coucher et du vestiaire, en même temps qu’à côté de la Grande Salle d’Apparat, située à l’étage noble (“piano nobile”) du palais. La “capella del Perdono” et le “tempietto delle Muse” sont situés sur le même axe vertical que

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le cabinet. Elles relient les occupations intellectuelles que le cabinet lui-même proclame comme une partie importante de la vie de son maître avec les composants antique et chrétien. D’ailleurs, la question concernant le caractère de ces appartements privés est également un problème intéressant. D’un côté, les petites dimensions de ces pièces déclarent qu’elles ne sont destinées qu’à l’usage personnel. De l’autre côté on peut y remarquer une certaine ostentation, bien que le scrupule du programme de décoration du studiolo, le niveau de sa réalisation extraordinaire pour le XVème siècle ne témoigne pas obligatoirement du fait que cette pièce est destinée a l’usage public. Pétrarque soulignait que le studiolo devait être lié à la nature, pour caractériser non seulement le monde intérieur d’une personne, mais également une personne dans le contexte du monde extérieur. Dans le studiolo d’Urbino il y a accès à la loggia avec une vue panoramique sur la ville et ses alentours, de l’autre côté il y a le jardin suspendu secret. Ainsi, le lien avec la nature est ambigu: c’est en même temps le large monde extérieur qu’on voit dès la loggia et le jardin intérieur, le fragment de la nature appartenant à l’homme. Mais ce n’est pas tout: devant la porte cachée qui mène à la loggia il y a un panneau représentant l’arcade derrière laquelle s’ouvre un paysage illusoire, cela veut dire que l’image de la nature existe aussi dans le studiolo même. Si Urbino était la capitale de l’Etat de Frédéric, la ville du titre pour le Duc d’Urbino, Gubbio était une ville à laquelle il tenait beaucoup: il est né la-bas, son fils Guidobaldo, longuement attendu, aussi. Pourtant, le palais d’Urbino était sa résidence principale. Avant que Frédéric ait transformé le palais de Gubbio en Palais Ducal, c’était un Palais Communal. Luciano Laurana a été chargé des travaux de reconstruction, pourtant la composition n’a acquis ni grandeur, ni harmonie ce qui l’ était propre de la résidence d’Urbino. Au centre il y a la cour conçue sous l’influence de la célèbre cour du Palais Ducal à Urbino, ici elle n’est pas entourée de la galerie sur tous les côtés. Le studiolo qui a été créé juste après la reconstruction du palais en 1470 et dont la décoration n’a été achevée que vers 1482, se trouve dans un coin du palais, un peu à l’écart de la plupart des autres pièces, regroupées autour de la cour. En même temps, le cabinet, qui était aveugle dans la structure

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3. Mantova. Castello di San Giorgio (d’après Giannantoni). 93 – studiolo. intérieure de la résidence, n’était lié qu’avec une pièce allongée, dont la destination a suscité beaucoup de suppositions8: cette galerie servait probablement aux réceptions. Il y a bien sûr une certaine différence entre le studiolo d’Urbino et celui de Gubbio. Comme est déjà mentionné, le premier était lié à la partie la plus marquante du palais, le deuxième — à sa partie latérale; les dimensions du premier sont plus modestes (les deux cabinets ne sont pas rectangulaires, les dimensions du premier sont de 3,35 × 3,60 m et du deuxième de 5,13 × 3,81 m). Du point de vue du style le deuxième cabinet semble plus intégral, lié par sa décoration à la manière artistique plus typique de la fin de XVème siècle. La composition du studiolo de

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4. Mantova. Palais Ducale. Corte Vecchia (d’après Giannantoni). 8 – studiolo, 9 – grotta.

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Gubbio a plutôt le caractère un peu plus intime, ce que nous avons déjà mentionné 9. Pourtant, entre ces deux cabinets il y a une ressemblance évidente: il s’agit surtout d’une décoration artistique ce qui témoigne des exigences concrètes du donneur d’ordre suite auxquelles le système de décoration des studiolos s’est affirmé. Cela concerne leur position dans la composition générale du palais où le studiolo fait partie des appartements privés du prince et en même temps se trouve à côté des appartements d’apparat. En 1490 Isabelle d’Este, âgée de 15 ans, a épousé le marquis de Mantoue François II Gonzague et en 1491 elle a entamé la construction de studiolo dans ses appartements dans la tour San Nicolo du château San Giorgio, en commandant la peinture conformément au programme élaboré. Le studiolo d’Isabelle est une modeste pièce rectangulaire avec une petite fenêtre dans une niche. Au même axe vertical, sous le cabinet, la grotte — une pièce pour les collections d’Isabelle — est apparue. Dans la correspondance de la marquise la grotte a été mentionnée déjà en 149810, bien qu’en réalité elle a été décorée en 1504–1505. La correspondance permanente et détaillée entre Isabelle et les peintres auxquels elle commandait les tableaux pour son studiolo témoigne que la création de cette pièce et la réalisation d’un programme de décoration prévu était important pour elle. Le fait suivant le démontre aussi: après la mort de son mari en 1519, quand Isabelle a déménagé dans une autre partie de la résidence, elle y a transféré son studiolo et sa grotte. Dans un nouvel endroit choisi les pièces étaient plus vastes que dans la tour du château: si le premier studiolo avait les dimensions de 5,28 × 2,72 m, au Corte Vecchia elles sont devenues de 6,7 × 3,5 m. Cela démontre qu’il était très important pour elle de déplacer cette pièce avec elle-même. Le studiolo est devenu le centre d’une partie des appartements de veuve, où se trouvait aussi le jardin intérieur ou “secret” dont la construction a été achevé par l’architecte Gian Battisto Covo en 1552. Ce jardin avec la loggia élégante de l’ordre ionique rappelled un peu, comme certains autres jardins intérieurs des souverains italiens de la Renaissance, le cloître de monastère. Pourtant dans ce cas-la, en raison de plusieurs années de veuvage d’Isabelle, ce “hortus conclusus” est devenu vraiment

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le centre du monde “fermé” des appartements de marquise. Il est certain que le caractère de ces appartements est influencé par les circonstances particulières, bien qu’il soit connu que le mode de vie d’Isabella n’était guère insociable. Ici on peut remarquer une certaine comparaison avec une cellule de moine qui se donne à sa prédestination dans un monde fermé du monastère, où la cour est l’incarnation de jardin d’Éden, l’incarnation du monde spirituel. Le jardin secret de Corte Vecchia dans la résidence de Mantoue est bien l’espace entièrement fermé et caché du monde personnel des appartements de marquise. C’est ce qui le diffère du jardin suspendu dans le Palais Ducal d’Urbino, dont la partie extérieure, qui est en même temps le mur du palais avec les tourelles, donne sur le paysage du côté opposé de la ville. Elle est percée par les encadrements qui ouvrent la perspective sur les alentours, en reliant la nature, dont l’homme est le maître, et la nature libre. A propos, plus tard Giovan Battista Bertani s’est servi du même moyen en créant la cour “Cortile della Cavallerizza” dans la résidence de Mantoue, où il y a également les encadrements dans le mur entourant le jardin qui ouvrent la vue sur Mincio et sa rive opposée. Frédéric Gonzague, fils d’Isabelle, imitait sa mère en aménageant le Palais Te (Palazzo Te), sa résidence de campagne, et voulait avoir son propre studiolo. Il a été construit un peu à l’écart du palais, de l’autre côté de la Cour d’Apparat, dans un coin ouest à gauche de l’exèdre, dans un petit ensemble de l’ “Appartamento Segreto”. Cet ensemble avec la cour jouant le rôle de jardin intérieur au milieu, créé en 1530 environ par Giulio Romano, représente bon gré mal gré le “secretum angulum pro solitudine”11, que Pétrarque avait mentionné. D’ailleurs, à la différence des appartements de marquise Isabelle c’est la grotte qui joue le rôle principal dans la décoration des appartements secrets du duc Frédéric. Elle rappelle en partie la grotte qui sera créé plus tard dans le Jardin de Boboli (Giardano di Boboli) à Florence par Bartolomeo Ammanati. Le cabinet de François I de Médicis, le plus connu des studiolos italiens au XVIème siècle, a été créé en 1570–1572 à l’étage noble de Palazzo Vecchio sous la direction artistique de Giorgio Vasari. Il contraste par ses dimensions minuscules (8,4 × 3,3 m) avec l’énorme Salle des

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5. Florence. Palazzo Vecchio. Étage noble (d’après Lensi). 10 — studiolo, 9 — tesoretto.

Cinq-Cents (Sala dei Cinquecento), située à côté. Il est lié par son positionnement avec une partie représentative du palais, son programme allégorique très complexe témoigne sans doute que la prestance entrait dans les fonctions de ce local. Bien que la porte, qui mène aujourd’hui de la Salle des Cinq-Cents (Sala dei Cinquecento) dans le studiolo, n’ait été percée qu’au XXème siècle, il est connu qu’on le présentait aux invités d’honneur. Il suffit de recourir au journal du voyage de Michel de Montaigne en Italie: “Le mesme jour nous vismes un palais du Duc, où il prant plesir à besouigner lui mesme, à contrefaire des pierres orientales & à labourer le cristal: car il est Prince souingneur un peu de l’Archemie & des ars méchaniques & surtout grand Architecte”12. Bien que cette citation d’indique pas le fait de la visite du studiolo, on supposerait plutôt la connaissance avec l’image de duc aménageant son studiolo que la possibilité de voir personnellement François qui s’occupait de l’alchimie où de la taille de pierre, d’autant plus qu’il est

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connu que le duc le faisait à Casino di San Marco, reconstruit pour lui par Buontalenti, et pas dans un studiolo où il n’y a aucune fenêtre. Le studiolo de François I au Palazzo Vecchio rappelait celui de son père Cosimo I et le “tesoretto”, une petite trésorerie où on gardait les objets de la collection en grosse partie se rapportant aux sciences naturelles. Les deux cabinets étaient situés à côté de la chambre à coucher du possesseur, ce qui souligne leur caractère intime, bien que leur décoration soit lié avec un programme représentatif important. Si dans la décoration du studiolo du père seulement la peinture de plafond, l’œuvre de Vasari, c’est conservé, on peut voir l’ensemble de décoration de studiolo du fils presque entièrement; il a été soumis au programme complexe développé, créé par Vincenzo Borghini, scientifique de la cour. Le studiolo de Francesco a été aménagé dans un ancien palais; probablement ça explique l’absence du jardin à côté. En ce qui concerne le niveau de de l’effet caché de ce local, il est significatif qu’au XVIIIème siècle on a oublié le fait de son existence, il n’a été réouvert qu’au début de XXème siècle pendant les travaux de restauration du palais. Comme il s’agit des représentants de la famille de Médicis la question logique peut s’imposer; elle concerne l’existence au XVème siècle des studiolos de membres de cette famille, liés sans doute avec le milieu humaniste. Pourtant il est connu que dans le Palais de Médicis Cosimo il Vecchio et d’autres représentants des générations suivantes avaient les “scrittoio”, représentant “le cabinet” dans le sens plus général et plus contemporain. D’ailleurs, le studiolo de Cosimo I, aussi qu’une pièce de son épouse, Eléonore de Tolède, est dénommé plus souvent comme “scrittoio”. Dans les deux cas il s’agit des pièces les plus petites dans l’ensemble des appartements privés. Et bien que ces personnes soient déjà monarques, il est fort probable que cette dénomination — “scrittoio” au lieu de “studiolo” — gardait la mémoire de l’époque précédente. Les Médicis étant sans doute les leaders de la vie politique de Florence Républicaine de XVème siècle, n’aménageaient pas dans leurs résidences les studiolos, les locaux princières par leur nature, associés avec la personne au pouvoir, dont l’image il était appelé de créer. Ainsi, en caractérisant le studiolo et son rôle dans la structure de la résidence des souverains italiens de la Renaissance, on peut conclure

— 88 — Olga G. Makho. Le studiolo dans la structure architecturale de la résidence que c’était un phénomène spécifique que la culture de Renaissance a fait naître. Etant créé selon le programme spécial, élaboré sans doute avec la participation de donneurs d’ordres, mais développé et détaillé par les intellectuels de la cour, il occupait la place particulière dans le palais. Le studiolo jouait le rôle important dans la création de l’image de prince humaniste, ce qui était très important notamment pour le possesseur lui-même, qui devait en même temps déclarer le côté intellectuel de sa personnalité et son importance. Le positionnement même de studiolo parle de sa nature ambivalente. D’un côté, il jouait un certain rôle représentatif, qui devenait plus évident au cours du temps, de l’autre côté, ce rôle était voilé par les petites dimensions de local et une certain isolement du studiolo.

ENDNOTES 1 Petrarca, F. 1955. “De vita solitaria”, Francesco Petrarca. Prose, pp. 285–591, Milano-Napoli. 2 Petrarca, F. De vita solitaria… p.364. 3 Petrarca, F. De vita solitaria… p.338. 4 Alberti, L.B. 1960. I libri della famiglia, in Opere volgari, a cura di C. Grayson, p. 219, I. — Bari. 5 Voir: Liebenwein, W. 2005. Studiolo. Storia e tipologia di uno spazio culturale, pp. 88–90, Ferrara. 6 Bisticci V.da. 1970. Le Vite, v.1, p.356, Firenze. 7 Bisticci V. da … pp. 382–383. 8 Raggio, O. 2007. Lo studiolo di Federico da Montefeltro. Il Palazzo Ducale di Gubbio e il restauro del suo studiolo, p.79, Milano. 9 Makho, O.G. 2010. The Studiolo of Italian Renaissance Regents. The Evolution of its Conception, vol. 4, p. 11. 10 Voir: Liebenwein, W. Studiolo… p.150. 11 Petrarca, F. De vita solitaria… p.440. 12 Montaigne, M.de. 1774. Journale de voyage, vol. 1, pp. 248–249, Rome.

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REFERENCES 1. Alberti, L.B. 1960. “I libri della famiglia”, Opere volgari, a cura di C. Grayson, Bari. 2. Conticelli, V. 2007. Guardaroba di cose rare e preziose: lo studiolo di Francesco I de Medici: arte, storia e significati. La Spezia, Lugano. 3. Liebenwein, W. 2005. Studiolo. Storia e tipologia di uno spazio culturale, Ferrara. 4. Makho, O.G. 2010. The Studiolo of Italian Renaissance Regents. The Evolution of its Conception, vol. 4. 5. Makho, O.G. 2011. The Studiolo and the Private Garden in the Residence of Italian Renaissance Regents, vol. 4. 6. Montaigne, M. 1774. Journale de voyage, vol. 1–2, Rome. 7. Raggio, O. 2007. Lo studiolo di Federico da Montefeltro. Il Palazzo Ducale di Gubbio e il restauro del suo studiolo, Milano. 8. Petrarca, F. 1955. “De vita solitaria”, Francesco Petrarca. Prose, pp. 285–591, Milano-Napoli. 9. Pucci, E. 1968. Il Palazzo Vecchio, Firenze.

— 90 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beauty in the image of the Sphinx

Vera A. Dubrovina PhD Moscow State universuty [email protected] Moscow THE IDEA OF FATAL BEAUTY IN THE IMAGE OF THE SPHINX DURING THE PERIOD OF SYMBOLISM

Summary: Article concerns the idea of fatal beauty among the artists of Symbolism in the prism of sphinx image. This period is characterized by rehabilitation of ancient and oriental art and philosophy, the concept of “eternal return” and mysterious symbols of the past. Different embodiments of mythical creature are examined in the works of European artists and Russian philosophers. The main attention is to the idea of a fatal attraction to the base emotions, carrying death. What widely distributed to all levels of life and, in particular, to the interpretation of ancient stories — mythical, Asian or biblical. And moreover, with the help of famous historical and literary contexts, in the image of a sphinx appears a new motif of vulnerability, emotional instability in front of deep, sophisticated and instinctive nature of a human being. Keywords: Sphinx, myth, demon, fatal beauty, symbolism, art, philosophy, death, eternity.

Symbolism sought to discover the existence of mysterious and unknown in nature, universe, human being and art, what was resistant to rational understanding, but attracted a sensitive artist. Predilections to the rehabilitation of Gnostic archetypes, medieval and archaic culture were part of romanticism, what strongly influenced on art of symbolists. Discovering the demonic spirit in human nature, sacral feeling of metamorphosis of the world and man, inspired lots of philosophers and artist. Schopenhauer’s thesis proclaimed the way to overcome the individualism in oriental philosophy and religions. Symbolic perception of the world uncovered Asian and African art, Slavic mythology and

— 91 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

1. F.Kupka. The Black Idol. 1903. Fragment. folklore, primitive art and ancient Scythian sculpture, Polynesian art and the art of Mexican Indians1. The insight of cyclic recurrence of historical times was the base of Friedrich Nietzsche concept of “eternal return” or “eternal recurrence”, found in Ancient Egypt and Indian philosophy. History constantly keeps coming back to already depleted and extinct experience of the past and makes it relevant back again. Similar explanation was one of characteristic features of European art, in 1890’s — 1900’s many European masters returned to the image of the Sphinx and offered its interpretation in the symbolist manner.

— 92 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

Sphinx is one of the enduring images among the art symbols. And it is a characteristic and easily recognizable symbol of ancient Egypt, where Sphinx seemed as a mythical creature with the head of a man (usually the Pharaoh) and the body of a lion. Embodied in the stone, it has become a symbol of power, wisdom and strength of Pharaoh, personified his unlimited power and kept the secret knowledge available to gods. Sphinxes were installed in pairs at the entrance of the temples as guardians and had to protect the eternal peace of the pharaoh, being a symbol of profusion, wisdom, power, mysteries and truth. With many modifications it disseminated throughout the ancient world. But the image of Sphinx received another iconography, based on the ancient Greek tradition. And widespread in art as the infernal monster with woman’s appearance. This sphinx depicted with the body of a lioness, but with the head and the body of a woman, and had griffin’s wings and claws. According to the Hesiod’s “Theogony” (VIII–VII centuries B.C.), the Sphinx was a daughter of Chimera and Orthus, chthonic figures in Greek mythology, she was portrayed as a wretched monster, a symbol of the “terrible mother’; the beast of death bringing misfortune and the distortion of the mentality, femininity, and power. But first of all it was known due to the story of Sophocles drama “Oedipus the King” and the famous riddle of the sphinx. The question she asked became extremely popular among philosophers (“What is that which in the morning goeth upon four feet; upon two feet in the afternoon; and in the Evening upon three?”). After the right answer that merciless monster, who guarded the entrance of Thebes from passing travelers, should destroy itself. In the history of European culture, these two traditions are intertwined in the most bizarre manner. “Male” sphinxes were portrayed less frequently than “female” ones. In this case, European sculpture of XVIII–XIX centuries used a form of sphinx as “portraits’ of ladies or famous actresses, and, imitating the Egyptian manner they could also appear in pairs near the gates of houses or parks. But still having a philosophical look of pure ancient creature, observer of times and, at the same time, — essentially feminine.

— 93 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

2. N.Kalmakov. Salome-Sphinx. 1926. Fragment.

The brightest images were primarily created by famous German symbolist Franz von Stuck, co-founder of the Munich Secession (1892), the author of paintings depicting scenes from the world of fantasy, allegory and myths, inspired by the work of Arnold Böcklin. Many of his works are distinguished by ambiguously erotic atmosphere; his seductive nudes are great examples of symbolist content. The paintings “The Sphinx” (1895) and “Kiss of the Sphinx” (1895), “The Sin” (1893) and “Salome” (1906), surrounded by the erotic overtones, perform the

— 94 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

pagan worship of the female bodily incarnation, the idea of eternal feminine and femme fatale. Hypnotizing and mysterious woman, whose spells seduce a man in bonds of irresistible desire. The oldest archetype — demon with a power over men. In the context of this article I would like to draw attention to the idea of a fatal attraction to the base emotions, carrying death. Related to the influence Nietzscheanism this idea widely distributed to all levels of the life and in particular to the interpretation of ancient stories, which all put forward the Dionysian principle. The idea of the interpenetration of different art forms, i. e. the relationship of poetry and painting — is exemplified by the work of the Belgian master Fernand Knopff “The Caress” (“L’Art ou Des Caresses”) (1896), a landmark painting in his work, an allegory of choice — the power or pleasure, and in fact the same dualistic vision of woman — both demonic and angelic. Most types of monsters and beasts were referring to this ideology. One of the brilliant polish symbolists Jacek Malczewski used the figures of Chimera and Harpy to express the power of destiny over the artist in such works as “The Shepherd and the Harpy” (1904–1906), “Artist and Chimera” (1906), “Boy and Chimera” (1910). “In the paintings of 1900–10, depending on the context of the scene, the seductively destructive monster transforms into a personification of the illusive dreams of happiness, and temptations of power or fortune… Scenes seem to be monumental. The giant, fine-shaped feminine body … is fascinatingly seductive despite its hybrid combination with animal paws and tail” 2. Jan Toorop, Dutch painter, had some Indonesian origins, was born and spent first years of his life on Java. He turned his philosophical search to the peculiar convoluted forms of wayang kulit (Indonesian shadow theatre) and Javanese motifs, which specific dynamic lines made his unique style. In the work “The Sphinx” (1897) artist compares these motifs with the famous symbol. František Kupka, a Czech artist who lived in France, innovator of the early periods of abstract art and Orphism, at the beginning of his work turned to philosophical and mystical ideas, following Eastern philosophy.

— 95 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

3. Jan Toorop. Sphinx. 1897. Fragment.

Their reflection can be seen in the paintings “Black Idol” (1903) and “The Way of Silence” (1900). Starry sky over the avenue of sphinxes at Karnak is a symbol of peace, eternity and wisdom of the ages. Russian art of the symbolism in the interpretation of the image of the Sphinx has some points of contiguity with the European art. At the same time in Russian culture by the end of XIX century, this symbol had already a fairly strong tradition. In Russian art sphinx sculptures appeared in the last third of the XVIII century and widely disseminated. And, initially deeply symbolic, it’s the image has undergone a number of evolutionary changes.

— 96 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

The emergence of Sphinxes in Saint Petersburg, suburbs and estates in the second half of the XVIII — the first third of the XIX century, not least of which was dictated by the Masonic views of customers and architects. In this environment, the image of the mysterious “creature” was one of the most common characters. Sphinxes were part of the architectural ensemble of the Russian capital, and as such have inspired many artists. Petersburg tradition of “women’s” iconography of the Sphinx persisted even after the appearance in 1834 of authentic specimens of Egyptian sculpture — Sphinx of Amenhotep III on the embankment of the Academy of Fine Arts. The beginning of the XX century is convincingly confirmed by one of the brightest representatives of the Russian Symbolism poet Alexander Blok in a memorable image of “Russia as a Sphinx” from the poem “Scythians” 3. In line with the general interest to the ancient cultures during this period, many Russian poets and philosophers were looking for new religious ideas and sacral mysteries. Vladimir Solovyov (1853–1900), theologian, who during a trip to Egypt had a vision of “the foundation of the world” — “the eternal feminine”. His philosophy had a decisive influence on the extensive use of Egyptian symbols, especially the image of the pyramids and the Sphinx. With no less degree of “fascination” with the spirit of profound culture and ancient civilization inspired such poets as Valery Bryusov, Konstantin Balmont, Mikhail Kuzmin, Martiros Saryan and a number of other artists. All of these authors are turning to contemporary issues and try to understand the way of development of world history and the historical destiny of Russia, and the hidden meaning of her destiny. Their work is permeated with motifs of expectations of the future dawns, heralds the beginning of a new era, those premonitions had mystical tones. Following Vladimir Solovyov they were looking for divine radiance and lasting beauty. The real world with its vanity, transience and inevitable presence of evil was a reflection of some higher world, which do not relate to decay and death. Concerning the search for new forms in art language, the images of the pyramids and sphinx appeared in the works of young representatives

— 97 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

4. M.Vrubel. Cleopatra on the bed. 1899. Fragment.

of the Symbolist movement “Blue Rose” in Moscow. Exhibition, which became a concept manifesto in 1907, had demonstrated a desire to move away from the prose of life and refer to the world of fantasy, fairy tales and dreams. In 1907, Martiros Saryan turned to the image of sphinx as the embodiment of the idea of immortality, and attributes of Ancient Egypt as a symbol of unknown mystery, looking at us from the depths of the centuries. But one of the most important differences between European and Russian art is merging of the sphinx image with truly Egyptian character — Cleopatra, what gave to the rich iconography of the classic motif of fatal beauty new variety4. It absorbed all the different historical and cultural evidence about the fate of the Queen, mythology and history of the western art. The idea of “Beauty of Death” touched one of the most fabulous artists of modern era Mikhail Vrubel in his tendency to demonic themes and folklore motifs. To the jubilee edition of the three- volume collected works of Alexander Pushkin in 1899, artist made a watercolor executed in black ink “Cleopatra on the bed” to illustrate the poem “Egyptian Nights”. Cleopatra in all the splendor of beauty

— 98 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

and wealth reclines on a bed in the “sphinx pose” and looks “with a cold arrogance”. Well-known literary plot creates an atmosphere of fatal premonitions5. This motif has been gaining popularity in culture, and made lots of imitations among the artistic society. For example, known for role as “Cleopatra” actress Liubov Chernysheva almost copied Vrubel’s watercolor posing for camera. After the revolution of 1917, the situation in art sphere began to change, and it also influenced on the image of sphinx. In Soviet art it is virtually absent, but still interested Russian artist outside of Russia. In the 1920–1930s appeared some works that continue to develop well- known motifs. Nikolay Kalmakov, artist and scenographer, with its visionary and extraordinary mix of images, and his vivid addiction to demonism, resorted to semantic and emotional stylizations (“Salome Sphinx” 1926). In his interpretation the image of Sphinx refers to the Greek myth about chimera and simultaneously to the image of Salome, biblical character, fatal metaphor of the beauty and eroticism of the devil. Exuberant fiery curls and dynamic figure create an illusion of fatal dance. His works showed not only mysticism, which had considerable impact to the social life at the beginning of the XX century in two Russian capitals, but also the ideas of Eastern philosophy with a fair portion of the myths and legends of Egypt and India. The poets and artists aimed to release from the shackles of the physical world and go beyond it, to the outer space, in the minutes of insight. This searching of “eternal” in the earth corresponds with the paintings by Nicholas Roerich, who had several Asian expeditions (“Ice Sphinx” 1938) or musical visions of Mikalojus Čiurlionis, who depicted the “cosmic attraction” in his “Sonatas”. Music was considered the most expressive form of art, which can cover every area of the human spirit and being. Not by chance, it determined the internal path of modern art development. In the end, I would like to note, that in the era of symbolism the image of sphinx reflected not in the sculpture, but mostly in painting and literature. Many prominent masters of art culture at the turn of

— 99 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

5. Malczewski Jacek. Artist and Chimera. 1906. Fragment.

XIX–XX centuries were attracted the mystique character, invariably associated with sacralization of eternity6. Aesthetic ideal of symbolism often created images of the “fatal beauty”, sinister and destructive, and the traditional image of sphinx is interpreted in those associations. Moreover, with the help of famous historical and literary contexts associated with such heroines as Carmen, Salome and Cleopatra, in the image of a sphinx appears a new motif of vulnerability, emotional instability in front of deep, sophisticated and instinctive nature of a human.

— 100 — Vera A. Dubrovina. The idea of fatal beautyin the image of the Sphinx

ENDNOTES 1 Khrenov, N.A. 2013. “Cultural sense of symbolism as art direction at the turn of the XIX–XX centuries”, Symbolism as art direction: a view from the 21st century, p. 27, Moscow. 2 Charazinska, Elzbieta & Malczewski, Jacek. 2009. Symbol and form. Polish painting 1880–1939, p. 53, Moscow. 3 Bely, A. 1994. “Problems of Culture”, Bely A. Criticism. Aesthetics. Theory of Symbolism, p. 45, Moscow. 4 Panova, L.G. 2006. Russian Egypt. Alexandria poetics of Mikhail Kuzmin, Moscow. 5 Tarabukin, N.M. 1974. Vrubel, Moscow. 6 Norman, D. 1997. Symbolism in Mythology, Moscow.

REFERENCES 1. Khrenov, N.A. 2013. “Cultural sense of symbolism as art direction at the turn of the XIX–XX centuries”, Symbolism as art direction: a view from the 21st century. Moscow. 2. Charazinska, Elzbieta & Malczewski, Jacek. 2009. Symbol and form. Polish painting 1880–1939. Moscow. 3. Bely, A. 1994. “Problems of Culture”, Bely A. Criticism. Aesthetics. Theory of Symbolism. Moscow. 4. Panova, L.G. 2006. Russian Egypt. Alexandria poetics of Mikhail Kuzmin. Moscow. 5. Tarabukin, N.M. 1974. Vrubel. Moscow. 6. Norman, D. 1997. Symbolism in Mythology. Moscow. 7. Michael Gibson. 1994. Le Symbolisme. Köln. 8. Symbolism in Russia. 1996. St.Petersburg. 9. Sarabyanov, D.V. 2001. Art Nouveau. Moscow. 10. Bowlt, John E. & Balybina J. 2008. Nikolai Kalmakov. Moscow. 11. Toporov, V.N. 1995. Myth. Ritual. Symbol. Image. Moscow.

— 101 — The Art and Literature Scientific and Analytical Journal «TEXTS» has a humanitarian nature. Articles are published in French, English, German and Russian. The Journal focuses on research papers about the theory, history and criticism of art, literature, film, theater and music. The Journal is published four times a year.

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