3. Henry Rousso, Le Syndrome De Vichy De 1944 a Nos Jours, 2Nd Ed

Home , Combat (newspaper), Elsa Triolet, Lise London, Maquis (World War II), Pierre Brossolette

Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. The Milice was a paramilitary unit, created in 1943 by Joseph Darnand, at that time Secretary of State for the Maintenance of Order in the Vichy government. Its remit was to track down and eliminate the Resistance. 2. Newspaper reports of the time published extracts from the judges' report. See in particular, Philippe Rochette, 'Une reecriture de l'his• toire', Liberation, 14 April 1992. Translations from this article are my own. 3. Henry Rousso, Le Syndrome de Vichy de 1944 a nos jours, 2nd ed. (Paris: Editions de Seuil, 1990), translated as The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944 (London: Harvard University Press, 1991). 4. Rousso's work on memory has many affinities with research carried out on history, literature and the Holocaust. See studies such as J. E. Young, Writing and Rewriting the Holocaust: Narrative and the Consequences of Interpretation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988) and Lawrence Langer, Holocaust Testimonies: The Ruins of Memory (Yale: Yale University Press, 1991). 5. See Bertram Gordon, 'The "Vichy Syndrome" Problem in History', French Historical Studies, 19/2 (1996) 495-518. 6. See Margaret Atack, 'L' Armee des ombres and Le Chagrin et la pi tie: Reconfigurations of Law, Legalities and the State in Post-68 France' in European Memories of the Second World War, H. Peitsch, C. Burdett and C. Gorrara (eds) (Oxford: Berghahn, 1998). 7. See Henry Rousso, 'Le syndrome de l'historien', French Historical Studies, 19/2 (Fall 1996) 519-26. 8. Two such studies are Margaret Atack, Literature and the Resistance - Cultural Politics and Narrative Forms 1940-1950 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989) and Alan Morris, Collaboration and Resistance Reviewed: Writers and the Mode Retro in Post-Gaullist France (Oxford: Berg French Studies, 1992). 9. A numbE!r of article-length studies have been published on gender, representation and the war years. See Sian Reynolds, 'The Sorrow and the Pity Revisited - Or Be Careful One Train Hides Another', French Cultural Studies, 2 (June 1990) 149-59. 10. Revisionniste refers to those historians, critics and commentators who cast doubt on or deny the existence of the Nazi gas chambers and the Final Solution. The term negationniste has also been applied to such figures, implying that their views are not so much a revision of existing views as a negation of a historically verifiable truth. 11. Few bibliographical sources exist of women's accounts of the

132 Notes 133

Occupation. Vera Laska's Nazism, Resistance and the Holocaust in World War Two (Metuchen: Scarecrow Press Ltd, 1985) has a section on women in the Resistance in France. Her earlier collection of oral testimonies, Women in the Resistance and the Holocaust (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983), also has a good bibliography of texts by women on the concentration camp experience. See also Donna Evleth, France under the German Occupation: an Annotated Bibitography (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1991). 12. According to Alain Brossat, Les Tondues: un carnaval moche (Paris: Editions Manya, 1992), no first-person account exists by women who were shaved at the Liberation for collaboration. At present, I have managed to locate only one text written by a woman tried for collaboration, Corinne Luchaire, Ma drole de vie (Paris: Sun, 1949).

1 REMEMBERING THE WAR YEARS

1. For a general outline of literary responses to the Occupation in post• war France, see Chapter 1, 'The Heritage 1940-1969' in Alan Morris' Collaboration and Resistance Reviewed: Writers and the Mode Retro in Post-Gaullist France (Oxford: Berg, 1992) and Colin Nettelbeck's 'Getting the Story Right: Narratives of World War Two in Post-68 France', in Collaboration in France: Politics and Culture during the Nazi Occupation 1940-44, G. Hirschfeld and P. Marsh (eds), (Oxford: Berg, 1989) pp.253-93. 2. See Henry Rousso, Le Syndrome de Vichy (Paris: Seuil, 1990) pp.59-65. 3. Resistancialisme is a term used for generally heroic images of a united resisting France which grew out of a Gaullist interpretation of the war years. 4. Nicholas Hewitt, 'The Literature of the Right and the Liberation: the Case of the "Hussards"', in The Liberation in France: Image and Event, H. R. Kedward and N. Wood (eds) (Oxford: Berg, 1995) pp. 285-96 (p.289). See also his full-length study, Literature and the Right in Postwar France: The Story of the Hussards (Oxford: Berg, 1996) and Margaret Atack's discussion of the 'novels of ambiguity' in Literature and the Resistance: Cultural Politics and Narrative Forms 1940-1950 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989). 5. For a discussion of the literary connections between the Occupation and May 1968, see William Kidd, 'Liberation in Novels of May 68: the Intertextual Image', in The Liberation of France: Image and Event pp.323-34. 6. Robert Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard, Ne-w Order 1940-44 (London: Barrie and Jenkins, 1972), Stanley Hoffmann, Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s (New York: Viking Press, 1973). 7. Jean-Pierre Azema, De Munich a la liberation (Paris: Seuil, 1979), Pascal Ory, La France allemande (Paris: Seuil, 1977). 8. For a discussion of a younger generation of French writers and the mode retro, see Part II of Alan Morris' Collaboration and Resistance 134 Notes

Reviewed. 9. For a well documented analysis of the crimes against humanity debate in the Barbie and Touvier trials, see Nancy Wood, 'Crimes or Misdemeanours? Memory on Trial in Contemporary France', French Cultural Studies,S (1994) 1-21. A good summary of the historical background to the indictments of Touvier, Bousquet and Papon for crimes against humanity is given by Bertram M. Gordon in 'Collaboration, Retribution and Crimes against Humanity: the Touvier, Bousquet and Papon Affairs', Contemporary French Civilization, 19/2 (Summer/Fall 1996) 249-74. 10. Alain Finkielkraut, La Memoire vaine. Du crime contre l'humanite (Paris: Gallimard 1989) translated as Remembering in Vain (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989). 11. In her introduction, Annette Wieviorka in Deportation et genocide. Entre la memoire et l'oubli (Paris: PIon, 1992) identifies the 1980s as the start of France's renewed obsession with the Jewish memory and the concentration camps. 12. See Anne Grynberg, Les Camps de la honte. Les internes jUifs des camps fram;ais 1939-44 (Paris: La Decouverte, 1991). 13. One of the most notorious revisionniste accounts is that of Robert Faurisson, Memoire en defense (Paris: Vieille Taupe, 1980). 14. See the collection of Pierre Vidal-Naquet's essays from this period, Les Assassins de la memoire: 'Un Eichmann de papier et autres essais sur Ie revisionnisme' (Paris: La Decouverte, 1987) translated as Assassins of Memory: Essays on the Denial of the Holocaust (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). 15. Lynn A. Higgins, New Novel, New Wave, New Politics (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1996) p.l44. 16. A large number of studies on the Liberation have appeared, some examining events from the point of view of the cultural historian, see Alain Brossat, Liberation, fete folie, 6 juin 44-8 rnai 45: mythes et rites ou Ie grand theatre des passions populaires (Paris: Autrement, 1994) and Andre Bendjebbar, Liberations revees, liberations vecues 1940-1945 (Paris: Hachette, 1994). 17. A petition was sent to Mitterrand in 1992 asking him to create a day of remembrance marking the round-up of the rafle du Vel d'Hiver in July 1942. Mitterrand refused, claiming that the French Republic had nothing to answer for as it had already disowned Vichy and its complicity in the Nazi Final Solution. Months later, Mitterrand was forced to reverse this decision. 18. Pierre Pean, Une Jeunesse fram;aise. Fram;ois Mitterrand 1934-47 (Paris: Fayard, 1994). 19. Mary Jean Green, Writing War in the Feminine', Journal of European Studies, 23 (March-June 1993) 223-37 (p.223). 20. For a discussion of four women's texts from the pre-1968 period, see Denis Boak, 'Four Frenchwomen's narratives of World War II', Journal of European Studies, 35 (1995) 381-97. 21. The Comite national des ecrivains was a group of resisting writers who wrote and published Les Lettres fram;aises, one of the most Notes 135

influential clandestine publications of the war period. 22. Elsa Triolet, Le Premier Accroc coute deux mille francs (Monaco: Denoel, 1945) translated as A Fine of Two Hundred Francs (London: Virago, 1986). Triolet's text was to win one of the most coveted liter• ary prizes in France, the Prix Goncourt, in 1945. 23. For a discussion of the literary strategies of 'litterature de combat', see early chapters in Atack, Literature and the Resistance. 24. For a more detailed discussion of the Resistance and French women's wartime narratives, see Chapter 8 'Femmes de l'ombre• fleurs bleues ou partisanes?' in James Steel's LitUratures de l'ombre (Paris: Presses de la fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1991) pp.143-57. 25. Triolet, 'The Lovers of Avignon' p.7. 26. For a fuller discussion of the conflict between romance and wartime commitment in the work of Elsa Triolet, see Diana Holmes, 'Ordinary Heroines: Resistance and Romance in the War Fiction of Elsa Triolet' in European Memories of the Second World War, H. Peitsch, C. Burdett and C. Gorrara (eds), (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1998). For a detailed analysis of the literary structures of wartime disruption in two short stories by Triolet, see Margaret Atack, 'Narratives of Disruption 1940-1944', French Cultural Studies, 1 (1990) 233-46. 27. Triolet, 'The Lovers of Avignon' p.7. 28. Ibid. p.58. 29. Simone de Beauvoir, Le Sang des autres (Paris: Gallimard, 1945) translated as The Blood of Others (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964). 30. For a very interesting article on the changing construction of the Communist Resistance heroine in the post-war era, see Hilary Footitt, Women and (Cold) War: the Cold War creation of the myth of 'La Fran"aise resistante', French Cultural Studies, 8 (1997) 41-51. For Footitt, the dynamic heroine of 1944, empowered by her war experiences to participate further in French public life, is slowly replaced, from the end of 1945, with the dead sacrificial heroine, imaged in the person of Danielle Casanova. From the end of the 1940s, she is subsumed into the rhetoric of family and motherhood and finally annexed to the cult of communist figures, such as Stalin. 31. From 1947 onwards, their right-wing critique of the Resistance became known as resistantialisme. According to Henry Rousso, in the first chapter in Le Syndrome de Vichy, this term allowed right• wing figures to criticize and sometimes denounce individual resisters but to preserve a rather vague concept of resistance itself which they tried to recuperate for themselves, particularly in rela• tion to the excesses of the post-war purges or Cpuration. 32. Micheline Maurel, RavensbrUck (un camp tres ordinaire) (Paris: Minuit, 1957) translated as An Ordinary Camp (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1958). 33. For a discussion of the narrative strategies of concentration camp texts, see Cynthia Haft, The Theme of the Nazi Concentration Camps in French Literature (Hague: Mouton, 1973) and Andrea Reiter, 136 Notes

'Literature and Survival: the Relationship between Fact and Fiction in Concentration Camp Memoirs', Journal of European Studies, 21/4 (1991) 259-81. 34. The Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris has lists of many of these unknown texts by women writers. Under 'memoires relatifs 1:1. l' oc• cupation et 1:1. la Resistance' are nearly sixty entries by women, eight of which are concentration camp testimonies from the 1960s. 35. Charlotte Delbo, Aucun de nous ne reviendra (Paris: Editions Gonthier, 1965), Une connaissance inutile (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1970) and Mesure de nos jours Paris: Minuit, 1971). The first volume of the trilogy has been translated as None of Us Will Return (New York: Grove Press, 1968). For an overview of Delbo's life and written response to the camp experience, see Lawrence Langer, 'From Sight to Insight: The Legacy of Charlotte Delbo', Contemporary French Civilization, 28/1 (1994) 64-71. 36. Thomas Trezise, 'Reflections on Charlotte Delbo's Auschwitz et apres', paper given at the ISSEI conference workshop on 'Representing the Past: World War Two: Fifty Years Later', 22 August 1996. 37. Marguerite Duras, Hiroshima, mon amour (Paris: Gallimard, 1960). 38. Benoite and Flora Groult, Journal aquatre mains (Paris: Denoel, 1962) translated as Diary in Duo (London: Barrie and Rockc1iff, 1965). 39. See the scene when the sisters act as hostesses for the Allied soldiers, picking out those who seem to offer the best prospect for providing food and consumer items in short supply, Journal aquatre mains p.531. 40. Groult, Journal a quatre mains p.364. Translations from the French original are my own. 41. Ibid. p.380. 42. For a fuller discussion of the French women's movement from the 1970s onwards, see Claire Duchen, Feminism in France: May 68 to Mitterrand (London: Routledge, 1986) and Fran~oise Picq, Liberation des femmes. Les Annies-mouvement (Paris: Seuil, 1993). 43. See Cecile Dauphin, Arlette Farge, Genevieve Fraisse et ai, Women's Culture and Women's Power: Issues in French Women's History' in Writing Women's History: International Perspectives, K. Offen, R. Roach and J. Rendell (eds), (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1991) and Arlette Farge, 'Methods and Effects in Women's History', in Writing Women's History, M. Perrot (ed.) (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992). 44. See the ground-breaking work of Joan W. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988) and Denise Riley, 'Am I that Name' - Feminism and the Category of 'Women' in History (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988). 45. For a detailed discussion of the issues informing feminism and French women's writing from the 1970s onwards, see Susan Sellers, Language and Sexual Difference: Feminist Writing in France (London: Macmillan, 1991). 46. See Helene Cixous, 'Le Rire de la Meduse', CAre, 61 (1975) 39-54 translated as 'The Laugh of the Medusa' in New French Feminisms, 1. Notes 137

de Courtivron and E. Marks (eds) (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1981) 245--64. 47. For an overview of developments in French women's writing in the 1970s and 1980s, see the introduction to Elizabeth Fallaize, French Women's Writing - Recent Fiction (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993). 48. Women whose first texts on the Occupation appeared during the 1970s include Simone Martin-Chauffier, A bien tot quand meme (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1976), Jeanne Bohec, La Plastiqueuse a bicyclette (Paris: Mercure de France, 1975) and Emilienne Moreau, La Guerre buissonniere. Une famille franr;aise dans la Resistance (Paris: Solar Editeur, 1970). 49. See introductions to Micheline Bood, Les Annees doubles: journal d'une lyceenne sous /'occupation (Paris: Laffont, 1974) and Frederique Moret, Journal d'une mauvaise Franr;aise (Paris: La Table ronde, 1973). Both women had written earlier versions of their texts but had not published them as they felt they would be received as unpatriotic.

2 RESISTANCE VOICES: THE CASE OF LUCIE AUBRAC

1. For a good discussion of gender relations as an important analytical framework for understanding women's roles in the French Resistance, see Paula Schwartz, 'Resistance et difference des sexes: bilan et perspectives', Clio, 1 (1995) 67-88. 2. Only six of the 1,059 compagnon de la Liberation awarded for outstanding contributions to the Resistance were given to women. 3. Paula Schwartz, 'Redefining Resistance: Women's Activism in Wartime France', Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars M. Higonnet, J. Jensen, S. Michel and M. Collins Weitz (eds) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987) pp.141-53, ibid., 'Partisanes and Gender Politics in Vichy France', French Historical Studies, 16 (Spring 1989) 126-51, Dominique Veillon, 'Elles etaient dans la Resistance', Reperes, 59 (May-June 1983) 9-12, ibid., 'Resister au feminin', Penelope, 12 (Spring 1985) 87-91. 4. Schwartz, 'Redefining the Resistance' p.142. 5. Francs tireurs et partisans were the military wing of the Communist Resistance. Maquis refers to groups of young men hidden in rural areas who were sought by the authorities. Many of these groups became active in the resistance struggle against Vichy and the Germans especially in the latter stages of the Occupation. 6. See H. R. Kedward, Resistance in Vichy France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978). 7. See the recent study of women in the Resistance by Margaret Collins Weitz, Sisters in the Resistance (John Wiley and Sons, 1996) which draws heavily on women's testimonies of the period. 8. See Marianne Monestier, £lIes etaient cent et mille (Paris: Artheme Fayard, 1972), Nicole Chatel, Des femmes dans la Resistance (Paris: Julliard, 1972), Les Femmes dans la Resistance, Union des femmes fran~aises (eds) (Paris: Editions Rocher, 1977), Ania Francos, II etait 138 Notes

des femmes dans la Resistance (Paris: Stock, 1978). All these texts date significantly from the 1970s when a social history of France was being developed. 9. See Margaret Collins Weitz, 'As I Was Then: Women in the French Resistance', Contemporary French Civilization, 10/1 (Fall/Winter 1986) 1-19. 10. See Celia Bertin, Les Femmes sous ['Occupation (Paris: Stock, 1993) pp.217-8. 11. For an analysis of French political culture and the obfuscation of women resisters, see Rita Thalmann, 'L' oubli des femmes dans l'historiographie de la Resistance, Clio, 1 (1995) 21-35 and Marie-France Brive, 'Les Resistantes et la Resistance', Clio, 1 (1995) 57-66. 12. Lise London, L' Echeveau du temps. La Megere de la rue Daguerre (Paris: Stock, 1995). London was an influential figure in the Communist 'comites feminins' whose role it was to mobilize housewives against Vichy by harnessing their discontent at the domestic policies of the regime. 13. See Ennat Leger, Connaissez-vous la cuisine de la Gestapo (Lyon: MB Composition, 1983), Anne-Marie Bauer, Les Oublies et les ignores (Paris: Mercure de France, 1993) and importantly, Lucie Aubrac, Ils partiront dans [' ivresse (Paris: Seuil, 1984) translated as Outwitting the Gestapo (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1993). When discussing Aubrac's text, I will quote from the English translation. 14. Madeleine Riffaud, On ['appelait Rainer (Paris: Stock, 1995) p.56. 15. See Janine Jugeau, 'Les agents de liaison: infrastructure de la Resistance' in Les Femmes dans la Resistance ed. by Union des femmes fran~aises, as well as Rita Thalmann, 'L' oubli des femmes dans l'historiographie de la Resistance, Clio 1 (1995). 16. The service du travail obligatoire was a work scheme which came into effect in February 1943. French men, and some women, were conscripted to work in German factories and industry in order to further the German war effort. 17. Emilienne Moreau, La Guerre buissonniere - une famille frant;aise dans la Resistance (Paris: Solar Editeur, 1970) p.221. 18. Brigitte Friang, Regarde-toi qui meurs (Paris: PIon, 1989) p.78. 19. Schwartz, 'Partisanes and Gender Politics in Vichy France' 147. 20. See Schwartz, 'Partisanes and Gender Politics in Vichy France'. 21. Cecile Ouzoulias Romagon, r etais agent de liaison des FTPF (Paris: Editions Messidor, 1988) describes herself as a soldier of the Resistance and not as a heroine in the preface to her text, while Elizabeth de Mirabel, La Liberte souffre violence (Paris: PIon, 1989) is told by her mentor that she 'is a soldier and a soldier is a man who is always more or less alone'.(p.83) 22. Jeanne Bohec, La Plastiqueuse a bicyclette (Paris: Mercure de France, 1975) and Anne-Marie Bauer, Les Oublies et les ignores (Paris: Mercure de France, 1993). 23. Bohec, La Plastiqueuse a bicyclette p.186. 24. See Friang, Regarde-toi qui meurs and Odette Fabius, Un lever de soleil Notes 139

sur Ie Mecklembourg (Paris: Albin Michel, 1986). 25. Two of the most suggestive collections of essays on women's auto• biographies are The Private Self - Theory and Practice of Women's Autobiographical Writings Shari Benstock (ed.) (London: Routledge, 1988) and The Female Autograph - The Theory and Practice of Autobiography from the Tenth to the Twentieth Century Domna Stanton (ed.) (London/Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). 26. See Sidonie Smith, 'Autobiographical Criticism and the Problema tics of Gender' in A Poetics of Women's Autobiography - Marginality and Fictions of the Self (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). 27. See Paula Schwartz, 'Resistance et difference des sexes: bilan et perspectives', Clio, 1 (1995) 78. 28. Annie Guehanno, L'Epreuve (Paris: Grasset, 1968) pp.77-8. 29. Friang, Regarde-toi qui meurs p.26. 30. Edith Thomas, Le Temoin compromis (Paris: Viviane Hamy, 1995). 31. Riffaud, On /'appelait Rainer p.199. 32. Lucie Aubrac, La Resistance: naissance et organisation (Robert Lang, 1945). 33. Shoshana Felman and Dori Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis and History (New York: Routledge, 1992). 34. Felman and Laub, Testimony p.xiv. 35. Elie Wiesel is quoted in Testimony as writing 'if the Greeks invented tragedy, the Romans the epistle and the Renaissance the sonnet, our generation invented a new literature, that of testimony: (pp.5-6) 36. See Laurent Grei13amer, 'Calomnie et "revision" de l'histoire', Le Monde, 15 October 1991 p.11. 37. Aubrac, Outwitting the Gestapo p.25. 38. Ibid. p.18. 39. Ibid. p.99. 40. See Dominique Veillon, 'Resister au feminin'. 41. Aubrac, Outwitting the Gestapo p.7 42. Other women resisters also refer to their pregnancies in accounts of the war years. Two significant texts in this respect are Cecile Ouzoulias Romagon, J'etais agent de liaison des FTPF and Lise London, La Megere de la rue Daguerre. For both writers, pregnancy and motherhood are an important part of their depiction of women's wartime lives but they do not use motherhood as a key structuring and thematic device to the same extent as Aubrac. 43. Aubrac, Outwitting the Gestapo p.12. 44. From my interview with the author, 26 February 1994. 45. Aubrac, Outwitting the Gestapo p.195.

3 GENDER AND GENRE: MAURICE, MORET AND DURAS

1. Violette Maurice, Les Murs ee/ales (Saint Etienne: Action Graphique Editeur, 1990), Frederique Moret, Journal d'une mauvaise Fran~aise (Paris: La Table ronde, 1973) and Marguerite Duras, La Douleur 140 Notes

(Paris: P.O.L, 1985) translated by Barbara Bray as The War: A Memoir (New York: The New Press, 1986). When discussing Duras, I will quote from the English translation. 2. See the editors' introduction to Writing Women's History: International Perspectives, K. Offen, R. Roach Pierson and J. Rendell (eds), (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991). 3. Clare Hanson, Rereading the Short Story (London: Macmillan, 1989) p.2. 4. Clare Hanson, Short Stories and Short Fictions 1880-1980 (London: Macmillan, 1985), Chapter 5 'The Free Story'. 5. See Margaret Atack, Literature and the Resistance: Cultural Politics and Narrative Forms (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989). 6. See Chapter 1, 'Remembering the War Years'. 7. Maurice, Les Murs eclates p.9. 8. Ibid. p.88. 9. Ibid. pp.89-90. 10. I would contend that this short story refers to Clara Malraux's 1947 collection, La Maison ne fait pas credit, republished in 1987 by Messidor. 11. Maurice, Les Murs eclates p.124. 12. Lynn A. Higgins, New Wave, New Novel, New Politics (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1996), Chapter 6 'Durasian (Pre)Occupations'. Higgins provides an excellent discussion of The War: A Memoir from the perspective of Duras' past as a nouveau romancier and her re-evaluation of the war years in the 1970s and 1980s. 13. Duras, The War: A Memoir p.89. 14. Higgins, New Novel, New Wave, New Politics p.180. 15. Duras, The War: A Memoir p.132. 16. Ibid. p.134. 17. Ibid. p.122. 18. Duras, The War: A Memoir p.115. 19. A card-carrying resister herself, Duras was to view the war years as a period of profound personal, as well as political, tragedy, suffer• ing the loss of her first child, fathered by Robert Antelme in 1942. Duras and Antelme were to divorce after the war and Duras was to have a relationship with Dionys Mascolo, another member of their resistance group. They had a son, Jean, in 1947. 20. See Trevor Field, Form and Function in the Diary Novel (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989) and Lorna Martens, The Diary Novel, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). 21. Beatrice Didier, Le Journal intime (Paris: Presses Universitaires de Paris, 1976). 22. Martens, The Diary Novel p.182. 23. One notable exception being Lucie Aubrac's Outwitting the Gestapo (1984). 24. Other texts which could have been discussed in this chapter are Micheline Bood's Les Annees Doubles: Journal d'une lyceenne sous l'oc• cupation (Paris: Laffont, 1974), Edmee Renaudin, Sans fleur ni [usi! Notes 141

(Paris: Stock, 1979) and Emilienne Moreau La Guerre buissonniere (Paris: Solar Editeur, 1970). 25. Moret, Journal d'une mauvaise Fram;aise p.43. 26. Ibid. p.62 27. There is a growing number of studies devoted to Vichy's gender politics. English language studies include Miranda Pollard, 'Women and the National Revolution' in Vichy France and the Resistance H. R. Kedward and Roger Austin (eds), (London: Croom Helm, 1985) pp.36-47 and Helene Eck, 'French Women under Vichy', in A History of Women. Tawards a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century Fran.;oise Thebaud (ed.) (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994) pp.194-225. 28. Moret, Journal d'une mauvaise Fram;aise p.120 29. Ibid. p.87. 30. Ibid. p.196. 31. Ibid. p.2ll. 32. Recent studies on women's post-war lives and their hopes and aspi• rations for change seem to indicate that, for many, the late 1940s and 1950s saw little change in their public and private lives. See Hanna Diamond, 'Women's Aspirations, 1943-1947: an Oral Enquiry in Toulouse' in The Liberation of France: Image and Event H. R. Kedward and N. Wood (eds), (Oxford: Berg, 1995) pp.91-101. 33. See in particular, Leslie Hill, Apocalyptic Desires: Marguerite Duras (London: Routledge, 1993). 34. Duras, The War: A Memoir p.3. 35. Ibid. p.5. 36. Ibid. p.8. 37. Ibid. p.lO 38. Ibid. p.37. 39. Mary Jean Green, 'Writing War in the Feminine: de Beauvoir and Duras', Journal of European Studies 23 (March-June 1993) 223-37. 40. Duras, The War: A Memoir p.33. 41. Ibid. p.50.

4 A FEMINIST REREADING: CLARA MALRAUX

1. Christian de Bartillat, Clara Malraux, Ie regard d'une femme sur son sire/e. Biographie-Temoignage (Paris: Libraire Academique Perrin, 1985) p.l84. 2. La Maison ne fait pas credit (Paris: Messidor, Temps Actuel, 1981) (first published in 1947), La Lutte inegale (Paris: Julliard, 1958), La Fin et Ie commencement (Paris: Grasset, 1976) and Et pourtant j'etais libre (Paris: Grasset, 1979). 3. Andre Malraux's responsibility for Clara's precarious position in occupied France is difficult to establish. According to her autobi• ography, Andre Malraux abandoned her and their daughter Flo, to an uncertain fate while he lived with his next partner, Josette Clotis, and their two sons. However, according to Axel Madsen, 142 Notes

Malraux - A Biography (London: W. H. Allen, 1977) and James Robert Hewitt, Andre Malraux (New York: F. Ungar Publications, 1976), Andre Malraux's concern for Clara Malraux was demon• strated by the fact that he did not divorce her during the war, despite pressure from the Clotis family, because he was aware that his name and status afforded Clara some protection. 4. Mouvement de Resistance des Prisonniers de Guerre Deportes. 5. Confluences was a literary arts review published legally in Lyons anq edited by Rene Tavernier. 6. 'L'Eternal Masculin', Confluences, 11 (June 1942) 617, 'Autour de Mme de Lafayette', Confluences, 15 (December 1942) 442-4 'Autour de Mme de Lafayette II', Confluences, 17 (February 1943) 200-2, 'Lord Jim, Ie solitaire', Confluences, 19 (April-May 1943) 448-50, 'Les Grandes Soeurs de Mathilde de la Mole', Confluences, 30 (March-April 1944) 262-4. 7. By the early 1980s, researchers, such as Dominique Veillon and Paula Schwartz, had begun to analyse the important roles women assumed in resistance groups, such as organizing social services or acting as liaison agents. These women's activities were seen to form part of a wider culture of resistance to the Vichy and Nazi authori• ties than that of armed combat. See Paula Schwartz, 'Redefining Resistance: Women's Activism in Wartime France', in Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars M. R. Higonnet, J. Jensen, S. Michel and M. Collins Weitz (eds) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987) pp.141-53. 8. Malraux, La Maison ne fait pas credit p.10. All future references to texts by Clara Malraux will use 'Malraux' to designate her author• ship. Any reference to the work of Andre Malraux will add his first name to distinguish ~etween the two authors. 9. Malraux, 'La Fausse Epreuve' p.22. 10. Ibid. p.34. 11. In the various versions of the legend of Tristan and Isolde, Isolde often goes through a series of trials to prove her virginity to her husband, King Mark of Cornwall, after having been unfaithful to him with his nephew, Tristan. During one of these trials, she swears a false oath in a trial of hot iron. Clara Malraux would seem to be playing with the ambiguity of this gesture by having Lucienne swear a true oath du~ing a false trial. 12. Malraux, 'La Fausse Epreuve' pp.42-3. 13. Discriminatory measures in October 1940 were followed by Vichy laws defining the status of Jews and limiting their access to commer• cial and professional activities. In June 1942, Jews were forced to wear a yellow star of David as a sign of their racial difference. 14. Malraux, La Lutte inegale p.64. 15. Ibid. pp.189-90. 16. Ibid. p.26. 17. Ibid. pp.261-2. 18. Ibid. p.245. 19. Ibid. p.263. Notes 143

20. Ibid. p.243. 21. Apprendre a vivre (1963), Nos vingt ans (1966), Les Combats et les jeux (1969), Voici que vient ['ete (1973), La Fin et Ie commencement (1976) and Et pourtant j'eta is libre (1979). 22. Pierre Drieu La Rochelle, 'Malraux, l'homme nouveau', Nouvelle Revue franr;aise, (December 1932) 879-85. 23. Andre Malraux had travelled to Indo-China several times during the 1920s and 1930s with Clara Malraux. Their attempts to smuggle religious artifacts out of Cambodia in 1924 had ended in house arrest in Phnom Penh. It was only Clara's return to Paris and her decision to organize a petition supporting Andre, signed by many leading artistic figures of the day, which secured his release. This incident became part of the legend of Andre Malraux the adven• turer, a story which rarely acknowledged the role of Clara Malraux in events. For a detailed discussion of Clara Malraux's life, see Isabelle, de Courtivron, Clara Malraux - une femme dans Ie siecle (Paris: Editions de l'Olivier, 1993). 24. Robert Soucy, Fascist Intellectual. Drieu La Rochelle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), Chapter 7, 'The Virile Elite and the Hitlerian Man', and Albert F. Goessl and Roland A. Champagne in 'Clara Malraux's Le Bruit de nos pas: Biography and the Question of Women in the "Case of Malraux"', Biography, 7/3 (Summer 1984) 213-232, have pointed to the similarities between Andre Malraux's New Man and the virile ideal of Fascist ideology. 25. Susan Rubin Suleiman, 'Malraux's Women: A Re-vision', in Witnessing Andre Malraux. Visions and Revisions B. Thompson and C. Viggiani (eds) (Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1984) pp.140-68 (144). 26. Andre Malraux, La Condition humaine (Paris: Gallimard, 1946) p.48. 27. Suleiman, 'Malraux's Women: ARe-vision' p.156. 28. Malraux, Et pourtant j'eta is libre p.92. 29. Ibid. p.92. 30. Malraux, La Fin et Ie commencement p.l44. 31. In one interview with Christian de Bartillat, Clara Malraux comments that 'to be honest, I didn't really feel concerned by the first feminist movements'(p.98). 32. Annie Leclerc, Parole de femme (Paris: Grasset, 1974) p.130. 33. Malraux, La Fin et Ie commencement p.118. 34. Denis Boak, 'Clara Malraux: "la difficulte d'~tre''', Essays in French Literature, 16 (November 1979) 89-110 (103). 35. Louise R. Witherell, 'A Modern Woman's Autobiography: Clara Malraux', Contemporary Literature, 24/2 (Summer 1983) 222-32 (223). 36. Malraux, Et pourtant j'etais libre p.55. 37. Ibid. pp.54-5. 38. Elizabeth Fallaize, 'Introduction: Women's Writing and the French Cultural Context of the 1970s and 1980s', in French Women's Writing - Recent Fiction (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993) pp.1-29. 39. Malraux, La Fin et Ie commencement pp.62-3. 144 Notes

40. Malraux, Et pourtant j'etais libre p.116. 41. Ibid. p.66. 42. Ibid. p.32. 43. La Lutte inegale pp.17-8 and La Fin et Ie commencement pp.206-8. 44. La Lutte inegale pp.189-90 and Et pourtant j'etais libre p.107.

5 THE DAUGHTERS OF THE RESISTANCE: GATARD AND ALBRECHT

1. For °a fuller analysis of the issues raised by the Barbie trial, see Chapter 2 and the discussion of Lucie Aubrac's Outwitting the Gestapo. 2. I am using the term resistancialisme here as defined by Alan Morris in Collaboration and Resistance Reviewed: Writers and the Mode Retro in Post-Gaullist France (Oxford: Berg, 1992): 'a Gaullist "myth" of the Resistance [... J that the national response to invasion was accepted to be one of widespread heroism and revolt'. (pp.1-2) 3. Brigitte Friang, Comme un verger avant /'hiver (Paris: Julliard, 1978) p.93. 4. Of course, not all children of resisters questioned such images. See Catherine de Castilho, Mon pere etait Remy (Paris: Edition Far, 1985), first published in 1970. I have chosen not to focus on such texts because they do not raise the issues of gender and historiography at the heart of this study. 5. Marie Gatard, La Guerre, mon pere (Paris: Mercure de France, 1978) and Mireille Albrecht, Berty: la grande figure feminine de la Resistance (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1986). 6. Gatard, La Guerre, mon pere p.75. 7. Ibid. p.69. 8. Ibid. p.27. 9. For a recent historical study of the practice of head shaving of French women, see Fabrice Virgili, 'Les "tondues" a la Liberation: Ie corps des femmes, enjeu d'une reappropriation', Clio, 1 (1995) 111-27. Enthusiastic eye-witness accounts of the head shavings from the Liberation period include those of Edith Thomas in Pages de journal 1939-1944 (Paris: Viviane Hamy, 1995). It is only in Thomas' later text, Le Temoin compromis (Paris: Viviane Hamy, 1995), written in 1952, that she comes to speculate on the horror of the scene and the darker side of the crowd's excitement. 10. See Corran Laurens, "'La femme au turban": les femmes tondues', The Liberation of France: Image and Event H. R. Kedward and N. Wood (eds) (Oxford: Berg, 1995) pp.155-79. 11. Gatard, La Guerre, mon pere p.135. 12. Ibid. p.15. 13. Ibid. p.52. 14. Ibid. p.84. 15. Ibid. p.106. 16. Ibid. p.37. Notes 145

17. Ibid. pp.138-9. 18. For a short account of her life and activities, see Marie-Louise Coudert, Elles, la Resistance (Paris: Messidor, 1983) pp.120-5. 19. For the Communist Resistance, one of the key figures used to symbolize French women's commitment to the anti-Fascist struggle was Danielle Casanova. See Hilary Footitt's recent Women and (Cold) War: the Cold War creation of the myth of 'La Fran~aise resistante', French Cultural Studies, 8 (1997) 41-51. 20. Albrecht, Berty: la grande figure feminine de la Resistance p.11. 21. Ibid. p.59. 22. Ibid. p.122. 23. Ibid. p.160. 24. Ibid. p.11. 25. Ibid. p.85. 26. Ibid. p.334.

6 THE DAUGHTERS OF COLLABORATION: CHAIX AND LE GARREC

1. For a discussion of the political and cultural climate in which the mode retro developed, see early chapters in Alan Morris, Collaboration and Resistance Reviewed: Writers and the Mode Retro in Post-Gaullist France (Oxford: Berg, 1992). 2. Margaret Atack, 'L' Armee des ombres and Le Chagrin et la pitie: Reconfigurations of Law, Legalities and the State in Post-68 France', European Memories of the Second World War: New Perspectives on Post-War Literature, H. Peitsch, C. Burdett and C. Gorrara (eds) (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1998). 3. Pascal Ory, 'Comme l'an quarante: dix ans de retro satanas', Le Debat, 16 (November 1981) 109-17. 4. For an interesting analysis of occupation narratives by a younger generation of writers and questions of identity, see Colin Nettelbeck, 'Getting the Story Right: Narratives of World War Two in Post-68 France' in Collaboration in France: Politics and Culture during the Nazi Occupation G. Hirschfeld and P. Marsh (eds) (Oxford: Berg, 1989) pp.252-93. 5. Patrick Modiano, La Place de l'etoile (Paris: Seuil, 1968). The father figure in this text is indicative of Modiano's whole stance in relation to the war years. A clown-like figure who digests Celine's grossly anti-Semitic Bagatelles pour un massacre as fit for bedtime reading, he is a figure of compassion and pity for his son. 6. This phrase, 'children-of-collaboration', is one coined by Ory in his above-cited article. He refers specifically to Pascal Jardin, Marie Chaix, Evelyne Le Garrec and Jean-Luc Maxence. 7. Pascal Jardin, La Guerre a neuf ans (Paris: Grasset, 1971), translated as Vichy Boyhood: an Insider's View of the Pita in Regime (London: Faber, 1975). 8. The quest for the collaborating father is a feature of other post-'68 146 Notes

European literary traditions. The German case would seem to have affinities with some of the texts under discussion in this chapter, see Anthony Waine, 'Sons and Fathers: West German Writers' Private Perspectives on a Public Past' in Reconstructing the Past: Reconstructing the Fascist Era in Post-War European Culture (Keele: Keele University Press, 1996) pp.101-17. For a reading of the German collaborating father through the father / daughter relation• ship, see Anne Moss, 'Seeing the Father: Memory and Identity Construction in Elisabeth Plessen's Such Sad Tidings in European Memories of the Second World War: New Perspectives on Post- War Literature. 9. Les Lauriers du lac de Constance (Paris: Seuil, 1974), Les Silences ou la vie d'une femme (Paris: Seuil, 1976) and L'Age du tendre (Paris: Seuil, 1979). 10. Chaix, Les Lauriers du lac de Constance p.221. 11. In 1940, the British forces had sunk the French fleet at Mers el-Kebir with great loss of life, a wartime act which some French men and women interpreted as an act of betrayal by a former ally. 12. Chaix, Les Lauriers du lac de Constance p.199. 13. Ibid. p.57. 14. The Legion des volontaires frant;aises (L VF) was a regiment of soldiers drawn from the ranks of collaborating organizations in France. It was intended to be the French wing of the forces which fought for Axis power, mostly against Soviet Communists on the Eastern Front. 15. Chaix, Les Lauriers du lac de Constance p.105. 16. Ibid. p.59. 17. Over 12,000 men, women and children were rounded up, some by French policemen, on 16 and 17 July 1942 and taken to the sports stadium in Paris, the Velodrome d'Hiver, to be transported to Auschwitz. This event has since become one of the key symbols of French State complicity in the Nazi Final Solution. 18. Chaix, Les Silences au la vie d'une femme p.98. 19. Chaix, L' Age du tendre p.36. 20. Ibid. p.27. 21. For Cixous' best known evocation of ecriture feminine, see 'Le Rire de la Meduse' in L'Arc, 61 (1975) 34-54. A version of this article has been translated in New French Feminisms I. de Courtivron and E. Marks (eds) (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1981) pp.245-64. 22. Chaix, L' Age du tendre p.170. 23. Ibid. pp.179-80. 24. Ibid. pp.187-8. 25. Pierre Rigoulet's Les Enfants de l' epuration (Paris: PIon, 1993) is a study of collaboration through the memories and allegiances of sons and daughters of collaborators. The study veers towards a revisionist reappropriation of the collaborating fathers themselves. Although Rigoulet acknowledges the impossibility of gaining any version of events from his interviewees not coloured by the psycho- Notes 147

logical trauma of a post-war connection to collaboration, he views his study as a valid one because it will contribute to a better under• standing of the Occupation. This proves to be a highly dubious claim, as is made clear by Rigoulet's sympathetic portrayal of figures, such as Chantelle and Pierre Touvier, and Philippe Darnand, son of Joseph Darnand, the founding figure of the Milice. Marie Chaix is interviewed, with her sister, in the chapter 'Malbrough s' en va-t-en guerre'. 26. Evelyne Le Garrec, l.il Rive allemande de ma memoire (Paris: Seuil, 1980) p.23. 27. Ibid. p.187. 28. Ibid. p.188. 29. Ibid. p.201. 30. Evelyne Le Garrec, Les Messageres (Paris: Editions des femmes, 1976) and Un lit asoi (Paris: Seuil, 1979). 31. Le Garrec, l.il Rive allemande de ma memoire p.194. 32. Ibid. p.203. 33. Le Garrec, Un lit asoi p.178. 34. Le Garrec, l.il Rive allemande de ma memoire p.19. 35. Ibid. p.226. 36. When I interviewed Evelyne Le Garrec about her work in September 1993, she was adamant that her presentation of the collaborating father figure had been directly influenced by feminist reflections on the nature of patriarchy in 1970s France.

7 THE DAUGHTERS OF PERSECUTION: JEWISH CHILDREN REMEMBER

1. See Annette Wieviorka, 'On Testimony' in Holocaust Remembrance: The Shapes of Memory Geoffrey H. Hartman (ed.) (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995) pp.23-32. 2. See Lawrence Langer, 'Remembering Survival' in Holocaust Remembrance pp.7D-80 and Langer's longer studies on the Holocaust and testimony, particularly, Holocaust Testimonies: The Ruins of Memory (Cambridge: Yale University Press, 1991). 3. Charlotte Delbo, l.il memoire et les jours (Paris: Berg International Editeurs, 1985) translated as Memory and Days (Marlboro Vt: Marlboro Press, 1990) 4. One of the best known Holocaust survivors, Primo Levi, constantly grapples with this double time frame, see for example, Moments of Reprieve (Abacus, 1987). 5. In the USA, the Fortunoff Video Archives for Holocaust Archives at Yale, with thousands of hours of interviews between Holocaust survivors and trained psychologists, is an extraordinary historical venture which acknowledges the previous marginalization of the individual voices and testimonies of Holocaust survivors. 6. A number of British writers, born after the war years, have also begun recently to write about their relationship with parents, origi- 148 Notes

nally from Poland, who survived the Holocaust and subsequently settled in London, see Anne Karpf, The War After: Living with the Holocaust (London: Heinemann, 1996) and Theo Richmond, Konin: A Quest (London: Vintage, 1996). 7. Dominique Garnier, Nice pour memoire (Paris: Seuil, 1980). 8. Omer Bartov, 'Trauma and Absence', in European Memories of the Second World War: New Perspectives on Post- War Literature H. Peitsch, C. Burdett and C. Gorrara (eds) (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1998). 9. In this context of a fantastic reworking of a Jewish parent's concen• tration camp experiences, one could cite Georges Perec's Wau Ie souvenir d'enfance (Paris: Editions Denoel, 1975) which invents W, a land where a distorted form of the Olympic Games slowly takes on the dimensions of the extermination camps. 10. Annette Kahn, Robert et Jeanne aLyon sous /'Occupation (Paris: Payot, 1990), translated as Why my father died: a daughter confronts her family's past at the trial of Klaus Barbie (Summit Books, 1991). I shall be translating quotations from the French original. Claude Morhange-Begue, Cham beret: The True Story of a Jewish Family in Wartime France (London: Peter Owen, 1990), first published in 1987. The latter text is presently only available in English. 11. Annette Muller, La Petite Fil/e du Vel d'Hiv (Paris: Denoel, 1991). 12. Alan Morris, Collaboration and Resistance Reviewed: Writers and the Mode Retra in Post-Gaullist France (Oxford: Berg, 1992) p.99. 13. Henri Raczymov, 'L'ecoute d'un silence', Le Monde, 19 September 1980 p.19. 14. Sem Dresden, Persecution, Extermination, Literature trans., Henry G. Schogt (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991). 15. Dresden, Persecution, Extermination, Literature p.44. 16. Garnier, Nice pour memoire p.34. 17. Ibid. p.15. 18. Saul Friedlander, 'Trauma, Memory and Transference', in Holocaust Remembrance pp.251-63. 19. Friedlander, Holocaust Remembrance p.255. 20. Garnier, Nice pour memoire pp.130-1. 21. Ibid. p.138. 22. See, for example, James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (Cambridge: Yale University Press, 1993). 23. Kahn, Robert et Jeanne aLyon sous /'Occupation p.11. 24. Shoshana Felman and Dori Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis and History (London: Routledge, 1992), Chapter 2 'Bearing Witness or the Vicissitudes of Listening' pp.57-74. 25. Laub, Testimony p.57. 26. Annette Kahn was to continue researching and publishing on the war period after Robert et Jeanne aLyon sous /'Occupation. She wrote a book on Jewish experiences of the concentration camps, repro• ducing many women's testimonies, including that of her mother, entitled Personne ne voudra nous croire (Paris: Payot, 1991). She also published Le Fichier (Paris: Laffont, 1993), an investigation into the Notes 149

list of Jewish names found in November 1991 in the archives of the Secretariat d'Etat aux anciens combattants. It is thought to be a list, established by French officials, of Jewish inhabitants in the Seine departement ordered by the Germans in 1940. 27. Kahn, Robert et Jeanne aLyon sous l'Occupation p.13. 28. Ibid. p.130. 29. Ibid. p.140. 30. Morhange-Begue, Chamberet p.12. 31. See Dresden, Persecution, Extermination, Literature p.183. 32. Morhange-Begue, Cham beret p.84. 33. Robert Antelme's account of his period of internment in the camp of Gandersheim, L'Espece humaine, first published in 1947, has become one of the most important texts about the camp system and the treatment of inmates. 34. Morhange-Begue, Chamberet p.69. Author's italics. 35. Ibid. pp.1l4-15. 36. It was only in 1995 that Jacques Chirac, newly elected President of the Fifth Republic, formally recognized the part of the French State in the persecution of Jews in France. The 16 July was nominated as a day of national commemoration as, fifty-three years later, France remembered its Jewish dead. 37. Muller, La Petite Fille du Vel d'Hiv pp.32-3. 38. Ibid. p.33. 39. Ibid. p.77. 40. Ibid. p.72. 41. Union Generale des Israelites de France - an organization set up by the Vichy and Nazi authorities in late 1941 and run by prominent figures in the Jewish community. Its finances, drawn from Jewish subscriptions throughout France, were used to pay for the costs of deportations. 42. Muller, La Petite Fille du Vel d'Hiv p.116. Select Bibliography

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75,000 fusilles 10 4,34-7,39-41 abortion 5~, 85 Resistance: naissance et organisa• adolescence 99 tion, La 35 Africa, North 21 wartime role 40-2 Age du tendre, L' (Marie Chaix) Aubrac, Raymond 13,37, 40 94,98-101,106 Auschwitz see also concentration Albrecht, Berty 84-7 camps 20,96, 112, 114, Albrecht, Frederic 85, 87 118-19,122,124,126-8 Albrecht, Mireille 5,84-7,89-90, Auschwitz et apres (Charlotte 111,131 Delbo) 20 'In Search of the Truth' (A la autobiography 4,33-4,44, 72-3 recherche de la verite) 88 Avignon 17 Berty: la grande figure feminine de Ayme, Marcel la Resistance 78 Uranus 10 Algeria 10 Azema, Jean-Pierre 11 Algerian 49 Algerian war 10 Barbie, Klaus 12, 14,28,35-6,49, Allied forces see Allies 77,88,111,117-19,121,125 Allies 9, 10,59 Bartov, Orner 111 Alsace 98 'Trauma and Absence' 111 anecdote 35, 63, 72-3 Bauer, Anne-Marie 30-1 annees noires, les 4,9,24,34,43, Beaune-Ia-Rolande 112 78,84,92,130 Bergen Belsen see also concentration Antelme, Robert 14,52,57,123 camps 59 Espece humaine, L' 19,52 Bertin, Celia 27 anti-Semitism 12, 38,43,47-8, 66, I A la recherche de la verite' 88 92,96-7,101,127 Berty: la grande figure feminine de la Antimemoires (Andre Malraux) 70 Resistance (Mireille Albrecht) Aragon, Louis 10 78 armed forces 30 Beugras, Albert 93-4 Armee des ombres, L' (Joseph Kessel) Bible 66 9 Biblioth~que nationale 103 Association pour defendre la memoire Boak, Denis 72 du Marechal Petain (ADMP) body 81,88-9,100,116,120,128, 10 130 Atack, Margaret vi, 4~, 91 female 85,98-100 Au revoir les enfants (film) 14 rhythms 73, 101 Aubrac, Lucie vi, vii, 4, 13, 25, 35, Bohec, Jeanne 30-1 38-42,49,130 Bousquet, Rene 1,14-15,46,117, Barbie, Klaus 35,37 126 and motherhood 40-1 Britain 25,31 Outwitting the Gestapo (lis British 22, 45, 95 partiront dans l'ivresse) vi, brotherhood 83

158 Index 159

Bruit de nos pas, Le (Clara Malraux) Clermont-Ferrand 12 61 collaboration 1-2,12,20-1,43-4, Bruller, Jean 16 91, 103 Buchenwald see also concentration and anti-Semitism 96 camps 57 effect on family life 97,101, 105 Burdett, Charles vii French 43 European Memories of the Second justification for 12, 50, 95, 98, World War: New Perspectives 101-2 on Post-war Literature vi politics of 46,93,107-8, 131 press 104 Caluire 37,77, 89 and resistance 49-52, 60 Carpentras 49 Vichy Government see Vichy Cayrol, Jean 19 women as a symbol of 80 Nuit et Bouillard 19 writing on see writing ceremony 40,81,88-9 Collaboration and Resistance Chagrin et la pi tie, Le (film) 12, Reviewed (Alan Morris) 11 43,91 collaborators 5,14,46,51, 103, Chaix, Marie 5,90,94,100-1,106, 118 108 daughters of 83,90, 92-4, 96-7, Age du tendre, L' 94, 98-101 131 Lauriers du lac de Constance, Les fathers as 5,90,92-8, 101-5, vi, 93-7, 101-3, 105 107-8 Silences ou la vie d'une femme, Les French 14 94,98 prosecution of 14,94, 118, 125 Cham beret (Claude Morhange• women 6,12,20,80 Begue) 117, 121-3, 125 Combat 84-5 character(s) 21,33,63,69 Comite national des ecrivains 16 Charlotte Delbo 20 Comme un verger avant [,hiver Auschwitz et apres 20 (Brigitte Friang) 77-8 Chawaf, Chantal 23,100 communism 104 chef d'oeuvre 14 Communist 5, 10-11, 17, 27, 40, child-care 85 62,91 childbirth see also motherhood Communist party 26, 33, 86 40-1,85,101 compagnon de la liberation 84 childhood 6, 14, 78-82, 87, 90, concentration camps 2,12-14, 96-7,99,105,107-8,111-12 19-20,22,32,36,38,44,47-8, children 11, 13, 26, 38, 55, 82-3, 52,54,57-9,65,77,96,101, 85,91,113-15,120,130 109-10, 113, 117-23, 125, children 127-8, 130 of collaborators see collaborators Condition humaine, La (Andre hidden 118,126,128 Malraux) 48,69 Jewish 2,6,41,55-6,70,82-3, Confluences 62 87,96,111 Conquerants, Les (Andre Malraux) of resisters see resisters 68 Chirac, Jacques 15 Consultative Assembly 42 Church, Catholic 1 Contes d' Auxois (Edith Thomas) cinema 14 17 Cixous, Helene 23,99-100,131 contraception 85 ecriture feminine 23 160 Index

Davis, Colin vi Antelme) 19,52 de Bartillat, Christian 61 Et pourtant j'etais libre (Clara de Beauvoir, Simone 16,63 Malraux) 61,70 Journal de guerre 16 Etcherelli, Claire 23 Sang des autres, Le 16,18-19,62 ethique masculine 68-9 de Gaulle, Charles 2,9,11,20,37, Europe, Eastern 110 59,77 European Memories of the Second de Mirabel, Elisabeth 30 World War: New Perspectives on Death camps see concentration Post-war Literature vi camps existential 18 Delbo, Charlotte 110, 122 extermination camps see concentra• Auschwitz et apres 20 tion camps Memory and Days 110 Delphy, Christine 23 Fallaize, Elizabeth vii,72-3 Diamond, Hanna vii French Women's Writing - Recent Didier, Beatrice 53 Fiction 72 journal intime, Le 53 Fascist 1,69,93,96,105,107, 131 Doriot, Jacques 93 fascist 38, 69 Douleur, La (Marguerite Duras) father(s) 14,16,43 collaborating see collaborators Drancy see also concentration and family relationships see camps 13, 127 relationships Dresden,Sem 113,122,127 as resisters see resisters Drieu La Rochelle, Pierre 68 Felman, Shoshana 35--6 Drowned and the Saved, The (Primo feminine 4,23,31,54,69-71,73, Levi) 124 83-4,86,100,104 Duras, Marguerite 4, 14, 16,46, feminism 3,74,98 50-3 second-wave French 3, 22-3, Douleur, La 14, 43 54,57,68,71 Hiroshima mon amour 20, 49 feminist vi, 4, 27, 54, 70-1, 74, War: A Memoir, The 49-50, 54, 57, 83-6,93,102,104-5,108,129, 59--60,74; 'Albert of the 131 Capitals' 50--2; 'Monsieur history see history X, Here Called Pierre writings see writing Rabier' 51; 'Ter of the 'Feminist Rereadings of the War Militia' 50-1,53; 'The Years: the Case of Clara Crushed Nettle' 50 Malraux' vi feminized 80 ecriture feminine 71,99-102 femme au foyer 93 ecriture feminine (Helene Cixous) Fifth Republic 15,92 23 film(s) 2,11-14,17,19-20,43,49, Editions de Minuit 16,19,45,63 91-2,110 Editions des femmes 24 Fin et Ie commencement, La (Clara Egypt 100 Malraux) 61 Ernaux, Annie 23 Finkielkraut, Alain 13, 129 enfants-de-Ia-collaboration 92 First World War 10,85, 107 England 31,40-1 Forces Frant;aises Libres (FFL) 9, epuration 6 30--1 Espece humaine, L' (Robert Fouque, Antoinette 23 Index 161

Fourth Republic 10,92 gender-conscious 4,63,102,104, France 1-2,6, 10,21,23,27,31, 108,111,130-1 52,59,89,93,102,126,130-1 'gender tag' 30 and Holocaust 110, 116, 125 gender-specific 4, 27 identity 45 genocide 129 Liberation see Liberation German(s) 9-10,16-17,20-1,38, post-'68 4, 11, 25,43,74,130 45,47, 59, 69, 78-81, 83, 92, resistance see Resistance 95-6,104,116,120 State 1, 11, 13, 15,38, 125 Germano-Soviet pact 10 vvarrecord 2-6,12-13,15,43, Germany 12, 17, 21,97, 107 65 Gestapo 10, 12, 14,26,29,37,40, France combattante, La 9 52,84,89 France resistante, la 43, 59 Gironde prefecture 1 Franco-German relations 21 Gorrara, Claire vi Frenay, Henri 84 European Memories of the Second French Women's Writing - Recent World War: New Perspectives Fiction (Elizabeth Fallaize) on Post-war Literature vi 72 Grand Voyage, Le (Jorge Semprun) Free French Forces see Forces 19 Frant;aises Libres (FFL) Green, Mary Jean 16,59 Friang, Brigitte 29,33,40,78 Grisel, Martin vii Comme un verger avant l'hiver Groult, Benoite and Flora 77-8 Journal a quatre mains 20-2, 54 Friedlander, Saul 115-16 Guehanno, Annie 33,40 'Trauma, Memory and Guerre a neuf ans, La (Pascal Jardin) Transference' 115 92 Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) guerre franco-franr;aise 10 10 Guerre, mon pere, La (Marie Gatard) FTP 26 78,81-4 guilt 44,66,80,96, 107, 119, 128 Gandersheim 57 Gare d'Orsay 59 Hanson, Clare 44-5 Garnier, Dominique vi,5, 114, Hardy, Rene 37 129 heads, shaving of 6,20, 80 Nice pour memoire vi,111-13, hero 5,10, 13,60,78-9,84,89,98, 116,123 123 Gatard, Marie 5, 78,81, 83-4, heroic 2, 5, 16, 20, 68, 77, 80 88-9 heroism 12,65,69,78-80,82,85 Guerre, mon pere, La 78,81-4 Hevvitt, Nicholas 10 Gaullist 5,9, 16,27,43-4,46-7, Higgins, Lynn A. 13,49-51 50,59,62,64-5,74,84,91 New Novel, New Wave, New gender(ed) 21-3,35,39,42-9,52, Politics 50 63,68,71,74,78,93,97,99, Hiroshima 20 130-1 Hiroshima mon amour (Marguerite historians see historians Duras) 20, 49 politics 102, 104-5 historians 2-3,9,11,25,27,35, and resistance see also Resistance 65,103,125 28-30,34,40-2,63,130 gender 25,44,46,89 gender-blindness 3 Jevvish 109-10 162 Index historians - continued children see children revisionniste 13, 102, 109 community 46,66-7, 107, 110, vvor.nen 22,25-6,39,53 112, 121, 126 history 2-3, 22, 36, 44, 67, 72, 92, experience of vvar 13,61,65,92, 110,119 121 Jevvish 121 identity see identity oral 103 memory see mer.nory personal 34-5,97, 103 Occupation, experience of, see post-vvar 2, 10-11 Occupation social 27 Resisters see resisters vvor.nen's 4-5, 17-18,22-3,52, vvomen 2,41,61-6,74,112,118, 78,108,131 131 Hitler, Adolf 38 Jevvs I, 14,62 Hoffr.nann, Stanley 11 books by 97 Holocaust 12-14,35-6,50,96, deportation and persecution 108-10, 113-23, 128 1-2,14-15,38,41,46,49-50, Holocaust Remembrance (Annette 61-5,64-77,92,96,125-9 Wieviorka) 109 Final Solution see Nazi Final Holocaust Testimonies: The Ruins of Solution Memory (Lavvrence Langer) Journal tl quatre mains (Benoite and 110 Flora Groult) 20-2, 54 homme nouveau, /' 68 Journal d'une mauvaise Fran~aise housevvife 30,93 (Frederique Moret) 43,54-6 hur.nanity, crir.nes against I, Journal de guerre (Simone de 12-15,36,46,77,117 Beauvoir) 16 Hussards 10,19 journal intime, Le (Beatrice Didier) 53 identity 15,99 Juif suss, Le (film) 38 biological 100 cards 51 Kahn, Annette 6,111 changing 42, 82 Robert et Jeanne tl Lyon sous double 39-41,79,104, 118 /'Occupation 117-21,125, French 45 128-9 Jevvish 66-7,77,112-13, 125-9 Kedvvard, Rod vi personal 32-3,82,88,92-4,99 Kessel, Joseph 9 sexual 99 Armee des ombres, L' 9 Ils partiront dans /,ivresse see Kristeva, Julia 102 Outwitting the Gestapo Indo-China 69 Lacan, Jacques 23 Indo-Chinese vvar 33 Lacombe Lucien (film) 12, 50 Irigaray, Luce 102 Langer, Lavvrence 109-10,114 Israeli 115 Holocaust Testimonies: The Ruins of Memory 110 Jardin, Jean 92 language 23,58,68,71,73 Jardin, Pascal 92 Lanzmann, Claude 14, 110 Guerre tl neuf ans, La 92 Laub, Dori 35-6, 124 /eunesse fram;aise, Une (Pierre Pean) Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in 15 Literature, Psychoanalysis and Jevvish 1-2, 127 History 118-21 Index 163

Laurent, Daniel see Triolet, Elsa Malraux, Andre 61,68-71 Lauriers du lac de Constance, Les Antimemoires 70 (Marie Chaix) vi,93-7, 101, Condition humaine, La 48, 69 103, 105 Les Conquerants 68 Le Garrec, Evelyne vi, vii, 5, 90, Temps du mepris, Le 71 93, 108, 111, 131 Voie royale, La 68 lit asoi, Un 105-6 and women 69 Messageres, Les 105 Malraux, Clara vi, 5, 62, 64-6, Rive allemande de ma memoire, La 70-4, 131 vi, 102, 104-7 Le Bruit de nos pas 61,68, 72-3 Le Gem, Jean see Thomas, Edith Et pourtant j'etais libre 61,70 Leclerc, Annie 68, 74 Fin et Ie commencement, La 61, Parole de femme 71 73 Leeds, University vi Lutte inegale, La 65-7, 73--4 lesbian 99 Maison ne fait pas credit, La 61, Levi, Primo 124 63; 'Cadeau, Le' 64; Drowned and the Saved, The 124 'Enterrement, L" 64; liaison agent 29-31,65 'Fatigue' 65; 'Fausse liberation 63, 65 Epreuve, La' 63-4 Liberation, the 2, 6, 10, 15, 17, 'Soeurs de Mathilde de la Mole, 20-1,30,51,53,77,80,82 Les' 62 Liberation of France: Image and Malraux, Florence 70 Event, The vi Malraux, Roland 74 lit asoi, Un (Evelyne Le Garee) Maquis see also Resistance 26, 47 105-6 maquisard 47 Literature see also narrative and Marrekech 82 writing 4 marriage 21,23,32,61,64,85,87 clandestine 33 Martens, Lorna 53--4 correspondence 44 martyr 5,78-9,84,89 diary 4,21,39,44,49,53, Marxist feminist 105 55-60,79,95-6 masculine 70, 72 ecriture feminine see ecritiure matrilineal 93,106 feminine Maurel, Micheline 19 and feminism 23 Ravensbriick (un camp tres French vi, 4,16 ordinaire) 19 of Jewish persecution 47,49, Maurice, Violette 4, 46, 49 113, 115, 122, 127 Murs eciates, Les 43, 46, 49; womenin 62 'Amalgame' 49; 'Evasion 'litterature de combat' 17 par la poesie' 47; 'histoire London 40 d'enfants, Une' 47-8; London, Lise 27,30 'Incommunicabilite, L" 48; Lutte inegale, La (Clara Malraux) 'Revolte, Le' 47-8 65,67,73--4 memory 20,25,32,44,48,60,62, Lyon 1,35,88,119 73, 77, 116, 120, 128 childhood 80-3,90-1,94, Maison ne fait pas credit, La (Clara 102-3,108,118-19,124-6, . Malraux) 61-4 128 male 32,60 group 3,6,9,11, 12, 19,53,55 Malle, Louis 12, 14 Holocaust 111,119 164 Index memory - continued intention 28 Jewish 2,6,14-15,109-12,115, of Jewish persecution 22,48--9, 117, 120-2, 124 110-11,112-19,121 official 43,46,50,59,62, 78,88--9 patriarchal 18,66,79,80,85,131 post-war 2,3,44,90,130 persona 37,55,102 and self vi, 47, 73, 117 perspective 5, 17,54,92, 122, shifts in 48,113--15 124, 129 Memory and Days (Charlotte Delbo) present-tense 3 110 post-'68 43 Messageres, Les (Evelyne Le Garrec) post-war 5, 9 105 redemptive 115 metaphor 23 Resistance 5,12,17,18,20-1, Milice 1, 26, 38 89 Mitterrand, Fran~ois 15, 125-6 Resistancialiste 59,64,77,79,80, mode retro 11-12,43,91-2 83--4,87,89,92,107 Modiano, Patrick 12, 92 self 32,55-8,63 Place de l'etoile, La 12, 92 tension 87,117-19 Montaubon 62 testimonial 72, 110, 120 moral(s) 5,37,45,49,50-3,60,70, third person 34, 58, 114 96, 104 voice 18,20,50-1,54-5,57, Moreau, Emilienne 29 79-82,86,94,96,98,114, Moret, Frederique 4,43--4, 60, 131 118-19, 122, 127 Journal d'une mauvaise Franr;aise war 4-5,9-11,15-18,43,59, 43,54-6 60-5,91,107 Morhange-Begue, Claude 6, 111, narrator(s) 127,129 adult 95-6, 128 Cham beret 117-25 autobiographical 79-81,88, 94, Morris, Alan 112 98--104 Collaboration and Resistance child 82,96-8, 106, 111, 118, Reviewed 11 121-3, 127-8 motherhood 28,32,35,39-41, daughter 86-90, 124, 129 55-6,66,73,85,99-101 female 50-1,54,57 mother(s) 5, 21, 30, 62-4, 80-8, first-person 46 97-100,103,106,112-29 ominiscient 114-15 and daughters see relationships retrospective 112, 126 Moulin, Jean 13,37,40,89 National Revolution 45 Muller, Annette 6, 129 National Socialism 12,5 Petite Fille du Vel d'Hiv, La 111, Nazi(s) 13--14,19,40,45,47,59, 125-6 62,64-5,70,84,95, 117, 118, Murs eciates, Les (Violette Maurice) 123, 126, 129 43,46-7,49 Nazi Final Solution 2,36, 110, 131 narrative(s) see also literature and Nazism 15 writing vi, 18, 51, 52, 68, 130 neo-Nazi 46, 49 autobiographical 14,32,73,111 New Novel, New Wave, New Politics biblical 66-7, 113, 115, 123 (Lynn A. Higgins) 50 concentration camp 19-20,120 Nice 113, 115 conventions 4, 44, 45, 54, 64, 74 Nice pour memoire (Dominique first person 46, 126 Garnier) vi, 111-13, 116, 123 form 21,32,35 Nietzschean 68 Index 165

novelists 2, 12 Petite Fille du vel d'Hiv, La (Annette Nuit et brouillard (film) 49 Muller) 111, 125-6 petites mains 29 obscurs et sans gloire, les 87 Pierrat-Dane, Solange vii Occupation vi-3, 5, 9-15,18,25, Place de L'etoile, La (Patrick 27-8,33,45-6,50-1,53,55-6, Modiano) 12,92 61-2,80 Poland 110 childhood experience 82,121 police 38 daughters of 130 French 13-14,38 film depiction 12, 13 German 38 and gender 104,108 Popular Front 37 history 15 post-structuralist 53 identity 79 post-war 5,9, 13, 19,21,33,51, Jewish experience 6,92,113 86,26 life under 17,20,33,35,39,59 poverty 56 Memories see memory pregnancy 39-41, 100 Mode retro see mode retro Premier accroc coUte deux mille and racism 49 francs, Le (Elsa Triolet) 16 resistancialiste view of 43,50, press 104 70, 130 prise de conscience 63-5,67 study of 2,3,9, 11,25 prisoners of war 125 and Vichy ideology see Vichy Probleme sexuel, Le 85,89 women's representations of 39, proto-fascist 15 44,61,130 psycho-morality 3 On l'appelait Rainer (Madeleine psycho-sexual 87 Riffaud) 34 psychoanalysis 23,106 Ophiils, Marcel 12 psychological 58 'orphans of the Occupation' 11 psychology, Freudian 3 Ory, Pascal 11, 92 publishing 16,19,23,45 Outwitting the Gestapo (Lucie publishing houses 24, 27 Aubrac) vi, 4, 34-7, 39-41 punishment 44

Papon, Maurice 1 racial persecution 65 Paris 58,77,98, 103, 112, 126 racism 46,49,60, 130 Parole de femme (Annie Leclerc) 71 racist 115 Parti Populaire Fran~ais (PPF) 93, Raczymov, Henri 112 96-7, 103 rafle du Vet d'Hiver 1,13,15,96, 112 partisane 30 Ravensbriick see also concentration patronymic 107 camps 47 Paxton, Robert 11 Ravensbriick (un camp tres ordinaire), peace 55 (Micheline Maurel) 19 peacetime 51 reform, social 86 Pean, Pierre 15 relationships 64, 70, 72 Jeunesse fran~aise, Une 15 family 98 Peitsch, Helmut vii fa ther-daughter 5,78-80,93-5, European Memories of the Second 97, 105 World War: New Perspectives mother-daughter 70,87-8, 101, on Post-war Literature vi 107,111,120 Petain, Marshal 9-10,15 parent-child 5, 78, 83, 96 166 Index relationships - continued 74,85,89,130 personal 48, 70, 89 Resnais, Alain 19 physical 99 'Reviewing Gender and the resistance and collaboration see Resistance: the Case of Lucie collabora tion Aubrac' vi romantic 17 Revisionniste(s) 4, 13, 28, 36, 48, 'Remembering the Collaborating 102, 109, 130 Father' vi Riffaud, Madeleine 29,33-4 resistance 10, 15, 16, 20, 21, 25-7, On l'appelait Rainer 34 30-5,39,42,45,52,54,66,89 Rigoulet, Pierre 101 Resistance, the 2,4, 11, 12, 18, 28, Rilleux-Ia-Pape 1 33-4,39,42,45 rites of passage 56, 80, 98, 106 and collaboration see collabora- Rive allemande de ma memoire, La tion (Evelyne Le Garrac) vi, 102, Communist 10 104-7 corruption 35, 37, 77 Robert et Jeanne aLyon sous internal 37, 42, 77 l' Occupation (Annette Kahn) literary 16 117,119 military activity 26, 30, 40, 46, Romagon, Cecile Ouzoulias 30 65 Rouge et Ie noir, Le (Stendhal) 62 narratives see narrative(s) Rousset, David 19· organizational structures 26 Univers concentrationnaire, L' 19 post-war image 77-8 Rousso, Henry 2-3,9,131 pseudonyms 33-4, 39, 42 Syndrome de Vichy, Le 2 structure of 35 women's role 5, 17,25-7,29, Sang des autres, Le (Simone de 31-2,35,40,62-3,65,70,80, Beauvoir) 16, 62 84,86,130 Schwartz, Paula 25-6,30 writing on see writing 'Redefining Resistance: Resistance: naissance et organisation, Women's Activism in La (Lucie Aubrac) 35 Wartime France' 25 resistancialisme 10 Scott, Joan Wallach 25 resistancialiste 50, 65, 87-8 Second World War 2,45,48,104, narratives see narratives 113 view of Occupation see self 33-4,53-4,58,61,82-3,93, Occupation 95,116-18,82,121,130 resister 51, 78, 87 adult 127 resisters 12, 13, 20, 37, 47, 51, 70, childhood 96, 122 77,87,102,119 dismemberment and fragmenta- daughters of 78, 81,83,86, 118, tion of 20, 32, 33, 54, 82, 131 121 intellectuals 62 female 6, 32, 34 Jewish 119 Jewish 114 male 64 remembering the 20, 118 parents 5, 78 self-discovery 66 persecution and deportation self-esteem 63 19,32,79,89 self-justification 95 women 4-5,14,17-19,25-31, Semprun, Jorge 19 33-5,39,41-2,46,50-3,63, Grand Voyage,Le 19 Index 167

service du travail obligatoire (STO) 19,62-3 29 Premier accroc coate deux mille Seuil 24 francs, Le 16 sexual 21,53,80,98-100,105-6 Shanghai 69 Univers concentrationnaire, L' Shoah (film) 14 (David Rousset) 19 Silence de la mer, Le (film) 16 University of Wales, Cardiff vii Silences ou la vie d'une femme, Les Uranus (Marcel Ayme) 10 (Marie Chaix) 94, 98 Soviet Union 73 vaincu 70 Spanish Civil War 69 vainqueur 70 Stendhal 62 Vercors, Jean see Bruller, Jean Rouge et Ie noir, Le 62 Veillon, Dominique 25 structuralist 53 Vergangenheitsbewaltigung 12 Suleiman, Susan Rubin 69 Verges, Jacques 13,35-7,49 Syndrome de Vichy, Le (Henry Testament de Barbie 37 Russo) 2 Vichy 3,11,13-16,26,65,84,126 and collaboration 1, 15, 38, 46, remoin compromis, Le (Edith 92, 104 Thomas) 33 complicity in Nazi persecution Temps du mepris, Le (Andre 13,66,126 Malraux) 71 government 9, 66,96, 104, 126 Testament de Barbie 37 and gender 55,102 testimony 4,35--7,39, 102-3 and ideology 1 and history 35--7 present-day support for, 15, 46, enabler of 111, 117, 120 regime 1, 11, 16,37--8,42, 47, Holocaust 109-10,118-19,121, 56,92,117 123, 125-6 support for Germany 126 importance of 117 and women 56,104 literature of 36,38 'Vichy Syndrome' 2, 15, 131 narrative see narrative Vidal-Naquet, Pierre 13 oral 25,27,36,105,109,119 'virile brotherhood' 72 written 109 'virile elite' 69 Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Voie royale, La (Andre Malraux) Literature, Psychoanalysis and 68 History ( Dori Laub) 118 Thomas, Edith 16,34,46,48,63 war criminals see names Contesd'Auxois 17,48 war 3,79 F.T.P 17 children, effect on 82, 94 remoin compromis, Le 33 Jewish experience of 127 Tierce 24 women's experience 16-17, 130 'tondue' 80 War: A Memoir, The (Marguerite tonte,la 80 Duras) 49-50, 54, 59-60, 74 Toulouse 62 'Albert of the Capitals' 50-2 Touvier, Paull, 14,46, 117 'Monsieur X, Here Called Pierre transportation 17 Rabier' 51 Trezise, Thomas 20 'Ter of the Militia' 50-1,53 Triolet, Elsa 10, 16,46,63 'The Crushed Nettle' 50 'Amants d'Avignon, Les' 17, warfare 68,70-1,85,108 168 Index wartime 27,33,51,59-60,65,78, narrative(s) 80,83,87--8,127 autobiographical 5,12,14,23, Wehrmacht 95 25, 28, 30-5,42-3, 57, 61, 65, Wieviorka, Annette 109 70-4,85,94,117,130 Holocaust Remembrance 109 on collaboration 5-6 witness 38 ecriture feminine see ecriture womanhood 100 feminine women's movement 23,105 feminist influences 4, 22-3, 53, women 3 56,61,68,70-4,98-100,105, and .history see History 111,131 images of 104 French women's 3,16,23-4,43, Jewish 66 72 place in society 22,27,55,99, and gender 62,131 104-5 on Jewish persecution 92,109, and religion 66 111,116 rights of 85-6 masculinis t 23 stereotypes 29-30,34,40-1,70, women's 3,53,66 104, 130 'Writing and Memory: the and violence 51,53, 80 Occupation and the women-centred 107 Construction of the Self in women-centred experiences 1980s French Literature' vi 100-1 working class 23,85 Young, James E. 116 writing see also literature and