chapter 2 Sino-Indian Relations Prior to 1954
The speed with which the Indian Government accustomed itself to the con- duct of foreign policy can be explained by the interest taken in external affairs by the nationalist movement, the Indian National Congress, which was founded as early as 1885. Originally its attention was directed towards issues closely related to India’s neighbours. The use of the Indian army and the consequent drain on Indian resources by various British expeditions caused early protests. The first session of the Congress passed a resolution condemning the annexa- tion of Upper Burma, largely because of fears of increased taxation, and advo- cated separate status for Burma as a Crown Colony. In 1891 reference was made to the subject again as a possible source of a clash with China. The Younghusband expedition to Tibet in 1904 was severely criticised by the Congress President, Sir Henry Cotton, as an “act of wanton violence and aggression.” Another mem- ber condemned the action, because there were no indications of fresh provo- cation by Russia in Tibet or Central Asia, which in any case would not necessarily concern India.1
Tibet
Early British explorers were drawn to Tibet by the wool of the famous Kashmir shawls. In the East T.T. Cooper was looking for a shorter way to China by way of Bhutan and Tibet, but was not allowed to cross. In the West much earlier William Moorcroft crossed the Niti pass in 1812 and reached Gartok. Britain obtained a direct border with Tibet with the acquisition of Kumaon and Garhwal following the Anglo-Nepalese war of 1814–16. Its double purpose was to have access to the wool trade, but also to prevent an alliance between Nepal with its large army and the Sikh state. Gulab Singh, the Dogra Raja of Jammu and feudatory of the great Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh, conquered Ladakh, which at present forms the north-eastern part of Kashmir. In 1834 he turned his army towards the Tibetan provinces of Rudok and Ngari. Forces sent from Lhasa almost annihilated the Sikhs, marched on Leh, the capital of Ladakh, but were driven out again. A treaty of ‘amity and peace’ signed on 17 September 1842 by a general of Gulab Singh, the governor of Kashmir and officials from Lhasa
1 H.A. Waidya. See Bimla Prasad, The origins of Indian foreign policy, pp. 35–45.
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2 Sapru, A.N., The building of the Kashmir State. Punjab Record Office, Lahore, 1931, Appendix ii. Text also in A.G. Noorani, op. cit., pp. 235–238. In 1959 Chou En-lai dismissed the treaty as a non-aggression pact. Claiming non-participation would have clashed with his argument of Tibet not possessing treaty-making powers.