TENDENSE IN STEDELIKE BEPLANNING, KLIMAATSAANPASSING EN Published by the UFS VEERKRAGTIGHEID IN ZANZIBAR, http://journals.ufs.ac.za/index.php/trp TANZANIË © Creative Commons With Attribution (CC-BY) How to cite: Myers, G., Walz, J. & Jumbe, A. 2020. Trends in urban planning, climate adaptation Die afgelope dekades het daar aan and resilience in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Town and Regional Planning, no.77, pp. 57-70. sienlike verandering in Zanzibar Trends in urban planning, climate adaptation and plaasgevind, onder meer weens die wêreldwye impak op klimaats resilience in Zanzibar, Tanzania verandering. Die semi-outonome rege ring staar uitdagings in die gesig om veerkragtige stedelike gemeenskappe te Garth Myers, Jonathan Walz & Aboud Jumbe bevorder en te beplan vir die versagting en aanpassing by klimaatsverandering, nie die minste nie, te wyte aan die aard van die eiland en vinnige verstedeliking. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/2415-0495/trp77i1.5 Hierdie artikel handel oor stads- en Peer reviewed and revised November 2020 omgewingsbeplanningsmaatreëls van Published December 2020 2010 tot 2020 wat daarop gemik is om die gevolge van klimaatsverande *The authors declared no conflict of interest for this title or article ring die hoof te bied en te werk aan veerkragtigheid en aanpassing Abstract in stedelike Zanzibar. Tematiese ontledings is gebruik om landgebruiks Over recent decades, there has been substantial change in Zanzibar, due to, beplanning, klimaatsaanpassing en among others, global climate change impacts. The semi-autonomous polity faces ramprisikover minderingsdokumentasie challenges to foster resilient urban communities and planning for mitigation and van die situasiebepaling, vasstelling adaptation to climate change, not least because of its island nature and rapid en onderskeie aanbevelings rakende urbanization. This article addresses urban and environmental planning measures grondgebruik en klimaatsaanpassing from 2010 to 2020 aimed at confronting the impacts of climate change and working te verbind. Die argument is dat die toward resilience and adaptation in urban Zanzibar. The study was conducted beplanning vir klimaatsverandering between June and August 2020, and primarily involved a combination of desktop groter maatskaplike wil, finansiële studies, online discussions, and virtual meetings with key actors in the land, climate, investering en die omskakeling van and disaster risk policy and governance aspects in Zanzibar. The review provides wetenskap tot beleid vereis as wat information on the current responses to policy, legal and institutional setup in terms tans in Zanzibar bestaan. Dinamiese of the key issues related to land use, climate and disaster risk reduction in Zanzibar. individuele en regeringspogings en Thematic analysis was used to connect land-use planning, climate adaptation, and uitgesoekte gemeenskapsbetrok disaster risk reduction documentation of the situational assessment, determination kenheid is waarskynlik onvoldoende and respective recommendations concerning land use and climate adaptation. It om veerkragtigheid te bewerkstellig, is argued that planning for climate change requires greater social will, financial aangesien grootskaalse skenkers investment, and the conversion of science to policy than currently exists in Zanzibar. gefinansierde klimaatsaanpassings Dynamic individual and governmental efforts and select community engagement intervensies grotendeels van bo na are likely insufficient to produce resilience, as large-scale donor-funded climate onder in oriëntering is en die plaaslike adaptation interventions are largely top-down in orientation and often miss out on gemeenskapsgerigte klimaatoplossings local community-oriented climate solutions. Smaller NGOs are more practical for mis. Kleiner NRO’s is meer prakties om gemeenskapsgerigte prioriteite te understanding and addressing community-oriented priorities to support climate- verstaan en aan te spreek om klimaats resilient initiatives and enhance local livelihood priorities and participation against bestande inisiatiewe te ondersteun climate impacts, including natural disasters and everyday degradation. The article en plaaslike lewensbestaanprioriteite concludes with policy recommendations both specific to Zanzibar and relevant en deelname teen klimaatsinvloede te across the region. verbeter, insluitend natuurrampe en Keywords: Adaptation, global climate change, policy interventions, urban planning, alledaagse agteruitgang. Die artikel Zanzibar gee beleidsaanbevelings, spesifiek
Dr. Garth A. Myers, PhD. Paul E. Rather Distinguished Professor of Urban International Studies and Director, Center for Urban and Global Studies, 300 Summit Street, Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, USA 06106. Phone: 1-860-297-4273, email:
SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77):57-70 | ISSN 1012-280 | e-ISSN 2415-0495
57 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) vir Zanzibar en ook relevant in die sebetsa haholo bakeng sa kutloisiso (Muhajir, 2020: 15). The urban area hele streek. le ho sebetsana le lintho tse tlang pele also known as Zanzibar serves Sleutelwoorde: Aanpassing, beleidsin sechabeng tse tšehetsang mehato as the capital, with an estimated ea ho loants’a maemo a hlobaetsang tervensies, stedelike beplanning, wêreld metropolitan population of just wye klimaatsverandering, Zanzibar a leholimo le ho ntlafatsa merero ea boipheliso ea lehae le ho nka karolo over 700,000 as of 2020 (Muhajir, khahlanong le litlamorao tsa maemo 2020: 26). This figure combines the MEKHOA EA MERALO EA a leholimo, ho kenyeletsoa likoluoa Zanzibar Urban District, with slightly LITOROPO, HO IKAMAHANYA tsa tlhaho le ho senyeha hoa letsatsi over 200,000 people (including the le letsatsi. Sengoloa se phetheloa ka LE MAEMO A LEHOLIMO LE small ‘Stone Town’ historic district, likhothaletso tsa maano a ikhethileng now home to less than 10,000) BOTSITSO TOROPONG EA ho Zanzibar le ho sebetsa ho potoloha and the rapidly urbanizing West A ZANZIBAR, TANZANIA le naha. and West B districts with 500,000 Lilemong tse mashome tsa ho feta, ho bile le phetoho e kholo Zanzibar, residents (Myers, 2020: 82). The 1. INTRODUCTION ka lebaka la hara tse ling, litlamorao urban area’s population is now 14 tsa phetoho ea maemo a leholimo. The years 1990 to 2020 brought times the size it was (less than Leano le ikemetseng la boipuso le tremendous political, economic, 50,000) in 1963 (Myers, 1993: 347; tobane le liphephetso ho matlafatsa social and environmental changes Muhajir, 2020: 28). This rapid pace of sechaba sa litoropo se ikemiselitseng urbanization comes with a sprawling le ho rala bakeng sa ho fokotsa le ho to Zanzibar. Since 1990, the geographical footprint, since most of ikamahanya le phetoho ea maemo semi-autonomous polity within the a leholimo, haholoholo ka lebaka la United Republic of Tanzania has the residential development consists hore kesehlekehleke seo litoropo tsa experienced the re-introduction of of single-family homes, compounding sona li holang ka potlako e kholo. both a multiparty political system and sustainability challenges in spheres Sengoliloeng sena se bua ka mehato a capitalist economy built primarily such as solid waste management, ea moralo oa litoropo le tikoloho ho around tourism (Keshodkar, 2013: air and water pollution, soil and tloha 2010 ho isa 2020 e reretsoeng beach erosion, and environmental ho tobana le litlamorao tsa phetoho 55-86; Gössling, 2002: 540-541; ea maemo a leholimo le ho sebeletsa Killian, 2008: 100-109). These health (Paula, 2016: 91-93). ho ba le botsitso le ho ikamahanya transformations have coincided with From 2010 to 2020, environmental le maemo a leholimo litoropong tsa both the substantial migration of planning measures sought to Zanzibar. Phuputso e entsoe pakeng mainland Tanzanians to the islands confront climate change impacts and tsa Phuptjane le Phato 2020, mme and significant influences from ensure resilience and adaptation e kenyelletsa haholo-holo motswako global social forces, including the oa lithuto tsa desktop, lipuisano le in urban Zanzibar. However, such likopano tsa inthanete le batšehetsi ba near-constant presence of many efforts became entangled in a ka sehloohong molemong oa maano thousands of European and North power dynamic between land-use a mobu, maemo a leholimo, maemo a American tourists amid the global authorities and the city’s residents. leholimo le likotsi tsa koluoa ‘mooho le revitalization of Islam (Keshodkar, The land tenure system in Zanzibar puso toropong ea Zanzibar. Tlhatlhobo 2013: 111-138; Larsen, 2005: ena e fana ka tlhaiso-leseling mabapi le is guided under the Land Tenure 145-157). This change has both Act – the principal land legislation likarabo tsa hajoale ho maano, melao produced significant environmental le tlhophiso ea setheo ho latela lintlha that was promulgated in 1992. The tsa bohlokoa tse amanang le ts’ebeliso change and coincided with the Commission for Lands (COLA) ea mobu, maemo a leholimo le likotsi acceleration of palpable impacts is mandated to implement the tsa likoluoa Zanzibar. Tlhatlhobo ea from global climate change (Myers, Zanzibar land policy, subsequent lihloho e sebelisitsoe ho hokahanya 2002: 149; Myers, 2016: 83-11). land management related acts, moralo oa ts’ebeliso ea mobu, ho ikamahanya le maemo a leholimo, le Change creates an extraordinarily set standards and norms for land litokomane tsa phokotso ea likotsi tsa challenging landscape in which to ownership and rights, including likoluoa, boikemisetso le likhothaletso foster resilient urban communities dispute settlements, as well as tse fapaneng mabapi le ts’ebeliso ea and planning for mitigation and integrate land-use planning, mobu le phetoho ea maemo a leholimo. adaptation to accelerating climate conservation and management Ho hlahisoa hore ho rala phetoho ea change impacts. Zanzibar has rapidly activities (Revolutionary Government maemo a leholimo ho hloka thato e of Zanzibar, 2017: 1). The Land kholo ea sechaba, tsetelo ea lichelete urbanized throughout the period le phetolelo ea mahlale ho maano, ‘me since its independence (December Tenure Act has since undergone sena se lokela ho etsahala maemoong a 1963), revolution (January 1964), numerous amendments in response holimo ho feta a teng Zanzibar. Boiteko and union with Tanganyika to form to the growing friction between land- bo matla ba motho ka mong le ba Tanzania (April 1964) (Muhajir, 2020: use authorities and local communities mmuso le ho khetha tšebelisano ‘moho 9; Myers, 1993: 21; Myers, 2016: over the land ownership-development le sechaba li kanna tsa se lekane ho 83). This small archipelago (with nexus. As a result, the Act has been hlahisa mamello, joalo ka ha liphallelo implemented under conditions of tse kholo tse tšehelitsoeng ke bafani li le its main islands of Unguja – often maemong a holimo haholo’ me hangata called Zanzibar – where the city of growing challenges that result from li fetoa ke tharollo ea maemo a leholimo Zanzibar is located, and Pemba) has accelerated population growth, a lehae. Mekhatlo e ikemetseng e a population of roughly 1.8 million urban sprawl, non-inclusive land-use
58 Garth Myers, Jonathan Walz & Aboud Jumbe • Trends in urban planning, climate adaptation and resilience in Zanzibar, Tanzania planning approaches, and social its urban infrastructure, and its Government of Zanzibar’s efforts to inequity. This compounding effect of natural resources. Next, Zanzibar’ address climate change adaptation, social and environmental pressures primary climate adaptation strategies disaster risk preparedness and has precipitated endless land-use and action plans are reviewed, land-use planning – under resource conflicts and induced numerous including their policy and financing limitations. The review of secondary impediments to address the impacts interventions for sustainability. It is data, including peer-reviewed and of climate change. Such precipitous noted that Zanzibar’s planning and academic sources, publications outcomes have often negatively implementation have not sufficiently from official development assistance affected the sustainability of the addressed climate change impacts, programmes relevant to climate, country’s development plan. due in part to the island’s rapid population growth and a climate-land disaster risk and development This article examines the nexus scenario that is overwhelming interventions in Zanzibar were key government-led, poverty-reduction natural resources accessibility. It is in the development of this study. and strategic growth development argued that there is an urgent need (popularly known by its Swahili Secondary data was collected to strengthen institutional capacity acronym as “MKUZA”) planning via an online search or personal for planning, implementation, and efforts working toward resilience, contacts with relevant agencies, and inter-sectoral collaboration, in mitigation, and adaptation in selective online and virtual meetings order to reduce the threats and urban Zanzibar. Given the size of impacts of climate-linked natural on climate, disaster risk and land Unguja Island (Zanzibar island) disasters. While Zanzibar has had nexus with purposively selected and the intertwined economies of remarkable productivity in terms stakeholders in Zanzibar. The urban Zanzibar and communities of new climate and environmental onset of the COVID-19 pandemic throughout the island – for example, change plans and institutions for severely limited the targeted the city’s landfill is miles outside urban and island-wide management, attempt to address cross-sectoral the Urban-West Region, and all evidence suggests that these have tourist arrivals depend on the city’s institutional consultations, in-person not been sufficient to mitigate infrastructure regardless of their meetings, and focused discussions impacts and ensure resilience in eventual destination on Unguja –, with stakeholders. Alternatively, we the archipelago. Large scale, but the entire island is included in the reviewed key Government policy and particularly NGO-based financing and analysis, with some reference to legal documents, publications from mainstreaming of climate adaptation the urbanizing contexts of less- development partners such as the is urgently needed. Probabilistic populated but nearby Pemba island United Nations, World Bank, United assessments of climate risks impacts (Myers, 2016: 98). It is argued should employ technology and Kingdom Aid, and other support that planning for climate change data sets to address and reduce initiatives carried out by NGOs such requires greater social will and a vulnerabilities. The conclusion as The Hague Institute for Global sustained financial investment than suggests new and updated strategies Justice, The International Institute currently exist in Zanzibar. Dynamic to tackle the ongoing challenges for Environment and Development individual and governmental efforts of urban planning and climate (IIED), and others. Important cases and select community engagement change resilience and adaptation are likely insufficient to produce from natural disaster episodes in in Zanzibar and the wider region. resilience, unless there is a cohesive Zanzibar were sourced via global strategy to ensure social equity and news platforms such as the BBC and inclusion aimed at the islands’ local 2. METHODOLOGY Al Jazeera, while certain secondary community-oriented climate solutions data on disaster loss was cited The study was conducted between that enhance local livelihood from the Relief web platform. June and August 2020, and primarily priorities against climate impacts. involved a combination of desktop The review provided information of The narrative begins by framing studies, online discussions, and current responses to policy, legal climate change and urban planning virtual meetings with key actors in the and institutional setup on the key in Africa, including the continent’s land, climate, and disaster risk policy issues related to land use, climate contributions and vulnerabilities. and governance aspects in Zanzibar. and disaster risk reduction in Zanzibar is targeted as a case study, Specifically, the study entailed Zanzibar. Thematic analysis was because it is an island exposed to the desktop review of relevant used to connect land-use planning, intensifying cyclonic episodes from policies, strategies, legislation, the outer western Indian Ocean documentation, and grey literature climate adaptation and disaster region, fluctuating precipitation, related to climate, disaster risk and risk reduction documentation flooding, rising seas, and changed air land-use planning in Zanzibar. The of the situational assessment, and sea surface temperatures. These key focus was to address progress, determination and respective documented changes have impacted opportunities, and challenges that recommendations concerning land on its people and their livelihoods, Zanzibar faced in the midst of the use and climate adaptation.
59 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77)
3. GLOBAL CLIMATE attention has been paid to how the to other cities on the continent CHANGE AND URBAN city government plans to adapt to examined in these other studies. climate change and enhance the PLANNING IN AFRICA Zanzibar is selected for this study resilience of the local population.” Global climate change constitutes because it represents the uniqueness Urban Africans are not always perhaps the most urgent arena of a sub-national “semi-autonomous” hopelessly incapable of developing of development planning and island-state planning dilemma on adaptation and resilience strategies. environmental policy for Africa’s climate adaptation and showcases African governments and NGOs play urban areas. Yet the knowledge the socio-economic complexities of important roles, for example, in the bases and policy frameworks coastal climate-related vulnerabilities Sustainable Urban Development for dealing with climate change facing the United Republic of Network out of United Nations are often skewed. Addaney and Tanzania. The study area is thus an Habitat in Nairobi, which launched its Cobbinah (2019: 7) note that excellent setting for comparison with Cities and Climate Change Initiative “Africa’s contribution to global climate the regional trends discussed earlier. in 2008 (Myers, 2020: 173). This change is comparably negligible Many of the risks and challenges [yet] it remains the most affected study contributes to building this are exceedingly comparable. region”. Climate change is also understanding of the actions and under-researched in both rural capacities of local governments. 4. PLANNING IN ZANZIBAR and urban studies in Africa. The Water is one of the most complicated AND THE CLIMATE study by Addaney and Cobbinah sources of risk in the context of CHANGE CONTEXT (2019) is the first comprehensive global climate change in African survey for the region’s cities, and no environments, especially in cities. 4.1 Climate change such survey exists for rural Africa Half of all Africa’s cities with over vulnerabilities in Zanzibar (see also Simon & Leck, 2014; Du 750,000 people are within 50 miles of Toit, Cilliers, Dallimer, Goddard, the coast, and many others (including Zanzibar, like many other coastal Guenat & Cornelius, 2018). some of the region’s largest urban cities in the western Indian Ocean Moreover, African actors and areas such as Kinshasa, Khartoum, region, is experiencing higher agents have had less of a voice and Brazzaville) are predominantly than average physical growth and in developing and implementing located in low-lying riverine settings development rates. This is causing global climate change adaptation (UN-Habitat, 2014: 45). Coastal urban, economic, environmental and mitigation policy frameworks. cities or near-coastal cities are and future development constraints, Policies imposed on Africa from the likewise also often on river mouths, which increase coastal vulnerability global North often ‘undermine’ local estuaries, or deltas. UN-Habitat (Celliers & Ntombela, 2015: 337). actions to combat climate change, (2014: 45) considers 14 big cities Land-use planning in Zanzibar has and instead “privileging international (those with over one million people), existed since 1923, but the first actors and financial markets” six intermediate cities (500,000 to island-wide planning was achieved (Ernstson & Swyngedouw, 2019: 15; a million residents), and 37 small in 1995, with the formulation of the Silver, 2019: 133). There is a great cities (100,000-500,000 people) in national land-use plan (Muhajir, diversity to impacts, outcomes and Africa to be at risk, due to rising 2020: 40). However, lack of planning capacities on the continent. sea levels. A great many cities in effective coordination, low levels of Addaney and Cobbinah’s (2019: Africa face other significant flood enforcement and monitoring, and 4) edited volume forges past the risks, which are often most severe poor communications continue to potentially debilitating realisation that in poor, informal settlements. Even remain as prevalent challenges such diversity might engender, while in cities at relatively high average (Revolutionary Government of acknowledging that “adaptation to elevations, poorer areas and Zanzibar, 2014: 2). This article … climatic variations has become informal settlements are typically at highlights land planning-related a daunting task for governments, lower elevations in zones subject to issues of unplanned settlement, city authorities and residents”. Their seasonal flooding. Khartoum, Dar es unsustainable development, research showed the diversity within Salaam, Mogadishu, Maputo, Dakar and inadequate capacity for Ghana alone. Zanzibar manifests and many other major urban areas environmental management from a climate vulnerability both the outsized reliance on have experienced severe flooding perspective, in the context of the global North actors and institutions over the past few years alone recently approved national spatial common in Africa and the diversity (Myers, 2016: 35; Kebede & Nicholls, development strategy (Revolutionary across Tanzania, comparable 2011: 16-22; Aljazeeranews, 2019; Government of Zanzibar, 2014: 2). to the Ghana case studied by Reliefweb, 2018). Vulnerabilities Addaney and Cobbinah (2019: 4). from climate change do not stop As a small island state, Zanzibar has Addaney (2019: 482) noted that, with sea-level risk and flooding. As a become increasingly more prone to in Africa, the urban vulnerabilities low-lying coastal city, Zanzibar has climate risk, as well as vulnerable to “are well-documented [but] less had very comparable experiences natural disasters, including floods,
60 Garth Myers, Jonathan Walz & Aboud Jumbe • Trends in urban planning, climate adaptation and resilience in Zanzibar, Tanzania droughts and tropical storms. have also imposed new challenges identified the climate priorities Zanzibar is particularly vulnerable, on the development commitments that were of great concern to because it has an extensive low-lying intended to pull the population out the local communities. These coastline, with the total land area of of poverty and into the middle- included extreme weather events; 2,654 square kilometres. The majority income level of development. sea level rise and beach erosion; of the archipelago’s 1.8 million people decreasing access to freshwater live just under an average of 5 metres 4.2 Planning responses and quality; saltwater intrusion; food above sea-level (Muhajir, 2020: 45). adaptation insecurity; re-emergence of threats =Rising sea water levels, salt- on human health; loss of forestry 4.2.1 Climate adaptation study water intrusion, land degradation, and biodiversity, and decreasing erratic rainfalls, and urban sprawl The Zanzibar Government fisheries catch (Moller, 2010: 13). developed its first climate adaptation have imposed a huge burden on The direct links between land-use study in 2010, under the bilateral the socio-economic drivers and planning and climate-induced Sustainable Management of Lands livelihoods of Zanzibar’s vulnerable impacts identified in the initial communities, perhaps even more and Environment Support Program Rising sea water levels, salt-water intrusion, land degradation, erratic rainfalls, and national adaptation study focused so than elsewhere on Tanzania’s financed by Finland. This report, urban sprawl have imposed a huge burden on the socio-economic drivers and on coastal zone management, coastline (Yanda, Bryceson, ‘Preparation of an Adaptation livelihoods of Zanzibar’s vulnerable communities, perhaps even more so than the tourism sector, groundwater Mwevura & Mung’ong’o, 2019: Program of Action for Zanzibar’, elsewhere on Tanzania’s coastline (Yanda, Bryceson, Mwevura & Mung’ong’o, 2019: conservation, sustainable practices 3-13).3-13). The The recentrecent record of directdirect damage servedto infrastructure, as the local crops, equivalent and settlements to in agriculture, and the protection damagehas contributed to infrastructure, to the increased crops, deficits inthe terms National of development Adaptation goals Program. These of of existing forest cover. anddamages settlements have also has impos contributeded new to challenges Action on theRequirement development of commitmentsthe United theintended increased to pull deficits the population in terms out of of povertyNations and into Framework the middle Convention-income level of development. 4.2.2 Merging science and policy development goals. These damages on Climate Change. The Report for climate adaptation Figure 1: The main island of Zanzibar. The spots indicate areas that are currently directly affected by the impacts of climate change However, addressing these measures required a systematic climate change response and adaptation strategy. Without cross-sectoral mobilization of the socio-economic pillars of growth and development, it would always be difficult for the islands to cope with the widening scope of impacts of climate change that had already begun to affect its strategic development planning. The 2012 study on Economic impacts of climate change in Zanzibar, or EICC (Watkiss, Pye, Hendriksen, MacLean, Bonjean, Jiddawi, Shaghude, Sheikh & Khamis, 2012: 1) revealed extreme climate variability projections for the next 50 years from 2012 to 2062, with continued patterns of erratic rainfall, rising temperatures, rough sea waves, and strong winds. Since a large proportion of Zanzibar’s GDP was associated with climate-sensitive activities, people’s livelihoods (the majority of which include agriculture, fishing, or tourism) were greatly dependent on these changing weather and climate dynamics that exacerbated patterns such as floods, droughts, and storms (Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, 2012: 1). Figure 1: The main island of Zanzibar. The spots indicate areas that are The EICC study identified key currently directly affected by the impacts of climate change sectoral priorities to be integrated Source: Zanzibar, Department of Environment, 2019: 7 into the development paradigm.
61 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) Source: Zanzibar, Department of Environment, 2019: 7 These priorities, as ranked by local participants, included sustainable land-management issues, such as tackling coastal erosion; addressing the widening problem of saltwater intrusion and inundation of lowland agricultural fields; reducing impacts of urban flooding; curbing rampant deforestation and land degradation; preserving Zanzibar’s tourism “attractiveness” assets such as the heritage of its historic Stone Town and its constituent infrastructure; protecting coral sands and beaches, and addressing biomass energy challenges (Watkiss et al., 2012: 1).
4.3 Development of a Zanzibar climate change adaptation strategy and action plan The Zanzibar climate change strategy of 2014 set up five key sectoral priorities for the Government of Zanzibar to be integrated into its poverty reduction and economic growth development strategy (Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, 2013a: 2). These sustainable land-use planning FigureFigure 2: 2: TheThe map map of ofthe the sister sister island island of Pemba of Pemba showing showing sites affected sites by the priorities focus on natural disaster impacts of affectedclimate change by the impacts of climate change risk reduction and resilient Source: Department of Environment, Zanzibar, 2019: 7 urban settlements; climate smart Source: Department of Environment, Zanzibar, 2019: 7 agriculture; natural resources management; low-carbon tourism; sustainable forests and energy,
as well as resilient coastal zone and adjacent marine ecosystems management approaches. The Zanzibar climate change action plan called for the immediate need to identify priority sites affected by climate change, and these largely related to land areas affected by salinization and flood risk (Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, 2016: 2).
4.4 Strategic implementation of major adaptation initiatives In Zanzibar, climate-smart agricultural programmes have been mobilized. Reconstruction and strengthening of dykes were prioritized. Mangrove Figure 3: Map of the Town of Zanzibar. The red colorations indicate areas and wards reforestation is being carried out Figurein the 3:city atMap risk of floodthe Townhazards of, dueZanzibar. to impacts The of red climate colorations change Source: Baduiindicate, 2020 areas and wards in the city at risk of flood under multiple support from regional hazards, due to impacts of climate change and global facilities. Rainwater- 4.2 Planning responses and adaptation harvesting programmes through the Source: Badui, 2020 4.2.1 Climate adaptation study construction of check dams under the Zanzibar Irrigation Masterplan The Zanzibar Government developed its first climate adaptation study in 2010, under the bilateral Sustainable Management of Lands and Environment Support Program 62financed by Finland. This report, ‘Preparation of an Adaptation Program of Action for Zanzibar’, served as the local equivalent to the National Adaptation Program of Action Requirement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Report identified the climate priorities that were of great concern to the local communities. These included extreme weather events; sea level rise and beach erosion; decreasing access to freshwater quality; saltwater intrusion; food insecurity; re-emergence of threats on human health; loss of forestry and biodiversity, and decreasing fisheries catch (Moller, 2010: 13).
The direct links between land-use planning and climate-induced impacts identified in the initial national adaptation study focused on coastal zone management, the tourism sector, groundwater conservation, sustainable practices in agriculture, and the protection of existing forest cover.
4.2.2 Merging science and policy for climate adaptation
Garth Myers, Jonathan Walz & Aboud Jumbe • Trends in urban planning, climate adaptation and resilience in Zanzibar, Tanzania are being implemented under a International Institute for Environment all socio-economic safeguards, partnership with the Korea Overseas and Development, the country’s in line with the United Nations International Cooperation Agency. capacity to absorb climate finance Sustainable Development Goals. An expanded borehole control and per year was less than US$500,000, However, its implementation monitoring programme emerged while adaptation demand exceeded plan is extremely dependent on as another proposed regulatory US$2 million each year (Vuai, the international climate finance action in addressing land-based 2014: 1). The 2017 natural mechanisms and on donor support. climate issues in Zanzibar. Other catastrophic risk profile assessment Moreover, were Zanzibar to actually popular climate adaptation initiatives by the World Bank’s Southwest achieve middle-income status, included construction of seawalls Indian Ocean Risk Assessment and numerous international funding and groynes at Kilimani locality in Financing Initiative (World Bank, opportunities for climate mitigation Zanzibar Town (and at Kisiwa Panza 2016a: 2) puts Zanzibar’s potential would disappear, since they are set islet off Pemba); dissemination of catastrophic losses from natural aside for low-income countries. environmental, climate education, disasters (including floods and and awareness programmes to cyclonic weather events) at US$2.2 4.7 Integrating climate, land use local communities; selection of million each year, with an annual and sustainability ecosystem-based management emergency cost of US$500,000. The The last decade from 2010 to options; introduction of smart urban residential sector experiences 2020 has witnessed a substantive technologies; promotion of alternative nearly 87% of the combined losses, rise in planning endeavours and livelihoods; building institutional while the commercial sector absorbs environmental policy development capacity in climate financing, and nearly 11% (World Bank, 2017: 1). for the islands, and notably for urban enforcement of coastal setback buffer Zanzibar. Between 2013 and 2020 zones to slow down vulnerabilities 4.6 Prioritizing climate-related alone, the government of Zanzibar and prolong resilience for the policy interventions created the first master plan for archipelago (UNEP & GEF, 2015: 2). What does the existing policy the city in 33 years (DOURP, 2015: Moreover, as Tanzania is updating context entail in addressing climate 1), a national spatial development its intended Nationally Determined adaptation in Zanzibar? The strategy (Revolutionary Government Contributions (NDCs) to a more Zanzibar Vision 2020 government of Zanzibar, 2014: 2) that included graduated pace within the Paris plan recognized the role of the 10 focused ‘local area plans’ (e.g., Agreement on climate change, key environment, biodiversity and forestry DOURP, 2016), a new national land-related focal areas that have in the promotion of sustainable environmental policy (2013), a been identified in the proposed NDC development, decrease in forest new land policy (2017: 2), the new implementation plan for the country cover, and rapid and unplanned Zanzibar Environmental Management include adopting climate-smart land-use conversion into other non- Authority (2015), and the US$193 land-use planning and management forest activities such as agriculture, million World Bank-funded Zanzibar systems, human settlements, urbanization, and quarrying Urban Services Project (ZUSP) agriculture, water, tourism, protected (Revolutionary Government of (World Bank, 2016b). There have areas, and waste management Zanzibar, 2000: 1). Forest resources been real and tangible impacts (United Republic of Tanzania, in the coral rag areas, agroforestry from many of these new plans and 2016: 1). In the Zanzibar context, systems and mangroves have institutions. ZUSP, for example, these NDC measures form the bulk decreased significantly. The major produced almost 20kms of a of the archipelago’s development causes are population increase drainage network in poorer outlying planning priorities that recognize and the demand for economic neighbourhoods that has the the impacts of climate change development, exacerbated by prospect of reducing the susceptibility on its vulnerable population. the fast-growing tourism industry of these areas to water-borne (Kingazi, 2013). Moreover, the diseases such as cholera, and 4.5 Challenges of climate Zanzibar Poverty Reduction and diseases exacerbated by standing financing and global Growth Strategy recognizes that water such as malaria. The banning outreach attaining environmental sustainability of plastic bags under the new and climate resilience is one of the environmental policy has made the Despite these measures, Zanzibar’s five principal pillars towards achieving city and coastline visibly cleaner, responses to climate impacts social and economic prosperity and while raising the environmental were already exacerbated by lack reaching middle-income status. consciousness of ordinary residents. of institutional arrangements and planning systems, inadequate finance The MKUZA Strategy (Revolutionary However, implementation and allocations on adaptation measures, Government of Zanzibar, 2015: 2) enforcement mechanisms lag behind and lack of specific economic and underscores the need for a gender- the impressive record on paper. The finance planning systems targeted responsive climate adaptation government’s new land policy attests at climate change. According to the plan that targets the resilience of that climate change, rapid population
63 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) growth, and urbanization as diverse climate impact challenges been successfully implemented. The experienced in Zanzibar will exhaust related to land, freshwater, rise in current strategy marks a departure the carrying capacity of the already sea level, agriculture, livestock, from the traditional proactive “spatial over-exploited land and impose and other issues. The local action planning” per se and instead unbearable pressure on existing plans for these urbanized localities focuses on strategic planning ecosystems and environmental were meant to contribute to dialogue, in order to address key services. The policy cautions that sustainable economic development, strategic measures to offset the the urban areas of Zanzibar are climate change adaptation, and socio-economic and environmental forecast to be comprised of 60% disaster risk reduction for these impacts associated with land-use (or 1.25 million people) of the total townships by developing effective planning and degradation. The population projection of nearly institutional, sectoral and spatial Government faces the huge and 2.2 million by 2035 – mainly in governance arrangements in seemingly insurmountable challenge Zanzibar Urban-West Region, and a participatory process. of having to cope with an increasing in Chake Chake and Wete towns on proportion of unplanned settlements. The Pilot Study helped generate Pemba island (Muhajir, 2020: 64). It is now estimated that at least 60% mutual trust and the development of of housing construction projects in This climate-land nexus scenario is consensus-based solutions. It also urban areas of Zanzibar have been expected to overwhelm the carrying assisted policymakers in identifying done without formal permit clearance capacity of the fragile archipelagic relevant good practices among (Muhajir, 2020: 65). In this scenario, environment, its settlements, and the persons and organizations where many of these structures its agricultural land. This will impose involved in climate change issues are located within designated further pressure on the limited in those localities. Over a period monsoon-season flood zones of government resources for managing of two years, the formulation of the urban areas, the vulnerabilities or enhancing accessibility to the 23 recommended adaptation to potential threats from natural affordable urban housing, sustainable measures and a road map to their disasters increase haphazardly infrastructure, public transport, implementation were successfully and astronomically (Revolutionary or utility services (Revolutionary completed (The Hague Institute, Government of Zanzibar, 2014: 2). Government of Zanzibar, 2017: 2017: 33). The plans were effectively 2). The land policy, therefore, calls established while taking into Another serious challenge emanates for an immediate cross-sectoral consideration the priorities of these from the fact that Zanzibar’s disaster and integrated approach, or a new localities, including attempts to risk reduction governance framework mechanism in achieving resilience strengthen institutional capacity faces both policy coordination and in land-use planning through for planning and implementation; capacity impediments. While the climate adaptation, disaster risk inter-sectoral collaboration and disaster management policy and reduction, and implementation synergies, and community capacity communication strategy recognizes of sustainable development for planning and implementation. the urgent need to address risks goals (Muhajir, 2020: 75). However, significant challenges related to extreme weather events, in both land-use planning and changing sea level, and coastal 4.8 Is climate-land scenario the decision-making hierarchy for pressure dynamics, the absence planning the answer? addressing climate adaptation of practical linkages between actions have emerged. Although disaster management, land-use A practical example of how the the study provided the Government planning, and climate adaptation integration of land-use planning and of Zanzibar with concrete building safeguards has affected preventive climate adaptation can be achieved blocks that would support the response measures against climate in urban settlements of Zanzibar implementation of the Zanzibar impacts. As a consequence, not can be referenced from The Hague climate change strategy, its full-scale enough concrete cross-sectoral Institute’s pilot study in three smaller implementation has not yet been steps have been taken at the policy urbanized localities – Mjini Kiuyu carried out and will depend on how and planning level to collectively (Pemba), Mkokotoni (Unguja), and these solutions are integrated into the prevent or mitigate the existing Nungwi (Unguja) – between 2015 current spatial development strategy. fallout of the recent urban floods and 2017 (The Hague Institute, in Zanzibar Town (Revolutionary 2017: 33). The program’s overall 4.9 Managing climate Government of Zanzibar, 2013b; objective was to develop a Zanzibar- vulnerabilities, natural Pardoe, Conway, Namaganda, centric model of a participatory and disasters and land-use Vincent, Dougill & Kashaigili, community-oriented local adaptation planning 2018: 865-870; BBC, 2017). plan of action for urbanized localities in the implementation of Zanzibar’s The Zanzibar National Spatial Thompson (2020: 191) argues that climate strategy (The Hague Institute, Development Strategy (NSPDS) was the following constitute significant 2017: 33). The three localities formulated to replace the national challenges to mainstream climate were selected because of their land-use plan of 1995, which had not strategy across the board in Zanzibar:
64 Garth Myers, Jonathan Walz & Aboud Jumbe • Trends in urban planning, climate adaptation and resilience in Zanzibar, Tanzania
(1) insufficient funding levels towards in Zanzibar has increased, with in vulnerable and sensitive settings climate adaptation that are heavily a deadly intensity. In April 2016, and communities (Hernandez- dependent on donor support; (2) the rains that were induced by the Delgado, 2015: 12-15). a presence of little systematic remnants of a dissipated regional Inevitably, there is a complex mix of mainstreaming of climate action plans cyclone Fantala resulted in at least changes in political, economic and at strategic or programmatic levels one person dead and many displaced social terms, too vast for inclusion in across the development sectors; after their houses were flooded this article, that would be essential (3) a disconnect that continues to following heavy rains. At least 300 to a more extensive analysis of exist between national and local households within the Zanzibar climate change impacts and other government adaptation priorities, municipality were damaged (Juma, environmental compounding factors hindering the implementation of 2016: 1). Kombo and Faki (2019: 1) now prevalent in Zanzibar and the climate action plans, and (4) limited later revised the damage assessment wider Southeast Africa (Douglass, climate change knowledge and of the Fantala episode, stating that Walz, Quintana-Morales, Marcus, low-level institutional capacities. the thermodynamic conditions of Myers & Pollini, 2019: 262-271; These prevalent challenges Fantala influenced heavy rainfall Pardoe et al., 2018: 869-871). underscore the fundamental need of greater than 170mm over most Even remaining strictly within the for the Government to employ stations in Zanzibar, rendering 420 climate change policy framework cross-sectoral policy and structural people homeless, with at least 3,330 and assessment of implementation, interventions to collectively houses destroyed, and 2 fatalities. while Zanzibar has had remarkable address land-use planning, climate In May 2017, the Government had productivity in the formation of new adaptation, and natural disaster to temporarily close schools, due to plans and institutions for urban risk reduction measures. the onset of deadly monsoon floods, and environmental management affecting over 350,000 students and planning for climate change, 4.10 Linking climate, land use throughout the island. Similarly, the the evidence demonstrated by the and urban flooding intense monsoon rains of 12-18 April impacts of climate change specifically The recent World Bank-financed 2018 resulted in 191 households on urban flooding suggests that disaster risk profile for Zanzibar being displaced and 225 houses these have not been sufficient. focused on three perils: tropical damaged. As a result, the majority The net effect is that Zanzibar must cyclones, floods, and earthquakes of flood victims sought refuge with be viewed as ill-prepared to confront (World Bank, 2016a: 1). However, relatives and neighbours, while 19 the climate emergency that is already there is an evidence-based households did not relocate and happening, let alone the greater agreement that flooding is by far the continued to haphazardly live in climate vulnerability crises to come. most significant risk in the study, their flooded houses. These intense The city-scale resilience of Zanzibar causing nearly 90 of the average monsoon episodes continued through City is enmeshed with its outer loss per year. A 100-year return 2019, when Zanzibar airport recorded landscape and the rural communities period flood event would produce 328mm of rain in just three days. and resources of Unguja (Myers, direct losses of US$13 million and 2016: 98; Muhajir, 2020: 75). require approximately US$2.9 5. DISCUSSION Thus, climate change impacts that million in emergency costs (World influence the city’s social, economic, Bank, 2016a: 1). Unguja (Zanzibar) 5.1 Resilience and food security and environmental outcomes island has slightly higher absolute have reverberating consequences flood losses than Pemba island. Fundamentally, “resilience” is the throughout the island, and vice versa. persistence of healthy individuals, Recent episodes have underscored communities and environments to It is important, then, to also the urgent importance of enhancing exogenous shock (Folke, 2006). The consider how climate change the resilience of Zanzibar City ability to make incremental social degrades and damages farmland, against increasing episodes of and socio-ecological adjustments forests, coastlines, and the marine extreme weather events induced increases the capacity to absorb ecosystems that directly interface by climate change. From 15 to 17 shocks, including those linked to with Zanzibar City and Unguja. The April 2005, the flooding episode climate (Friend & Moench, 2013; coastal niches of significance are caused by incessant rains directly Tanner, Lewis, Wrathall, Bronen, mangrove forests, seagrass beds, affected 10,000 people in the urban Cradock-Henry, Huq, Lawless, and fringing coral reefs, all critical for areas and resulted in significant Nawrotzki, Prasad, Rahman, Alaniz, ecosystem function and sustainable loss to the municipal infrastructure. King, McNamara, Nadiruzzaman, livelihoods, and as carbon reservoirs. The 2005 floods along with the Henly-Shepard & Thomalla, 2015: For instance, coral reefs bleached by 2011 monsoon in Zanzibar were 23-25). Exogenous shock may increased sea surface temperatures considered rare events (Myers, impact on ecosystem functions reduce nearshore fish catches 2016: 102). However, recently, the and services, public health, and (and negatively impact on the frequency of monsoon flood events livelihood sustainability, especially livelihoods of fisher people) and
65 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) expose coastlines to destructive 5.3 The future of disaster risk, clientele from mainland Tanzania. wave action. Fish are an essential climate and planning for This raised the islands’ prospects of food protein in Zanzibar, and they Zanzibar becoming highly competitive with the also meet the needs of hotels and likes of Seychelles and Mauritius, A lack of evidence-based policy both of which also face climate restaurants in the city’s tourist sector. guidance on loss and risk information change impacts, in regional tourism with respect to climate-induced dynamics (UNECA, 2014: 3). With 5.2 The role of large-scale natural hazards will likely affect the the infrastructure to accommodate and NGO financing in data-driven demand for urban spatial such a growing demand increasingly mainstreaming climate planning. A recent study on loss and overwhelmed, the World Bank’s adaptation risk analysis of public finance shows “Green Corridor” initiative in the Large-scale donor-funded climate a complete absence of investments middle of the Zanzibar municipality adaptation interventions provide a in disaster loss and risk prevention or is helping the Government cope with of taking contingency measures into critical level of impact alleviation the urban spatial planning dilemma. budgetary and financial consideration approach and a strategic guidance for It is injecting funds into local urban climate resiliency in both urban and (UNISDR, 2015: 32). Critical infrastructure remains fully exposed regeneration initiatives, mobility rural settings relevant to Zanzibar. improvements, reducing congestion, But these interventions are largely and increasingly vulnerable to climate impact. Without sufficiently protected and preserving historical monuments top-down in orientation, and do not in Stone Town (World Bank, 2018: sufficiently integrate community safeguards against disaster risk or contingency financing mechanisms 3). The success of this initiative, participation, experiences and on critical infrastructure and implemented under the ZUSP project, solutions into overall approaches, a settlements, the local communities will depend on how the climate-land typical challenge. Smaller NGOs in will continue to bear the brunt of interface has been effectively taken both urban and rural Zanzibar usually the impacts of climate change. into consideration. There must be an have the potential to be closer to effective establishment of dedicated the communities and, therefore, Pilot risk probabilistic assessments financing solutions that do not in more practical in understanding using Des Inventar and CAPRA tools the long term rely solely on donor and addressing community-oriented have been demonstrated to respond support. Many other environmental priorities in climate adaptation and to spatial and descriptive data needs impacts from the rapid growth of sustainable livelihoods. However, for integrated land-use planning; their tourism have thus far gone on these NGOs’ abilities to receive, long-term sustainability has been without sufficient implementation digest, adopt, communicate, put under question, due to lack of of mitigation efforts (Myers, 2016: mainstream, and implement plans national prioritization and budgetary 102; Keshodkar, 2013: 193-206). do not necessarily mean that their finance commitments (SDG desired interventions are often Partnership Platform, 2014). Another 6. CONCLUSION inculcated in the wider nationally encouraging example is the use of recognized response measures. drones for spatial mapping to develop Zanzibar already has a considerable efficient and updated GIS data on disparity between rural and urban Nonetheless, there are some positive land-use planning in Zanzibar. These socio-economic conditions that developments or examples in this interventions show the pace of exacerbate climate vulnerabilities. regard, for instance the collaboration progress in addressing environment- With population growth increasing between the International Institute climate-land dynamics in Zanzibar, and unequal socio-economic for Environment and Development but they fall far short of complete activities widening, both climate- and the Zanzibar Climate Change adoption by the relevant sectors related and anthropogenic drivers of Alliance to support climate resilient and are not mainstreamed into land exploitation and degradation, cooperative-led enterprises in development processes (ZMI, 2016). urbanization, deforestation, poor the archipelago (IIED, 2018). The agricultural production, and water project emphasizes capacity- 5.4 Can the current interventions scarcity have been proven to have building, including for civil society save the vulnerable tourism a direct bearing on the policy organizations, and decentralized economy of Zanzibar? implementation context of climate climate finance projects. Although The implications and consequences adaptation and socio-economic two years in duration, its initiatives of the rapid physical growth of the justice (Kingazi, 2013). The land on deep-water seaweed farming, tourism industry in Zanzibar are tenure system, along with the latest citrus farming (especially limes), contentious areas of interest that spatial planning strategy, will have and honey production integrated require an in-depth analysis in the to recalculate the socio-economic local needs and experiences with context of a climate-land interface. cost of climate change. The fact in-country financing that boosted By 2018, Zanzibar had received that this is not yet being prioritized local livelihoods and rural products over 520,000 international tourists, in the spatial planning hierarchy for markets in Zanzibar City. in addition to the growing tourist risks increasing social inequities
66 Garth Myers, Jonathan Walz & Aboud Jumbe • Trends in urban planning, climate adaptation and resilience in Zanzibar, Tanzania and exacerbating already tense land local integrated planning priorities affect the strategic direction of any disputes between communities and in the face of climate-induced GDP new climate-sensitive development major industries such as tourism. losses. In this context of Tanzania, vision. For a small island developing there is always a risk of structurally state such as Zanzibar, land and The World Bank-financed ZUSP separating Zanzibar’s climate finance population will continue to be the initiative to improve access to urban needs based on its size, and not single most important driving forces services and conserve physical on its climate vulnerabilities as a in sustainable development planning. cultural heritage through a series small island developing country. This will in effect directly enhance of development interventions in Priorities for a strategic funding the intensity of climate dialogue integrated waste management, versus reactive funding (Watkiss, into the political sensitivities of the surface drainage systems, and Government (e.g., in sustainable rehabilitation of some urban and Dyszynski, Hednriksen, Mathur & development, climate change, waterfront infrastructure, has Savage, 2013: 2) compel Zanzibar to disaster risk reduction, and so significantly transformed the surface maximize its climate finance needs forth). Ultimately, the desired level drainage and waterfront façade of via the United Republic of Tanzania, of resilience can only be achieved the Zanzibar municipality (World given its only semi-autonomous alongside the need for optimized Bank, 2016b). However, there are status as part of the Union. This is climate adaptation solutions still some long-term climate-disaster extremely important, as all these that include an equitable land- implications that continue to affect policy and planning intervention tenure system, and community the overall sustainability of the measures will require sustainable ownership of the solutions. existing climate-land planning pooling of resources to implement dynamics in Zanzibar. Without the Zanzibar’s development plan. This article therefore suggests practical implementation of the Currently, these cannot be achieved the following key policy current national spatial development without the direct involvement of the recommendations on the basis strategy that integrated environment, Government of the United Republic. of the above observations: climate and disaster risk reduction In order to effectively address i. Challenge: Fragmented priorities, Zanzibar will continue issues of vulnerabilities affecting the approach to the human-climate to bear the brunt of the increasing socio-economic stability and climate change interface with insufficient impacts of climate change. security of the islands’ 1.8 million planning and implementation. Direct impacts of climate change people, the challenge of misallocation ii. Recommendation: Realization such as seasonal displacement of limited land resources should be of an overarching integrated of local communities from flood- addressed by utilizing a dynamic and development planning authority prone urban areas will continue horizontal urban spatial development that combines the environment, to affect land-use planners in the strategy approach in decision- climate and sustainability archipelago. This will also exacerbate making. Participatory involvement of nexus into development, secondary impacts on the effective local communities will help augment land-use planning, and human implementation of policy-oriented the desired development results, by settlement paradigms. Without conflict resolution mechanism enhancing their sense of ownership the reconstituted mandate of a vis-à-vis land disputes (Revolutionary of land-related development proactive planning commission Government of Zanzibar, 2009). plans. It is about time that the that is empowered to directly Nevertheless, the existing rate conventional allocation of land for engage in climate-smart bio- of migration of a predominantly housing, roads, tourism resorts, and physical and spatial planning tourism-related labour force from the settlements was revised in favour of decisions on land use, mainland to Zanzibar will continue a more efficient and climate-smart environment and industrial to induce the haphazard growth of strategy that does not marginalize sectors on the ground, the informal settlements in the major the economically disadvantaged. adaptation efforts may fall far and peripheral urban settings of the An integrated strategic, social, short of the targeted long-term islands (Muhajir, 2020: 75). These environmental, and climate goals of sustainability. will, in turn, exert more physical assessment of major development pressure on the coastal zone and infrastructure plans should be iii. Challenge: Artificial dichotomy accelerate the negative exploitation of made mandatory to all socio- of land and sea and their the fragile coralline environment that economic and industrial sectors. link to human livelihood forms the core basis of the tourism threats and resilience. Despite the increase in availability attraction index for the country. of area-based planning and iv. Recommendation: Recognition There is also the issue of management tools that have been of the urgency of a development international climate finance flow provided under various external vision that is centred around into the United Republic of Tanzania interventions, the current dynamism the land-sea interaction and how Zanzibar can effectively of a land-use governance approach and ecological connectivity access and utilize the funds for its within the country will eventually that has defined the cultural
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settings and the livelihoods of flexible, which will better address DOUGLASS, K., WALZ, J., local communities. It is thus rapid changes in Zanzibar’s QUINTANA-MORALES, E., MARCUS, imperative that the policy drivers socio-environmental sphere. R., MYERS, G. & POLLINI, J. 2019. stress the need to re-integrate Historical perspectives on human- policy, planning, institutional, These key interventions environment dynamics in Southeast Africa. Conservation Biology, 33(2), and implementation aspects will depend on the level of pp. 260-274. https://doi.org/10.1111/ of their socio-economic engagement of local communities, cobi.13244 priorities around sustainable taking into consideration their land-use planning, disaster participatory strength, equity, DOURP (DEPARTMENT OF URBAN risk, and climate adaptation social and environmental justice AND RURAL PLANNING), ZANZIBAR. 2015. ZanPlan 2015: Master plan interface on the islands. towards their land heritage. for Zanzibar urban area. Zanzibar: v. Challenge: Underdeveloped Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, treatment of disaster REFERENCES pp.1-43. risk and collaboration for ADDANEY, M. 2019. Adaptation DOURP (DEPARTMENT OF URBAN sustainable financing. AND RURAL PLANNING), ZANZIBAR. governance and building resilience in 2016. Ng’ambo local area plan. vi. Recommendation: Enhance the face of climate change in African Zanzibar: Revolutionary Government disaster risk reduction and cities: Policy responses and emerging of Zanzibar and African Architecture climate change policy openings practices from Accra. In: Cobbinah, P.B. Matters, pp. 265-371. that provide Zanzibar with long- & Addaney, M. (Eds). The geography term and sustainable financing of climate change adaptation in DU TOIT, M., CILLIERS, S., mechanisms and opportunities urban Africa. New York: Palgrave DALLIMER, M., GODDARD, M., GUENAT, S. & CORNELIUS, M. based on their existing natural Macmillan, pp. 479-498. https://doi. 2018. Urban green infrastructure and resource base that extends org/10.1007/978-3-030-04873-0_17 ecosystem services in sub-Saharan from the land into the marine ADDANEY, M. & COBBINAH, P.B. Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning, domain. This includes widening 2019. Climate change, urban planning vol. 180, pp. 328-338. https://doi. the ability to access long-term and sustainable development in Africa: org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.08.016 climate finance resources The difference worth appreciating. In: via the Government of the ERNSTSON, H., & SWYNGEDOUW, Cobbinah, P.B. & Addaney, M. (Eds). E. 2019. Politicizing the environment United Republic of Tanzania, The geography of climate change in the urban century. In: Ernstson, H. & mainstream nature finance adaptation in urban Africa. New York: Swyngedouw, E. (Eds). Urban political solutions via biodiversity-related Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 3-26. https:// ecology in the Anthropo-obscene: financing mechanisms, and doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04873-0_1 Interruptions and possibilities. New preservation of the ocean to York: Routledge, pp. 3-21. https://doi. sustain the land resources. ALJAZEERANEWS. 2019. Roads org/10.4324/9781315210537-1 closed as flooding hits Dar es vii. Challenge: Overly specific Salaam; warnings issued as more FOLKE, C. 2006. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for urban and climate change thunderstorms threaten coastal socio-ecological systems analyses. planning scenario. Tanzania. [Online]. Available Global Environmental Change, 16(3), at:
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