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Social Navigations of Former Combatants in Central Mozambique ISBN: 978 94 6203 603 1

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Social Navigations of Former Combatants in Central Mozambique ISBN: 978 94 6203 603 1 Beyond Fighting and Returning: Social Navigations of Former Combatants in Central Mozambique ISBN: 978 94 6203 603 1 © 2014, Nikkie Wiegink All rights reserved All pictures by the author Cover design by Sofie Wiegink Gaphic design and cartography by Kaartbeeld, Margot Stoete Printed by CPI Wöhrmann Beyond Fighting and Returning: Social Navigations of Former Combatants in Central Mozambique Voorbij Vechten en Terugkeren: Sociale Navigaties van Voormalig Strijders in Centraal Mozambique (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Além de Lutar e Voltar: Navegações Sociais de Ex-Combatentes em Moçambique Central (com um resumo em Português) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. G.J. van der Zwaan, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 20 juni 2014 des ochtends te 10.30 uur door Nikkie Wiegink geboren op 11 februari 1984 te Hengelo (Ov) Promotor: Prof.dr. A.C.G.M Robben Copromotor: Dr.ir. I.H. van der Pijl Dit proefschrift werd (mede) mogelijk gemaakt met financiële steun van de Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken (IS-Academy) en de Nederlandse Organisatie voor Weten- schap pelijk Onderzoek (NWO). Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms i Glossary ii List of Illustrations iv Maps xiii Acknowledgments xviii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 21 1.1 Ex-Renamo combatants in Mozambique and Maringue 26 1.2 The social condition of war and peace 31 1.3 Anthropology and combatants 33 1.4 Reintegration into what? The trouble with community 35 1.5 Understanding veterans’ social navigations 39 1.6 The Research 43 Entries and identities: The new nun/soldier in town 45 Travelling with Adão: On translators and politics 47 Visiting Dona Ana: On friendship, rapport and silence 49 Listening to Pai Denzja: Life histories and narratives 50 1.7 Outline of the book 52 PART I SETTING THE STAGE 57 CHAPTER 2: WAR STORIES: EXPERIENCES AND INTERPRETATIONS OF REBEL LIFE 59 2.1 Introduction 59 2.2 A brief history of Renamo 59 The nature of Renamo and other debates 59 Variations of violence 64 From peace negotiations to demobilization 66 2.3 Veterans’ war stories 68 Balthazar: “How to run into the rain of bullets” 69 Efrain: “It was beautiful, this war of ours” 72 Teresa: “Maringue, a minha terra” 77 v 2.4 Veterans’ narratives: General themes and patterns 80 2.5 Conclusion 86 CHAPTER 3: WHEN ELEPHANTS FIGHT: POLITICS AND COLLABORATION 89 3.1 Introduction 89 3.2 Collaboration in colonial times: The story of Window Coffee 90 3.3 Frelimo: From ambitions to repression 94 3.4 Renamo occupation: Liberation and destruction 98 3.5 Under Renamo control 100 Collaboration: Blurring the lines between civilians and combatants 102 Settling local conflicts 106 “Renamo that was us” 107 3.6 “Those who lived with Renamo had the idea of theguerrilheiro ” 109 3.7 “Being with …”: Social knowledge and politics 111 3.8 Maringue: “the kingdom of confusion” 113 3.9 Conclusion 116 PART II FAMILY AFFAIRS 119 CHAPTER 4: WHY DID THE SOLDIERS NOT GO HOME? FAMILY, WITCHCRAFT AND “HOME” 121 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Violent ruptures? 124 4.3 Witchcraft: Dangerous rhythms of family life 127 4.4 “They did not want to see me well”: Tensions in the family 130 4.5 Mobility: Managing the threat of witchcraft 134 4.6 Conclusion 136 CHAPTER 5: WARTIME HUSBANDS AND WARTIME KIN: GENDER, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AND MARRIAGE 139 5.1 Introduction 139 5.2 Meanings of marriage 141 5.3 Between sexual violence and marriage 143 5.4 The morality of wartime rape: A perpetrators’ perspective 146 5.5 Navigating marriage 150 5.6 Women in war: Violence, girlfriending and marriage 154 5.7 “What kind of a daughter would I be?” 158 5.8 Conclusion 163 vi CHAPTER 6: NAVIGATING THE INVISIBLE WORLD: HEALING, MEMORY AND MORALITY 165 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Mapping the supernatural world 166 6.3 “When the spirit falls into her”: Spiritual afflictions, healing and meaning 169 6.4 “Without the presence of the family people get crazy” 174 “In all the wars my grandchildren will have to go and return alive” 174 “Mae, I am here now” 176 6.5 Washing away “the idea of the bush” 178 6.6 The avenging dead: A moral hierarchy of spirits 182 “You took me to make me a cooking fire”: Spirits narrating the war 184 The haunting of Fazbem: Justice and punishment 186 6.7 Conclusion 190 PART III NAVIGATING POLITICS 193 CHAPTER 7: “IN THE HANDS OF THE PASTOR”: CHRISTIAN CHURCHES, SOCIAL SECURITY AND POLITICS 195 7.1 Introduction 195 7.2 A brief history of Christianity in central Mozambique 199 7.3 Entering Maringue’s churches 205 7.4 Church networks: spiritual kin? 209 7.5 Dona Ana: “In the hands of the pastor” 212 7.6 Thomas: “We are the owners of the church” 215 7.7 Conclusion 218 CHAPTER 8: ABOUT EATING AND DRINKING: FORMER MILITARY NETWORKS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 219 8.1 Introduction 219 8.2 Big men, networks and politics 221 8.3 The colleagues of the trenches 225 “You can see them drinking together” 225 The search for safety 228 Former commanders as gatekeepers 230 8.4 Navigating politics: “Where would you eat?” 233 Frelimo: “Owning the country” 233 Renamo: “When we win, it will be our turn to eat” 237 “A person will never forget who feeds him”: Switching sides 242 8.5 Conclusion 247 vii CHAPTER 9: “ONLY A BIT MOZAMBICAN”: CITIZENSHIP AND EXCLUSION 249 9.1 Introduction 249 9.2 Veterans and citizenship 250 9.3 Veterans and the state: Memory, attitudes and policies 254 Antigos combatentes and the glorification of the liberation war 255 The civil war: Awkward veterans 258 Renamo: “They messed up the country” 260 9.4 Experiences and understandings of the state 265 Exclusionary encounters 265 “We brought democracy”: Exclusion from history 269 Exclusive caretaking: Imagining the state 271 9.5 Conclusion 272 CHAPTER 10: FINAL REFLECTIONS 275 10.1 Veterans revisited 276 10.2 Rethinking reintegration 280 10.3 Mozambique and its veterans 283 Bibliography 287 Annexes 315 Samenvatting 317 Resumo 325 Author biography 333 viii Abbreviations and Acronyms ADEMIMO Association of Disabled Military and Paramilitary Veterans of Mozambique (Associação dos Deficientes Militares e Paramilitares de Moçambique) AIC African Independent/Indigenous/Initiated Church AMODEG Mozambican Association of the Demobilized of War (Associação Moçambicana de Desmobilizados de Guerra) ANC African National Congress DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration DF Female soldier (Destacamento Feminino) FAM Mozambican Armed Forces (Forzas Armadas de Moçambique) FIR Rapid Intervention Force (Força de Intervenção Rapida) FOMEC Mozambican Forum for Ex-Combatants (Foro Moçambicano para Ex-Combatentes) FRELIMO Mozambican Liberation Front (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique), FUMO Mozambique United Front GPA General Peace Accords MDM Mozambican Movement for Democracy (Movimento Democratico de Moçambique) ONUMOZ UN Mission for Mozambique PDD Party for Peace, Democracy and Development (Partido de Paz, Desenvolvimento e Democracia) PIDE International Police and Defense of the State (Policia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado) RENAMO Mozambican National Resistance (Resistência Nacional de Moçambique) SADF South African Defense Forces STAE Electoral Administration Technical Secretariat (Secretariado Técnico da Administração Eleitoral) ZANLA Zimbabwean African National Liberation Army ix x Glossary Aldeamentos Communal villages Antigo combatente A veteran of Frelimo’s anti-colonial struggle Bandidos armados Armed bandits, a common reference to Renamo Bloco/Bloque Civilian middlemen between the population and Renamo, during Renamo occupation Buscato Irregular informal job Capulana A cloth, generally worn by women around their waist Caril Curry, the vegetables, meat and/or beans that accompany xima Chibalo Forced labor on Portuguese owned plantation, also referred to as contracto Contracto Contract, used to refer to colonial-time forced labor on Portuguese owned plantation, also referred to as chibalo. Curandeiro Traditional healer/diviner (Portuguese) Desmobilizado Demobilized person Drogas Drugs, substances used by witches Feitiçeiro Witch (Portuguese) Feitiço Witchcraft or occult forces used to harm someone (Portuguees) Fletchas Arrows, referring to elite forces of the Portuguese army Guia de marcha A travel authorization Grupo Especiais Special groups, elite forces of the Portuguese army Irmã Sister, nun Liga Forced porter duty under Renamo control, deriving from the verb ligar, to connect Lobolo Negotiations concerning bride price Lojas do povo Communal shops Machamba Field for cultivation Machambas do povo Communal fields Mana Sister Margem Riverbank Maringuenses Inhabitants of Maringue Mato Bush Militar Military, reference to an ex-combatant Nfiti Witch (Chisena) xi Nfumo Traditional authority of the lowest rank Nipa A homebrewed alcoholic drink Nyanga Traditional healer/diviner (Chisena) Profeta Prophet, referring to healers of Zionist churches Régulo Chief, highest traditional authority Thubo Assistant of the régulo, particularly in conflict resolution Tropa Troop, reference to an ex-combatant Tulas or turas Frelimo fighters during the struggle for independence Sapanda Traditional authority of intermediary rank Secretario de bairro Secretary of the neighborhood, local Frelimo representative Sentada Sitting session, reunion to resolve a conflict Ufiti Witchcraft or occult forces used to harm someone (ChiSena) Xima Corn flower porridge xii List of Illustrations Maps 1: Mozambique v 2: Sofala province vi 3: Maringue district vii Pictures 1: Nyanga Elvira, during a
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