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Resource States IV. RESOURCE ST A TES This section documents the status, pressures and current protections for sanctuary resourc- es. These resources include seafloor and water column habitats, benthic invertebrates, fishes, seabirds, sea turtles, marine mammals and maritime heritage resources. This section provides context and validation for the sanc- tuary action plans. 51 CONTEXT The nutrient-rich waters of the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary Water quality is threatened by multiple sources of pollution, sustain an abundant biodiversity largely representative of including point, non-point and atmospheric sources and the GoM LME and totaling well over 575 species of marine marine debris. Population declines and biomass removals, life including over 80 species of fish, 53 species of seabirds degraded seafloor habitats and invasive species compro- and 22 species of marine mammals, for example. As a mise the ecological integrity of the sanctuary. Coastal plan- comparatively shallow continental shelf area, offering great ning and fishery management policies have limited, but not variety among its geological features and topographic relief, prevented, harmful impacts—both incremental and cumu- the sanctuary is a biodiversity haven when compared to the lative—on sanctuary resources. open ocean of the North Atlantic. In addition to the array This section is organized within a Pressure-State-Response of different kinds of species, the sanctuary exhibits diverse framework that mirrors the approach used in the Stellwagen habitats, biological communities and species assemblages Bank National Marine Sanctuary Condition Report (NMSP, and displays a complex tapestry of interwoven environ- 2006). “Pressures” are human activities (such as fishing or mental processes, all of which are extensively impacted by pollutant discharge), which alter the marine environment multiple human uses. leading to changes in the “state or condition” of sanctuary Biodiversity in the sanctuary is heavily mediated through resources (e.g., water quality, ecological integrity, habitat habitat type and condition. In this document, habitats are complexity). Sanctuary management then “responds” (e.g., divided into two principal categories: seafloor (benthic) Action Plans section) to changes in pressures or states with and water column (pelagic) habitats. These habitats are policies, programs, and/or regulations intended to prevent, composed of multiple types, such as gravel beds and piled eliminate or mitigate pressures and/or environmental damage boulder reefs. Habitat quality and structural complexity in order to protect and conserve sanctuary resources. are important factors in supporting biodiversity. For exam- Section 302(8) of the NMSA defines sanctuary resources ple, the condition of benthic habitat affects the life history as “any living or non-living resource of a national marine processes of recruitment, survivorship and growth of the sanctuary that contributes to the conservation, recreational, organisms that occupy the seafloor. The condition of habi- ecological, historical, educational, cultural, archaeological, tats also influences the community processes of competi- scientific, or aesthetic value of the sanctuary.” The sanctu- tion, predation and symbiosis. Within water column habi- ary resources described in this section on Resource States tats, water quality can affect biodiversity by prohibiting or are: seafloor habitat, water column habitat, benthic inver- enabling survival of rare or cosmopolitan species. tebrates, fishes, seabirds, sea turtles, marine mammals and Understanding the processes that control the abundance, maritime heritage resources. Each resource subsection distribution and interaction of species (i.e., the functional begins with a summary of its status based on the best avail- composition of communities) is a central challenge facing able information followed by the known human pressures management of the sanctuary. The level of difficulty in that impact the status. A summary of the current protection meeting this challenge is heightened by recognition that measures that are in place affecting the resource in question the sanctuary’s resource states are greatly compromised. is presented next. 52 Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan and Environmental Assessment tive role in structuring seafloor habitats in the sanctuary; instead benthic invertebrates typically make up the biogenic structure of the seafloor. Average gross benthic microalgal production on Stellwagen Bank was a relatively small fraction (approximately 6%) of average integrated water column phytoplankton production (Cahoon et al., 1993). Microscopic examination of surface sediment samples showed that the benthic microflora was dominated by pennate diatoms (more than 97% of total cells). Cahoon et al. (1993) cite a personal communication with C. Mayo indicating that macroalgae grew on Stellwagen Bank before bottom trawling eliminated them. Macroalgae are reported growing at depths to 50 m elsewhere in New England waters (Vadas and Steneck, 1988). Benthic primary production historically on Stellwagen Bank may have been higher with the presence of macroalgae. SE af LOOR A S HA BIT A T HA B ITAT MEDIATED INTERACTIONS ST A TUS There is an important biogenic component to habitat The species composition of seafloor communities in general complexity. For instance, many fish species in the sanctu- is highly correlated with the grain size of benthic sediments, ary associate with particular microhabitats formed by other and seafloor substrata represent an important component of living organisms (Auster, 1998). Attached and emergent habitat for many organisms in the sanctuary. Recent studies invertebrates such as erect sponges and burrowing anemo- on the continental shelf of the northeastern United States, nes provide important habitat structure, while certain mega- including portions of the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary, indi- faunal organisms such as skates produce pits and burrows, cate that substrate and water mass characteristics are highly which also provide structure by adding to the complexity of correlated with the composition of benthic communities sediment surfaces. Reductions in seafloor habitat complex- (e.g., Auster et al., 2001; Skinder, 2002) and may therefore ity increase the mortality of early demersal phase juvenile serve as proxies for the distribution of biological diversity, fish, such as Atlantic cod and winter flounder that utilize the where detailed information on the distributions and abun- structure provided by emergent fauna and physical substrata dances of species is lacking (Cook and Auster, 2006). for protection from predation (Gotceitas and Brown, 1993; Tupper and Boutilier, 1995; Lindholm et al., 1999; Scharf et Infaunal invertebrates, those that burrow into the seafloor, al., 2006). Modeling studies have demonstrated that such show strong associations with grain size in sand and uncon- habitat-mediated mortality of juvenile fish can have signifi- solidated mud sediments in the sanctuary (Grannis and cant population-level effects (Lindholm et al., 1998, 2001). Watling, 2004). Epifaunal species, those that live on the seafloor, are linked to variation in larger grain sizes at the The distribution and abundance of demersal fishes at large scale of the GoM (Skinder, 2002). Within each habitat type, spatial scales is correlated with temperature and depth, but there are many microhabitats formed by the combination medium to small-scale variation is attributed to consider- of habitats and inhabiting organisms. For example, cerian- able extent to habitat attributes (i.e., sediment type, struc- thid anemones that burrow in mud tural complexity, prey type and provide structure and shelter on the FIGURE 16. EX A M P LE O F A MICROH A BIT A T abundance) on the seafloor (Lang- seafloor and serve as important habi- F ORME D WITHIN A MU D H A BIT A T BY ton et al., 1995). The distribution of BURROWING A NEMONES . tat for redfish and hake (Figure 16). a variety of demersal fishes in the In this example, Cerianthid anemones provide GoM LME is correlated with various Biological communities are formed refuge to juvenile Acadian redfish. Image structural habitat features such as by the interaction of populations courtesy: Ivar Babb and Peter Auster, NURC- boulder reefs, distribution of sand with habitats in a particular area. UConn. wave features, density of amphipod The interaction of fish with their tubes, and presence and density habitat is of particular concern and of sponges, anemones and other has been well-studied in the Stell- epifauna (Auster et al., 1997, 1998, wagen Bank sanctuary. For purposes 2003a, 2003b; Auster 2005; Auster of discussion in this document, the and Lindholm 2006). The commu- ecological role of seafloor habitats is nities of fishes in the sanctuary are largely restricted to our understand- directly correlated with particular ing of links to the distribution and habitats defined by a combination abundance of fishes. Macroalgae of both geologic and biologic attri- (i.e. seaweeds) are virtually absent butes (Auster et al., 1998). from and appear to play no substan- IV. Resource States 53 The patchiness and spatial arrangement of habitats mediate HA B ITAT MEDIATED MOVE M ENT many of the behavioral interactions of fishes. Fish exhibit, Mediation of fish movement by different habitat types and as many mobile organisms do, a range of behavioral interac- features is not well understood for species in the GoM. This tions that have negative, neutral,
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