POLAC HISTORICAL REVIEW (PHR) Vol. 4 No 1 January – June 2020 Pages 104 - 114 ISSN: 2476 - 8049 Website: www.npaw-jhss.com.ng

Anthropology and Archaeology of War and Ruins: A case Study of Northern , , in the 1800s

Fr. Paul-Kolade Tubi, Ph.D Federal University , Nigeria. ([email protected]) +234(0)8050634433

Abstract This paper is a study of the people of Northern Yorubaland, Nigeria their culture and settlement patterns which have been shaped by the Fulani led wars of 1800s. The study aims to examine the ruins of war and the history of the series of wars that occurred in Northern Yorubaland from 1836-1897. Data show that these wars were the most destructive in the annals of the . Whole cities and communities were sacked and burnt, ancient settlements disappeared and their ruins became sites for Games Reserves or archaeological studies, people were enslaved enmass, new settlement emerged, and those who survived were subjected to starvation and death. Methodologically, the study involves archaeological investigations, collection of data, analysis of data and anthropological interpretations. Archaeological data from the field indicate extensive ruins and the anthropological data show far reaching consequences that are still visible today amongst the people. The paper highlights theeffects of the wars on the people of Northern Yorubaland and the entire Yoruba nation in general. The paper concludes that the study is germane to intergroup relations. Key words: Archaeology, Anthropology, Northern Yorubaland, War, Inter- group relations.

Introduction This paper is the result of an on-going anthropological and archaeological research in the northern part of Yorubaland, Nigeria. In 2016, the NorthEast- Yoruba Archaeological Research Team began systematic exploration of the north-easternmost part of Yorubaland. Northern Yorubaland was a theatre of protracted wars from 1836-1897. The wars which were imposed and prosecuted as Islamic jihads (religious wars) havearchaeological,

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Polac Historical Review (PHR) anthropological and historical imports for the entire Yorubaland.Its historical relevance to the Yoruba nation has been object of discussion by scholars, (Akinjogbin 1988, Johnson 1921). The wars went on simultaneously on two fronts and for a long time, therefore, there are several ruins of the wars that are of interest to archaeologists, anthropologists and ethnohistorians.There are increasing archaeological explorations of these wars (Agbaje-williams 1994, Aleru 2006, Aremu 2007/2016, Obayemi 1985, Otukoko 2014). The anthropological import of the wars has not been assessed, yet the wars also portend great anthropological relevance because of its substantial data that can shed light on the peopling of the area and its usefulness in examining inter-group relations within the Northern Yorubaland. This study would be of immense benefit to the anthropological and ethnoarchaeological reconstruction of those events that eventually shaped the history and culture of northern Yorubaland, Nigeria.

People and Location of Northern Yorubaland The northern Yorubaland comprises the Yoruba speaking peoples of Kwara and Kogi states, Nigeria. They are the diverse groups of Old Oyo, Ibolo, , northern Ekiti, and Okun who are identified by their dialects.They are located on the northernmost frontiers of Yorubaland with boundaries with the Nupe, Gwagyi andEbirra in the North, Ebira and Igala in the East and Benin Republic in the West. Geographically, the area is marked by two sharp weather conditions namely the rainy season which runs from March/April to September/October and the dry season which runs roughly from September/October to April. There is a micro-season called Harmattan which is characterized by chilly and dry winds. The vegetation is of Savanna belt. There are undulating hills in the region. The region has important rivers like Niger, Ohe/Ose, Oyi, Asa amongst others. In their traditional political system, they have variants of monarchism. There are principally two forms of kingdoms namely mini- kingdoms and mega-kingdoms. These systems have existed for a long time and historical events have not altered them. It is such that for examples we might cite the Okun people who are traditionally a people of mini-kingdoms, in which every community is an autonomous governing state, while their Ibolo and Ilorin counterparts practice the form of monarchy called mega- kingdoms. Their traditional religion has at the apex, who is the Supreme Deity. Olodumare is assisted by coteries of deities (orisa/ebora).

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Polac Historical Review (PHR) Islam among the people, which predated the Fulani incursions,is planted firmly amidst the people, while Christian missionaries have established a flourishing followership among them. The result is that traditional religion has been eclipsed by the two foreign religions and at best what remains of traditional religion are syncretic practices by the people who combined the three religions.

The Wars of 1800s From 1836, northern Yoruba entered into a series of so called religious wars that lasted till 1897. There are two interconnected Islamic wars on the northern Yoruba people. The first was the Ilorin wars, and the second was the Nupe wars.Both were led by Fulani jihadists.The wars in northern Yorubalandhave enormous archaeological data that are suitable for investigations and interpretations. The wars of the 1800s in northern Yorubaland can best be studied by archaeology because of the availability of diverse artefacts such as potsherds, war equipment and archaeological features like forts, dykes, walls and several ruins of settlements that are available to researchers.Thesearchaeological remains of the wars are found in all parts of northern Yorubaland in various degrees of preservation and or ruins. Archaeologists like Agbaje-Wiliams (1990), Aremu (2007/2016), Asakitipi (2001), Bakinde (2009), Obayemi (1978), Oyelaran, and Otetubi (1989, 1991) who have carried archaeological investigations of the area have examined several war sites in the course of their researches.

Ethno-Archaeology of Ilorin Wars on Northwestern Yorubaland TheIlorin wars affected the northwesternmost part of Yorubaland, an area occupied byold Oyo, Ibolo, Igbomina and parts of Ekiti speaking peoples.According to scholars (Johnson 1921, Akinjogbin 1988), the foundation of Ilorin can be traced to its establishment as an outpostsettlement for ancient Oyo Field Marshal, (Are Ona kankanfo). Scholars however write of an autochthonous people that predated the Afonja group in Ilorin (Otukoko 2014). However, the history of Ilorin gained momentum when in 1817, Afonja, the Are Ona Kankanfo of the Yoruba army rebelled against the Alafin of Oyo for reasons not clearly spelt out in history but ranges from jealousy of Alafin by Afonja, thirst for the office of Alafin and Afonja's desire to be an autonomous monarch amongst other reasons. To undermine the Alafin, he flirted with Islam, as he was never a Muslim. He invited Salih Jinta Alimi, an Islamic Fulani cleric to his base in Ilorin. He

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Polac Historical Review (PHR) equally invited all Hausa slaves in Yorubaland to Ilorin as well as all Muslims domiciled in Yorubalnd to join his revolt. The city of Ilorin became a centre of conspiracy against Alafin at Oyo Ile. He established an autonomous community with his Muslim friends. Afonja was alarmed by the banditry of his Fulani and Hausa soldiers, who pillaged the country and looted the people. His attempt to disband them failed. An insurrection against him was staged by the Fulani. In 1823/24, Afonja was killed by his Muslim allies (Johnson 1920). Abd Salaam the son of Salih Jinta Alimi assumed the rulership of Ilorin as an Emir. By 1829, the new Fulani overlords of Ilorin pledged alliance to the Sokoto Caliphate. In 1835, Oyo Ile was besieged by the Jihadists. In1836 Oyo Ile fell to the Fulani the new rulers of Ilorin. The city was burnt and was deserted, never to be repopulated. Today the site of Oyo Ile is a Game Reserve.Agbaje- Williams (1990) calculated the pre-Fulani invasion population of Oyo Ile to about 100,000 or more, which makes it the largest city in Sub-Saharan Africa of its time. The people fled and the captured were sold into slavery. With the fall of Oyo Kingdom, the Yoruba nation laid open to Fulani-led devastating onslaughts. A lot of communities within the northern parts of Yorubaland were subdued and many obliterated.After the fall of Oyo, a series of religio- political wars were unleashed on the Yoruba by the Fulani of Ilorin from 1837. The people of old Oyo, Ibolo, Igbomina and Ekiti areas and their neighbours were harassed and enslaved by the Ilorin fighters. In 1840the forces defeated the Fulani at Oshogbo. This effectively stopped the march of the Fulani to reach the Atlantic coast, but the areas held by the Fulani remained in their grip until the Royal Niger Company forces appeared in 1897 and annexed Ilorin into the British Empire. Archaeological fieldworks and excavations on aspects of the Ilorin wars and its effects on northern Yorubaland have largely focused on Oyo Ile and it has spanned more than 3 decades (Agbaje-Williams 1990).The archaeological work of Otukoko (2014) gives some data on Ilorinand which becomes a focal point of reference. Apart from Ilorin, other sites that are associated with are Ipapo Ile, Koso, Bara, Oyo Ileand Igboho, ( S o p e r a nd D a r l i n g 1 9 8 0 , A r e m u 2 0 0 7 , A gb a j e - W i l l i a m s 1990).Archaeological features include abandoned settlements, defensive walls, ruins of palaces, burial sites of kings at Bara, and dykes. Artefacts discovered from the ruins of Old Oyo Empire at different sites include metals, iron slags, iron arrow heads,potteries, bones and others.Koso,one of the important sitesof Old Oyo Empire was associated with Sango, the

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Polac Historical Review (PHR) fiery Alafin. Koso walls consist of an inner and outer walls used for defensive purposes (Aremu 2007). Archaeological works in Igbominaland by Usman (2007) covers a wide area, but he properly documented his data from two sites: Iyara and Gbagede. Features identified were abandoned settlements, walls/fortifications, ditches and artefacts such as iron arrow heads and potteries. Usman (2007) estimated the date of the site from data obtained to the 15TH-16TH centuries AD. He concluded that there were continuous human activities till the upheaval of the Fulani led wars of the 18th Century, which led to the abandonment of many settlements. The Fulani stronghold on the Northeatsern Yorubaland wasbroken in 1897 when the British forces subdued them. However, the Fulani Emirate system was established in Ilorin while the other parts of northwestern Yorubaland: The Ibolo, Igbomina and Ekiti peoples that were hitherto under their hegemony, maintained their traditional monarchical system.

Ethno-Archaeology of Nupe Wars on Northeastern Yorubaland Another series of religio-political wars raged in Northeastern Yorubaland, caused by the new Fulani rulers of Nupeland. The Nupe, called Tapa or Ibon by the Okun-Yoruba, have been friendly neighbours of the Yoruba. When the Fulani usurped the thrones of Nupeland, they unleashed series of wars on their neighbours. These wars were identified as -Tapa (Tapa wars) or Ogun-Ibon (Ibon wars). The beginning of Nupe incursions into Northern Yoruba territories is not known precisely, but by 1840-1859, there were full blown slave raids into the territory. This coincided with the usurpation of power by Usman Zaki, son of the Fulani Islamic preacher Mallam Dendo, who replaced the original Nupe ruler. Consequently, under Fulani rules of Masaba (1859-1873), Majigi (1873-1884), Maliki (1884-1895), Abu Masaba (1895-1897) and Umaru Majigi (1897-1899) the Okun-Yoruba and their -Yoruba neighbours, as well as the Ebira, the Afenmai and the Kukuruku areas came under the attacks of Nupe forces. The people were subjected to massive enslavement and deprivations. Resident agents called Ogba or Ajele by the Yoruba were appointed to each settlement to enforce the demands of Bida. The conquered territories were compelled to pay heavy tributes inform of food produce and cowries to the Fulani rulers of Nupeland. The toll was increased to include the supply of regular numbers of slaves to Bida annually. The resistance of the people to these demands was met with repression by the Nupe forces. Sporadic raids into the areas were launched by the Nupe

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Polac Historical Review (PHR) soldiers on horses to acquire slaves by force. Whole villages and towns were burnt down, and the populace enslaved. Those who escaped ran into the hills and forests. To maintain their stronghold on the people, the Nupe stationed a huge military at , totaling 6,000 men of calvary and infantry forces. Faced with possible extermination of the towns and people, the Okun and the Akoko and their neighbours decided to frontally confront the Nupe forces who were stationed at Kabba and overthrow their hegemony. The conquered territories decided to form a formidable joint military force to confront the Nupe, (Vandeleur 1898, Apata 1982). This resulted in the formation of the Ogidi Grand Alliance which lasted from 1894-1897. On January 15-17,1897, the Ogidi Grand Alliance and the Nupe forces were locked in a desperate war at a place called Udi, Ogidi-. The British influence on the war came from a trading company called the Royal Niger Company under Tubman Goldie, whose constabularies assisted the Ogidi Grand Alliance and the Nupe were defeated in Ogidi on January 17, 1897. The defeated Nupe forces fled to Bida, which ended their reign over the people of northestern Yorubaland. Archaeological works in Northeastern Yorubaland have largely been carried out among the Okun speaking people. Beginning with Obayemi (1985), scholars like Oyelaran (1998), Asakitipi (2001), Bakinde (2001, 2009), Otetubi (1989) TUBI(2015) have identified archaeological features of wars and ruins that are associated with the Nupe onsalughts of the 1800s. Features include ruins of walls, abandoned settlements, rockshelters, hill top settlements, and artefacts like iron slags, arrow heads, potteries, smokingpipes amongstothers.

Anthropological Explanation of the Wars in Northern Yorubaland An anthropological examination of the wars which took place in the 1800sin Northern Yorubaland is germane to our study, because it is capable of providing insights into the real causes and effects of the wars. The challenge of this paper is go beyond historical narratives, as good as it may be, and rather focus on the human angle (anthropology) of the wars. These anthropological issues are the fundamentals of the wars which ravaged the northern Yoruba people in the 19th century. 1. Building of Fulani Empires The principal aim of the Fulani led wars on northern Yorubaland was to create new empires for the Fulani usurpers. Religion, the pretended reason for the wars was not pursued. The phenomenal growth of Islam among the

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Ibolo and Igbomina peoples occurred after they gained their freedom from the Ilorin forces. Mason (1980) observes that the foundations of the Nupe emirates under the Fulani focused on empire building. Among the Okun- Yoruba, Islam did not take root despite years of Nupe rule. Rather, those who embraced Islam did so after the defeat of the Nupe forces in 1897. The desires of the Fulani to build empires succeeded. The Fulani base in Ilorin became an important emirate, the only one in Yorubaland, while the Nupe did not establish an emirate among the Yoruba, but they completely displaced the indigenous rulers of Nupeland and asserted their hegemony on the people by usurping thrones of the Nupeland. 2. Economic Exploitation Economic reasons also featured prominently among the motives for the wars on Yorubaland by the Fulani. Akinjogbi et al (1988) and Obayemi (1978), argue that the economic reason far outweighed the religious reason. Massive enslavement of the populace took place under both the Ilorin and Bida Fulani rulers. Slave raids were undertaken to get persons to be sold at slave markets. Nadel (1942) observes that the economic reason far outweighs any religious consideration for the wars of Nupe on their neighbours. Slave farms were established around Bida for food production. The slaves supplied food for the rulers and also to produce sufficient food for the soldiers on the war fronts. Both Ilorin and Bida Fulani rulers raided northern Yorubaland, captured very many people and sent them as slaves to Gwandu as payments for its support. It was a systematic slave raid because the new rulers required extra slaves to maintain the support and as well be in the good books of the Caliphate. In addition, more slaves were sold to purchase arms and ammunitionsto prosecute more wars. While the emirates prospered economically, the conquered territories were impoverished. Food production ceased as the hapless people escaped into the hills and forests for protection to avoid forceful enslavement. Hunger and starvation spread throughout the entire northern Yorubaland. 3. Appropriation of Traditional Technology Bida and Ilorin got huge technological expertise from the conquered territories. Pottery technology of Ilorin came under Fulani rule, and the clothing/weaving technology of the Yoruba came under the control of the Fulani rulers of Ilorin. Today, Ilorin holds the prime of place in weaving traditional aso oke cherished by the Yoruba for special occasions. Most importantly, the traditional smithing of iron(irin) by which Ilorin (iron filer)

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Polac Historical Review (PHR) got its name came under Fulani control (Otukoko 2014). Nadel (1942) wrote about the metallurgical expertise of the Nupe, which was fueled and maintained by the Okun slaves. In essence, the conquered lands lost their technology to their conquerors.Salahu (2017)HAS identified slave factors in the development of Bida emirates and concluded that iron technology and cloth weaving received huge impetus from imported slaves from the conquered territories. The Okun who were noted to be expert workers of brass technology completely lost it to Nupeland (Tubi 2015). Today Bida is known worldwide as centre of Brass casting, the effects of descendants of Yoruba slaves who brought the technology to Bida and its environs. Ilorin remains one of the centres of traditional potteries in Yorubaland, while cloth weaving is a huge economic activity among the people. Among the Okun-Yoruba people, blacksmithing and cloth weaving industries almost died because the experts were enslaved and taken to Bida. 4. Demographic Dislocations Another anthropological factorto be noted of the wars on Northern Yorubaland is the demographic factor. Sequel to the wars from Ilorin and Bida there were forced massive movements of people across all parts of Yorubaland. Destruction of kingdoms, forceful movements of people to new sites and the emergence of new forms of government and massive movements of people to forest and coastal regions were serious anthropological issues that confronted the Yoruba people. Huge cities like Oyo and many towns disappeared when they were sacked and burnt by the Ilorin forces. Oyo was the largest city in Sub-Saharan Africa. Clapperton, the European adventurer who visited the ancient Oyo described it as a huge city with 14 gates and it has a population of about 100,000 or more (Agbaje- Wilimans 1990). Among the Akoko and Okun, all the settlements were abandoned as the people moved into the hills so as to evade forceful enslavement. Consequently several villages were obliterated from the map having been sacked and burnt by the Nupe raiders. 5. Religious Proselytization Religious proselytization lies behind all jihads as enshrined in the Quran, (chapter 2, verse 190, “Fight in the cause of Allah..'). Albeit, religious conversion to Islam, which was the main reason for a jihad, was not really pursued by the Fulani invaders of Northern Yorubaland. The Fulani were more interested in acquiring slaves and building Empires. Oral sources obtained in the field assert that Islam predated the Fulani in northern

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Polac Historical Review (PHR) Yorubaland. Conquered territories were not forced into subjection to be ruled by Shariah and they were not Islamized. The contribution of Ilorin to the spread of Islam in Yorubaland was largely achieved after the wars. On the other hand, the Nupe did not achieve any appreciable conversion to Islam among the Okun people. Today, the northeastern Yorubaland is dominated by Christians. The few converts to Islam came after the war. After the defeat of Nupe forces in 1897, most returnees from Bidabecame Christians, while only few continued as Muslims.

Conclusion The study gives archaeological background to the wars of 1800s in Northern Yorubaland. The wars were meant to be jihadic, but they were more of socio- political and economic orientations than religious. Using anthropological and ethnohistorical paradigms, the study establishes the nexus between the different ethnic groups that came in contacts with one another in Northern Yorubaland in the years between 1836-1897. Based on our present knowledge, it is envisaged that detailed research from anthropologists, archaeologists and interrelated disciplines are needed to contribute meaningfully to the study of the wars that raged Northern Yorubaland in the 1800s. The paper concludes that these wars have serious anthropological implications. The lasting effects of these wars are seen in the social, religious, economic and political fabrics of Northern Yorubaland, which have placed it within Northern Nigeria, outside the geopolitical configurations of its kiths and kins in Western Nigeria. It is also the position of the paper that the study gives refreshing data on inter-groups relations among the Yoruba, Fulaniand Nupe.

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