n the opening paragraph of CMC Paper INo. 3 titled “Reason as Balance: The Evolution of ‘aql” Tim Winter notes that ’s self-understanding “as a middle way is both well-known and distinctive” (Winter, 1). This “middle way” can be seen as the historical embodiment “of the original integrative genius of the Prophet” (Winter, 10) whose teachings about Iman, Islam and Ihsan intimated a deep and irreducible relationship between mind, body and spirit. The bulk of Winter’s paper focuses on the way Muslim thought has sought to carve out a “middle way” between the emotional/intuitive and rational/intellectual ways of knowing reality. An overview of Muslim intellectual history shows that a tenuous—but workable and generally accepted—“middle way” between the two Iqbal, approaches has been constructed, challenged and successfully reconstructed repeatedly. Charles Peirce and This is not surprising in light of the fact that the Sufis find as much evidence for the Reclaiming the emotional/intuitve approach in the Qur’an and prophetic traditions as the Mutakallimun “Middle Way” find for the rational/intellectual approach. Winter argues that attaining and maintaining a balance (or middle way) between the Basit Bilal Koshul intuitive and intellectual has been one of the Lahore University of Management Sciences most important factors responsible for the Associate Professor historical dynamism of Islam. Dept. of Humanities and Social Sciences. It is no secret that this balance is currently in danger of being permanently lost due to developments within and outside of contemporary Islam because of the fact that the secularizing trends that have sapped the strength of the other monotheistic have made significant inroads into Muslim society. This is evident in the most aggressive type of religiosity in contemporary Muslim society—a fundamentalism that imagines it can capture a pristine Islam of the Prophet’s time free from the “un- Islamic” mystical and intellectual accretions cmc papers no.5 Muhammad Iqbal, Charles Peirce and Reclaiming the “Middle Way”

cmc papers no.5 of intervening centuries. This has led to the full force of their insights comes to fore when marginalization of traditional Sufism and their ideas are brought into conversation. Kalam—traditions that have historically Most of the discussion in this paper will embodied the integration of the intuitive and focus on presenting evidence that the insights intellectual. The spread of fundamentalist on these two thinkers make it possible to Islam has strengthened the very secularizing rationally explicate the relationship between trends in Muslim society that produced and reason in ways that were not fundamentalism in the first place. If Winter is previously possible. The ultimate goal of this correct then the recovery of the lost balance paper is to demonstrate that an Iqbal-Peirce is not just a parochial Muslim concern. Some conversation shows us once again that we of the leading thinkers in Europe have drawn must view mind, body and soul in relational attention to the fact that a “fragmented… terms. Towards this end I will first use Iqbal’s consciousness” (Winter, 11) has become reading of the Qur’an to explore and expand a defining characteristic modern culture.1 the range of meaning of wahy (revelation) and Consequently, the future well-being of the show that wahy goes beyond just affirming global West may very well be directly tied to the validity of ‘aql (reason). Then I will turn the Muslim recovery of the “middle way”. to Peirce’s philosophy (pragmaticism) to explore and expand the range of meaning of It is difficult to argue with the observation reason and show that reason goes beyond just that some of the defining developments in affirming the validity of revelation. Iqbal’s modern culture have contributed hugely insights into the qur’anic use of wahy will lend to the demise of the traditional “middle depth to Peirce’s philosophical conception of way”. At the same time there have been “instincts”. Conversely, Peirce’s philosophical other developments that can prove to be inquiry into “reason” will lend depth to the uniquely valuable resources that were not qur’anic use of ‘aql. This mutually deepened available to tradition for re-conceptualizing description of revelation and reason will and reconstructing the “middle way”. This reveal an intimate relationship between the paper is a preliminary inquiry into such two that is not visible otherwise. This Iqbal- resources. It will focus on the work of two Peirce conversation shows that the revelation early 20th century thinkers to explore what vs. reason divide can be maintained only on a contemporary reconstruction of “reason as the basis of an unqur’anic conception of wahy balance” might look like. One is the poet- or an unscientific conception of reason. As philosopher Muhammad Iqbal and the other we are explicitly transforming the revelation/ is the scientist-philosopher Charles Peirce. reason divide into a revelation-reason Based on his interpretation of the Qur’an, relationship, it will progressively become clear attachment to Rumi and study of modern that there is an intimate and deep relationship scientific thought, Iqbal offers a conception of between mind, body and spirit. An awareness revelation that is makes it virtually impossible of the depth of this relationship is a necessary to escape the conclusion that there is a deep (but insufficient) condition for reclaiming the and intimate relationship between mind, body “middle way” and repairing the fragmented and spirit. For his part, Peirce’s philosophical character of modern consciousness. inquiry (which combines insights gleaned from the scholastic realism of Duns Scotus Revelation and the Reality of Reason with the practice of scientific inquiry) leads to Given the fact that the terms “revelation” a conception of reason in which mind, body and “reason” mean a variety of things it is and heart cannot be separated. As compelling necessary to define them with some precision as their conceptions are by themselves, the

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cmc papers no.5 for the purpose of beginning the discussion— relationship between the “natural gift” and not completely or exhaustively, but only the “acquired skill” in the human attempt provisionally and minimally. Peirce notes that to understand the universe and the human instinct/intuition is “a natural gift” (5.359)2 being’s place in the universe. While they found in all living creatures. The purpose and cannot be considered synonyms, generally character of this faculty is that: “Every race of speaking the qur’anic term for “revelation” animals is provided with instincts well adapted would be wahy and ‘aql for “reason”. to its needs, and especially to strengthening the stock. It is wonderful how unerring these After looking at the hadith literature and instincts are. Man is no exception in this sources from the early Muslim community respect.” (6.497). Peirce goes on to describe Winter notes: “In primal Islam, the word the character and function of reasoning: “‘aql...had a supple, comprehensive meaning” (Winter, 8). With the passage of time the [B]ut man is so continually getting himself range of meaning of ‘aql became progressively into novel situations that he needs, and is constrained (with the introduction of Greek supplied with, a subsidiary faculty of reasoning philosophy playing a significant role in the for bringing instinct to bear upon situations to process). The range of meaning of wahy has which it does not directly apply. This faculty shrunk no less dramatically than that of ‘aql is a very imperfect one in respect to fallibility; during the same period. This is apparent but then it is only needed to bridge short gaps. from even a cursory look at the Qur’an. Every step has to be reviewed and criticized; In order to appreciate Iqbal’s argument we and indeed this is so essential that it is best to have to look at the way the word wahy is call an un-criticized step of inference by another used in the Qur’an with a view to recover its name. (6.497) “supple and comprehensive” meaning. The qur’anic use of wahy is not limited to what Reason comes into play when human is often thought of as revelation, i.e. God’s beings find themselves in “novel situations” communication with Prophets that leads to where instinct “does not directly apply”. In scripture. The Qur’an identifies inanimate these situations human beings make certain matter, organic life, and ordinary human inferences that help them in the processes of beings (other than Prophets) as being the review and criticism. Consequently, the term recipients of wahy. Referring to the starry “reason” will refer to the “power of drawing heavens above Allah says: “And it is He who inferences” — a power whose acquisition decreed that they become seven heavens in is the result of “a long and difficult art” two aeons, and sent wahy of its function to (5.359). Leaving a more precise definition of each of the heavens” (41:12). Commenting revelation and reason to be an emergent result on this ayah, the Pakistani mufassir, Amin of the discussion and keeping mind that he Ahsan Islahi notes that the term wahy refers to is in conversation with Iqbal, we will slightly Divine commands that assigned the specific modify Peirce’s terminology and provisionally function to each of the heavens. (Islahi, vol. define these terms as follows: 7, 85). Similarly 99:5 states that the Day of Revelation: The natural gift of unerring Resurrection will commence when the earth instinct. responds to the command of Allah given in the form of wahy. Both 41:12 and 99:5 Reason: The acquired skill of drawing provide evidence that inorganic matter can be inferences. a recipient of wahy. With respect to organic The following pages will detail the life being the recipient of wahy, Allah says in the Qur’an:

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And your Lord has sent wahy to the bee: human behavior in times of need/ “Build yourselves houses in the mountains crises4. and trees and what people construct. Then feed This summary suggests that for the Qur’an on all kinds of fruit and follow the ways made there is nothing in the visible, material world easy for you by your Lord.” (16:68-9) that is not touched by wahy. In other words, Commenting on this passage Islahi notes: the reception of revelation is a phenomenon that has been experienced by all things in Here the word wahy refers to that physical and the universe. Muhammad Iqbal perceptively natural wahy that comes from the Creator… comments on this point: to all of His creatures so that they are able to use the intuitive instincts with which they have Indeed the way in which the word Wahy been naturally endowed 3. (Islahi, vol. 4, 428) (inspiration) is used in the Qur’an shows that the Qur’an regards it as a universal property Islahi’s description of the way wahy is used in of life; though its nature and character are 16:68-9 is very close to the way instincts is different at different stages of the evolution of described by Peirce in (6.497). The episode life. The plant growing freely in space, the of Prophet Moses’ mother putting the infant animal developing a new organ to suit a new Moses in a basket and setting the basket environment, and a human being receiving adrift in the river is described in 20:379. The light from the inner depths of life, are all cases Qur’an informs us in 20:38 that this decision of inspiration [wahy] varying in character was the result of a wahy that had been sent to according to the needs of the recipient, or the her. Commenting on the use of wahy in this needs of the species to which the recipient particular instance, Islahi notes: belongs. (Iqbal, 100) It is obvious that the wahy that came to the Iqbal’s insight that revelation is “a universal mother of Moses was in the form of intuition property of life” becomes all the more and inspiration. This means that Allah put a significant when it is combined with an suggestion in her heart and she was comforted observation that he makes earlier in the by the thought that this suggestion is indeed discussion: from Allah—the suggestion being “Put the child in a basket and cast the basket into the The movement of life, as an organic growth, river” (20:39). This is the wahy that was involves a progressive synthesis of its various given to the mother of Moses. (Islahi, vol. 5, stages. It is determined by ends, and the 43) presence of ends means that it is permeated by intelligence. Nor is the activity of intelligence Taking the different ways that the term possible without ends. In conscious experience wahy is used in the Qur’an together with the life and thought permeate each other. They way Islahi has commented on the relevant form a unity. Thought, therefore, in its true passages, we can identify at least three nature, is identical with life. (Iqbal, 42) different senses in which the Qur’an uses the term wahy; For Iqbal, at the same time that revelation is “a universal property of life,” thought 1. The laws of nature that guide the (or reason) “is identical with life”. If the behavior of inanimate matter. allowance is made to substitute the term 2. The natural instincts that guide the “reason” for “thought” the following behavior of living creatures. picture emerges regarding the relationship of revelation, reason, and life in Iqbal’s thought: 3. The intuitive inspiration that guides

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1. Both revelation and reason are an ideal is faced by an external environment inseparable from life. that simultaneously thwarts and supports the aspiration towards the ideal. Firstly, it is the 2. Both manifest themselves according to responsibility of the individual to seize the the needs and capacities required by initiative and respond to the inner calling. life. Failure to do so has serious consequences: 3. Both are necessary for life to establish a If he does not take the initiative, if he does relationship with Reality. not evolve the inner richness of his being, if he Iqbal’s observations suggest that while both of ceases to feel the inward push of advancing life, them are equally essential for the well-being, then the spirit within him hardens into stone growth, and evolution of life, the role of and he is reduced to the level of dead matter. revelation and reason in the process of growth (Iqbal, 10) are different. We will look at each of these After responding positively to the inner points in turn below. calling, the individual is constantly faced with In terms of its origin, life cannot be separated decisions to distinguish those elements in the from revelation. Divine Speech, in the form environment which facilitate his aspirations of the primordial Divine Command “Kun!”, from those which thwart them. Reason plays is the point of origin of all life in the universe. the critical role in helping the individual Without Divine Speech there would be no to make these distinctions and respond inorganic matter, organic matter, plant life, appropriately. In short, in the struggle to animal life, or human life. Just as there can attain his freely-chosen ideal the human being be no “sacred” scripture in the absence of has no choice but to intellectually engage Divine Speech, for Islam there can be no with the physical environment around him: “profane” universe without Divine Speech. According to the Qur’an... the universe has Similarly, the Qur’an leaves little doubt a serious end. Its shifting actualities force our that reason has been part of life since the being into fresh formations. The intellectual primordial beginning: “We have not created effort to overcome the obstructions offered by the Heavens and the earth and whatever is it, besides enriching and amplifying our life, between them in sport. We have not created sharpens our insight, and thus prepares us them but for a serious end: but the greater for a more masterful insertion into subtler part of them understand it not” (44:38-39). aspects of human experience. It is our reflective The universe “is not the result of a mere contact with the temporal flux of things which creative sport” it is “a reality to be reckoned trains us for an intellectual vision of the non- with” (Iqbal, 8). If a freely chosen, purposive temporal. (Iqbal, 11f.) intent is a sign of reason at work, then we can say that reason was at work even before the Given the fact that “our reflective contact primordial imperative “Kun!” was uttered. with” the material reality of the universe is a necessary (but insufficient) condition to While revelation and reason are both prepare us for “an intellectual vision of the universal properties of life (being present non-temporal”, intellectual engagement with at the very primordial beginning) they play material reality is an indispensible condition in different but complementary roles once life the spiritual quest. Iqbal succinctly describes begins its worldly career. Iqbal notes that all the role and limitations of intellectual reason human beings are born with an inner desire in life’s journey towards maturity. He has to pursue an ideal. This inner urge to pursue likened ‘aql to a lamp that lights the path/road

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cmc papers no.5 on which one is journeying: the ambition of philosophy. is not satisfied with mere conception; it seeks a Look past the wonders of ‘aql. more intimate knowledge of and association It is a lamp to brighten the path, not the with the object of its pursuit” (Iqbal, 70f.). destination. Prayer is the primary means by which religion pursues its supra-philosophical aim. While reason lights the road leading to the Prayer has a cognitive element and like destination, revelation provides the new intellectual cognition it seeks to assimilate provisions needed to deal with the novelty and synthesize the multiplicity of phenomena and change experienced while on the road. into a unified whole. But “the assimilative Even though part of the following quote has process in the case of prayer draws itself been cited above, looking at it in a wider closely together and thereby acquires a power context illustrates the point vividly: unknown to pure thought” (Iqbal, 71). Iqbal A prophet may be defined as a type of mystic goes on to note: consciousness in which “unitary experience” In fact, prayer must be regarded as a necessary tends to overflow its boundaries, and seeks complement to the intellectual activity of the opportunities of redirecting or refashioning the observer of Nature. The scientific observation forces of collective life. In his personality the of Nature keeps us in close contact with the finite centre of life sinks into his own infinite behavior of Reality, and thus sharpens our depths only to spring up again, with fresh inner perception for a deeper vision of it. vigour, to destroy the old, and to disclose the (Iqbal, 72 ) new directions of life. This contact with the root of his own being is by no means peculiar At this point Iqbal quotes verses from Rumi to man. Indeed the way in which the word to compare the scientific-intellectual and Wahy (inspiration) is used in the Qur’an mystical-prayerful quests to know Reality: shows that the Qur’an regards it as a universal The sufi’s book is not composed of ink and property of life; though its nature and character letters, it is not but a heart white as snow. are different at different stages of the evolution of life. The plant growing freely in space, the The scholar’s possession is pen-mark’s. What animal developing a new organ to suit a new is the sufi’s possession?—Footmarks. environment, and a human being receiving light from the inner depths of life, are all cases The sufi stalks the game like a hunter: he sees the musk-deer’s track and follows the of inspiration [Wahy] varying in character according to the needs of the recipient, or the footprints. needs of the species to which the recipient For some while the track of the deer is the belongs. (Iqbal, 100) proper clue for, but afterwards it is the musk- In addition to being universal properties gland of the deer that is his guide. of life and playing equally important (but To go one stage guided by the scent of the different) roles in life’s evolutionary journey, musk-gland is better than a hundred stages of revelation and reason are equally indispensible following the track and roaming about. for life to establish a relationship with Reality. To illustrate this last point we will Following through on Rumi’s metaphor, it focus on Iqbal’s description of the meaning would be difficult to find a deer hunter in of prayer. Iqbal begins the discussion by history who became an expert in following noting “religious ambition soars higher than the musk-scent of a deer without first mastering the art of following the footprints.

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Similarly for Iqbal intellectual mastery over determining the attitude of the mind. The the natural, physical environment is an choice of one particular direction in Islamic essential pre-requisite for a disciplined and worship is meant to secure the unity of feeling meaningful encounter with the spiritual in the congregation, and its form in general dimension of Reality. Iqbal does not see creates and fosters the sense of social equality the way of the mystic as an anti-intellectual inasmuch as it tends to destroy the feeling of alternative to the way of the scientist—rather rank or race superiority in the worshippers. he sees the way of the scientist as one version (Iqbal, 74f.) of the way of the mystic: Iqbal describes the directive purpose of prayer The truth is that all search for knowledge is in these words: essentially a form of prayer. The scientific observer of Nature is a kind of mystic seeker Prayer, then, whether individual or associative, in the act of prayer. Although at present he is an expression of man’s inner yearning for a follows only the footprints of the musk-deer, response in the awful silence of the universe. and thus modestly limits the method of his It is a unique process of discovery whereby the quest, his thirst for knowledge is eventually searching ego affirms itself in the very moment sure to lead him to a point where the scent of self-negation, and thus discovers its own of the musk gland is a better guide than the worth and justification as a dynamic factor in footprints of the deer. (Iqbal, 73) the life of the universe. (Iqbal, 74) Two other aspects of prayer are relevant to Stated a bit differently, prayer is the physical, the discussion at hand; 1) congregational intellectual and spiritual exercise which helps prayer and 2) the physical aspects of prayer. the believer(s) establish physical, intellectual Iqbal notes: “The real object of prayer... and spiritual connections with Reality. is better achieved when the act of prayer Since Reality itself is composed of physical, becomes congregational. The spirit of all true intellectual and spiritual elements, failure to prayer is social” (Iqbal, 73). Congregational establish connections with any of the three prayer “multiplies the normal man’s power levels means that one’s relationship with of perception, deepens his emotion, and Reality is deficient. dynamizes his will to a degree unknown to Iqbal’s forceful and sophisticated affirmation him in the privacy of his individuality” (Iqbal, of reason based on his interpretation of 73). In other words, prayer in community qur’anic revelation is very much in line helps the individual believer attain intellectual with the way that the Qur’an uses the term and spiritual heights that simply cannot ‘aql. The Qur’an leaves no doubt that the be achieved by means of private worship. Self of the Qur’an is “revelation”. But this Similarly, while one should not get carried does not mean that the Other as “reason” is with the physical rituals involved in prayer, dismissed, condemned or left unaddressed adhering to the physical and material in the Qur’an—quite the contrary. It is strictures in prayer opens up possibilities that difficult to find a non-philosophical text in are otherwise closed. This is due to the fact world literature which discusses the topic of that physical postures have a direct impact on reason as often and in as much depth as the intellectual attitudes and spiritual ideals. Iqbal Qur’an. The complementary relationship notes: between wahy and ‘aql is illustrated by the [W]e cannot ignore the important consideration way that the Qur’an continually exhorts that the posture of the body is a real factor in human beings to use their ‘aql properly. On nearly 24 occasions the Qur’an condemns

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cmc papers no.5 those who deprive themselves of the light that from the qur’anic perspective there is an and guidance contained in wahy because they intimate and irreducible relationship between misuse their ‘aql. For example, the Qur’an mind, body and spirit. Having recovered has Prophet Abraham say the following to the supple and comprehensive meaning of the idol worshippers: “Shame upon you and wahy, we move to recovering the supple and that which you worship besides Allah! Will comprehensive meaning of reason. And you not, then use your ‘aql?” (21:67). On the for this purpose we turn to the work of the Day of Judgment, Allah will say to those who American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce. followed Satan: “He had already led astray a great many of you: could you not, then, Reason and the Reality of Revelation use your ‘aql?” (36:26). On nearly 36 other In the same way that Iqbal’s analysis shows occasions the Qur’an states that those who that the range of meaning of wahy is much use their ‘aql properly will be blessed with broader than ordinarily assumed, Peirce’s the ability to interpret Allah’s ayaat (or signs) analysis shows that the same is the case for the properly in revelation as well as in the world meaning of reason. Just as Iqbal sees wahy as a of nature. For example: “Thus do We spell universal property of life, Peirce sees thought out these ayaat unto people who use their (or reason) as a universal property of life: reason” (30:28). The following ayah explicitly Thought is not necessarily connected with links the proper use of reason to proper a brain. It appears in the work of bees, of interpretation of ayaat in the world of nature: crystals, and throughout the purely physical And in the succession of night and day, and world; and one can no more deny that it is in the means of subsistence which God sends really there, than that the colors, the shapes, down from the skies, giving life thereby to etc., of objects are really there... Not only is the earth after it had been lifeless, and in the thought in the organic world, but it develops change of the winds: [in all this] there are there. (4.551) ayaat for people who use their reason. (45:5) For Peirce, thought (or reason) permeates The Qur’an often refers to itself (and previous all of the physical world. Philosophy is the ) as “light” and “guidance”. science which is most directly concerned While it never explicitly says that human with scientific analysis of the universal reason is “light” or “guidance,” on nearly 60 phenomenon that is reason. For Peirce different occasions the Qur’an does say that philosophy is not some vague, imprecise that “light” and “guidance” (i.e. revelation) “love of wisdom”. He describes philosophy as cannot be properly understood without the a “positive science, in the sense of discovering aid of reason. In sum, Iqbal’s philosophical what really is true [universally]; but it limits affirmation of reason is very much in line itself to so much of truth as can be inferred with both the letter and the spirit of the from common sense experience” (1.184). contents of the Qur’an. In contrast to the Qur’an which does not The primary goal of the foregoing discussion go beyond giving examples of good/bad has been to open up the range of meaning of reasoning, lauding the proper use of reason wahy. As he helps us to recover the qur’anic and warning against the misuse/abuse of range of meaning of wahy, Iqbal also shows reason, providing a precise description and us how the Qur’an affirms the validity of typology of reason is a central concern reason no less forcefully than the validity for philosophy. Logic is the one area in of revelation. Along the way we also learn philosophy which is most directly concerned with the study of reason. After noting that

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cmc papers no.5 the “chief business of logicians is to classify “the existence of a natural instinct for truth is, arguments” (2.619) Peirce goes on to note after all, the sheet-anchor of science” (7.220). that logicians before him had identified only Peirce argues that appreciating the central two types of argument (or inference)— role of instinctive inferences in scientific deductive and inductive. He argues that inquiry is a fundamental prerequisite for while they play a critical role during the appreciating Galileo’s key insight that when course of inquiry, deduction and induction two hypotheses suggest themselves, one must do not generate any new ideas or knowledge choose the simpler of the two. Peirce notes claims. Deduction provides the tools to that Galileo does not mean the “logically articulate knowledge claims with objective simpler” he means precision. Induction is chiefly concerned with identifying the criteria that must be met the simpler Hypothesis in the sense of the to verify the validity of knowledge claims. more facile and natural, the one that instinct But neither deduction nor induction can be suggests, that must be preferred; for the reason credited with the genesis of the knowledge that, unless man have a natural bent in claim that is rendered precise by deduction accordance with nature’s, he has no chance of and tested by induction: understanding nature at all. (6.477) In sum, for Peirce human instincts provide Observe that neither Deduction nor Induction the most compelling evidence for the claim contributes the smallest positive item to the that human beings have the capacity to final conclusion of the inquiry. They render understand the world of nature around them. the indefinite definite; Deduction explicates; He goes on to argue that under certain Induction evaluates: that is all. (6.475) circumstances, this natural gift is a more That which deduction explicates and reliable source of knowledge than deductive induction evaluates “is first laid by or inductive reasoning: Retroduction alone, that is to say, by the spontaneous conjectures of instinctive No concept, not even those of mathematics, reason; and neither Deduction nor Induction is absolutely precise; and some of the most contributes a single new concept to that important for everyday use are extremely structure” (6.475). Here Peirce is rendering vague. Nevertheless, our instinctive beliefs explicit what has been vaguely hinted at by involving such concepts are far more trustworthy the logicians before him—there are three than the best established results of science, if types of inference, not two. Peirce calls the these be precisely understood. For instance, third type of inference “Retroduction” or we all think that there is an element of “abduction”. For Peirce, all discoveries and order in the universe. Could any laboratory new knowledge claims are exclusively the experiment render that proposition more certain product of abductive inference. than instinct or common sense leave it? It is ridiculous to broach such a question. But when Peirce is quite assertive in his claim that anybody undertakes to say precisely what all the great scientific discoveries through that order consists in, he will quickly find he the ages have been the result of instinctive, outruns all logical warrant. Men who are given abductive inferences. He notes that “the well- to defining too much inevitably run themselves prepared mind has wonderfully soon guessed into confusion in dealing with vague concepts each secret of nature is historical truth. All the of common sense. (6.496) theories of science have been so obtained” (6.476). In very strong terms he notes that Most human beings during most of their routine activity find their instincts and

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cmc papers no.5 common sense to be more than sufficient in premises have not been thoroughly criticized. their mundane pursuits. When human beings (6.500) do turn to deductive and inductive reasoning it is only under special circumstances and It is not only a careful reading of Hume for very specific and limited purposes — that affirms Peirce’s hypothesis that “reason most notably the articulation and testing is a mere succedaneum to be used where of knowledge claims. Those who try to instinct is wanting,” a look at the evolution of substitute induction and deduction where scientific knowledge also confirms this point: instinctive beliefs are sufficient quickly outrun Another circumstance which goes toward “all logical warrant” and “run themselves into confirming my view that instinct is the internal confusion”. resource of all wisdom and of all knowledge is Peirce goes on to detail the fact that in cases that all the “triumphs of science,” of which where certain “common sense” propositions that poor old nineteenth century used to be are found to be wrong or unwarranted, it is so vain, have been confined to two directions. not due to the fallibility of human instincts They either consist in physical — that is, but to the fallibility of human reasoning: ultimately, dynamical — explanations of phenomena, or else in explaining things on [W]hile I may entertain, as far as I can search the basis of our common sense knowledge of my mind, no perceptible doubt whatever of human nature. Now dynamics is nothing any one of a hundred propositions, I may but an elaboration of common sense; its suspect that, among so many, some one that is experiments are mere imaginary experiments. not true may have slipped in; and, if so, the So it all comes down to common sense in these marvelous inerrancy of instinct may perhaps two branches, of which the one is founded on add a little to my general confidence in the those instincts about physical forces that are whole lot. (6.498) required for the feeding impulsion and the other upon those instincts about our fellows that are Peirce argues that he is not the first modern required for the satisfaction of the reproductive philosopher to appreciate the relationship impulse. Thus, then all science is nothing but of instincts with knowledge claims — this an outgrowth of these two instincts. (6.500) relationship is obvious from a careful reading of Hume: For Peirce, “the internal resource of all wisdom and of all knowledge” that forms the The fourth part of the first book of Hume’s foundation of all “the triumphs of science” Treatise on Human Nature affords a strong is nothing but instincts. To emphasize this argument for the correctness of my view that point further, Peirce notes that “all science reason is a mere succedaneum to be used where is nothing but an outgrowth of” human instinct is wanting, by exhibiting the intensely instincts. ridiculous way in which a man winds himself up in silly paper doubts if he undertakes to Peirce’s inquiry into the different elements throw common sense, i.e. instinct, overboard of which reason is composed reveals that and be perfectly rational...[A] careful reader human reason is not a homogeneous, will see that if [Hume] proves anything at uniform phenomenon. It is composed all by all his reasoning, it is that reasoning, of three different (but intimately related) as such, is ipso facto and essentially illogical, heterogeneous elements. Each of the three “illegitimate,” and unreasonable. And the different types of inferences has unique reason it is so is that either it is bad reasoning, characteristics that make it impossible to or rest on doubtful premises, or else that those either reduce it to the other two or to reduce

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cmc papers no.5 the other two to it. We can summarize and put it wherever Iqbal talks about Peirce’s insights as follows: intuitive inspiration and natural instinct. And conversely one can take Iqbal’s description 1. Abduction is the source of all scientific of wahy as intuitive inspiration and natural discoveries and new knowledge claims. instinct and use it wherever Peirce talks about 2. Deduction makes it possible to abductive inference. In sum Iqbal’s opening formulate the knowledge claim with up the range of meaning of revelation allows objective precision. to make the claim that Peirce’s conception of reason sees reason as a valid source of 3. Induction makes it possible to test the knowledge. Conversely, Peirce’s opening up 5 validity of the knowledge claim. of the range of meaning of reason allows us to By this point in the discussion we have see appreciate more fully Iqbal’s qur’anically looked at two issues from two different grounded claim that thought/reason is “a perspectives: a) revelation (or wahy) as it universal property of life”. is employed in the Qur’an, through the In light of the analysis offered by Iqbal and interpretive lens offered by Iqbal and b) Peirce there are only two ways to continue reason as it is understood in philosophy to maintain the reason vs. revelation divide. through the analysis offered by Peirce. The first is to claim that wahy is nothing The time has come to bring the two other than God’s revelation to the Prophets perspectives side by side and look at the that eventually leads to scripture. Iqbal has result that emerges. The summary of Peirce’s demonstrated that this is a false claim on understanding of reason has been offered qur’anic grounds. The second is by claiming in the previous paragraph. The summary that reason is nothing more than deduction or of Iqbal’s observation that revelation is a induction or some combination of the two. “universal property of life” was offered at Peirce has demonstrated this is a false claim the end of the discussion on the different on philosophical grounds. We can conclude ways that the word wahy is employed in the previous two sections by noting that the Qur’an. In addition to referring to the independently of each other, Iqbal and Peirce phenomenon of God’s communication with have demonstrated that there is an intimate Prophets that eventually leads to scripture, we relationship between revelation and reason. noted that the word wahy is used to describe: When we take the investigation further 1. The laws of nature at work in the we find that both revelation and reason do world of inanimate matter. more than just acknowledge the validity of the other from afar or in purely theoretical 2. The natural instincts at work among terms—in a very real sense the inner core of living creatures. revelation affirms the reality of reason and 3. The intuitive inspiration that guides the inner core of reason affirms the reality of human beings in times of crises. revelation. Putting Iqbal and Peirce side by side shows Deepening the Revelation-Reason that there is an overlap between wahy as Relationship intuitive inspiration and natural instinct on In the first section of this paper we saw how the one hand and abductive inference on Iqbal draws our attention to the fact that the other. The overlap between wahy and the Qur’an regards revelation “as a universal abduction is such that one can easily take property of life”. Revelation, in the form of Peirce’s description of abductive inference inspiration, descends upon a given individual

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“according to the needs of the recipient, Finality manifests itself in all aspects of human or the needs of the species to which the culture: recipient belongs” (Iqbal, 100). The primary (and perhaps the sole) purpose of revelation The abolition of priesthood and hereditary is to aid the continued evolution of life as kingship in Islam, the constant appeal to it reaches for new horizons, responds to reason and experience in the Qur’an, and the novel challenges and strives to attain new emphasis that it lays on Nature and History as visions of reality. Among the human race this sources of human knowledge, are all different phenomenon manifests itself in a select few aspects of the same idea of finality. (Iqbal, individuals in an especially intense form in 101) what Iqbal calls, “prophetic consciousness—a Iqbal offers a cautionary note on what the mode of economizing individual thought doctrine of Finality does not mean: The idea and choice by providing ready-made of finality should not be taken to suggest judgments, choices, and ways of action” that the ultimate fate of life is complete (Iqbal, 100). Belief in Prophecy (that there displacement of emotion by reason. Such is a line of Prophets extending from Adam a thing is neither possible nor desirable to Muhammad—peace be upon them all) (Iqbal, 101). The fact that the complete is as much of a central doctrine in Islam as displacement of emotive intuition by rational the doctrine of the Finality of Prophethood reason is neither desirable or possible is amply (that the Noble Prophet is last in this line and supported by hadith literature. The following Prophecy comes to an end in his person). The ahadith not only evidence that wahy as manner in which Iqbal interprets the cultural Prophecy has come to an end but also show and philosophical significance of the doctrine that wahy in forms other than Prophecy will of Finality leads to the conclusion that the continue in the post-prophetic period. innermost core of revelation affirms the reality of reason. Iqbal’s interpretation of the • “Nothing is left of Prophecy except implications of the doctrine of Finality leads Mubashhirat. He was asked: “What to the conclusion that the end of Prophecy is are Mubashhirat?” He replied: a prelude to the beginning of a new stage in “True dreams”. Sahih Bukhari Bab- the evolution of life: ul-Mubasshirat #6607 In Islam prophecy reaches its perfection in • “Prophecy has ended and only discovering the need of its own abolition. This Mubasshirat are left.” Sahih ibn involves the keen perception that life cannot Hibban #6139 forever be kept in leading strings; that, in order • “True dreams of a righteous person to achieve full self-consciousness, man must is the 46th part of prophecy.” Sahih finally be thrown back on his own resources. Bukhari, Kitab-ut-Tabeer #6600 (Iqbal, 101) After discussing the doctrine of Finality in With the end of Prophecy human reason is doctrinal terms, Iqbal goes on to detail the the primary resource on which the human intellectual (or philosophical) significance being is “thrown back” in order to move of the claim that Prophecy has reached its from the stage of consciousness to the stage culmination and termination in the person of self-consciousness. It is only when life has of the Blessed Prophet. The crux of this attained self-consciousness that it can free significance is that all domains of experience, itself from “leading strings” and enjoy real inner experience no less than outer freedom. Iqbal notes that the doctrine of experience, are now open to reasoned and

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cmc papers no.5 rational scrutiny: Divine self-revelation. The Qur’an repeatedly states that should human beings subject The intellectual value of the idea is that it Nature, History, and the Human Self to tends to create an independent critical attitude reasoned scrutiny they will discover the same towards mystic experience by generating the truths towards which the Qur’an itself points. belief that all personal authority, claiming a For Iqbal this latter point is a watershed event supernatural origin, has come to an end in in human intellectual history as it signals the history of man. This kind of belief is a the inductive intellect taking the lead in psychological force which inhibits the growth the human search for knowledge. Putting of such authority. The function of the idea is these two points together, the following to open up fresh vistas of knowledge in the observation by Iqbal is an apt summation of domain of man’s inner experience. Just as the revelation’s affirmation of reason: first half of the formula of Islam has created and fostered the spirit of critical observation Looking at the matter from this point of view, of man’s outer experience by divesting the then, the Prophet of Islam seems to stand forces of Nature of that Divine character between the ancient and the modern world. In with which earlier cultures had clothed them. so far as the source of his revelation is concerned Mystic experience, then, however unusual and he belongs to the ancient world; in so far as the abnormal, must now be regarded by a Muslim spirit of his revelation is concerned he belongs as a perfectly natural experience, open to critical to the modern world. In him life discovers scrutiny like other aspects of human experience. other sources of knowledge suitable to its new (Iqbal, 101) direction. (Iqbal, 100f.) Iqbal argues that the first part of the kalima For Iqbal the culmination of prophecy in shahada (declaration of faith) “There is not the person of the Blessed Prophet leads to god but Allah” opened up the world of life discovering “other sources of knowledge Nature (or external experience) to scientific, suitable to its new direction”. In sum Iqbal’s rational inquiry. The second part of the understanding of revelation culminates in kalima “and Muhammad is Prophet of Allah” revelation not only affirming the reality and does away with all notions of “personal validity of reason but self-consciously limiting authority, claiming a supernatural origin” itself so that reason can further develop, and opens up all mystical and spiritual evolve and flourish to guide the human quest experience to scientific, rational inquiry. In to better understand the universe and the sum the doctrine of Finality opens up “fresh human being’s place in the universe. vistas of knowledge in the domain of man’s inner experience” while at the same time it How deep is the relationship between opens up inner (or spiritual) experience to revelation and reason? Or put more starkly, “critical scrutiny like other aspects of human how confident is revelation in the ability experience”. of reason to guide humanity in the post- prophetic stage of its evolution? For Iqbal, Iqbal notes that the qur’anic event took place revelation is so confident in the capacity at a time in history when the “non-rational of reason to help humanity move from the modes of consciousness” played the dominant stage of consciousness to the stage of self- role in the human quest for knowledge. This consciousness that revelation (in the form places the event of the Qur’an in the ancient of Prophecy) has freely and voluntarily world. At the same time the Qur’an sees terminated itself. Iqbal’s understanding of Nature, History and the Human Self as loci of revelation leads him to the conclusion that

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cmc papers no.5 the ultimate goal of revelation is twofold: 1) the glories of God. (1.127) Guide human beings to appreciate the reality and validity of the reasoning abilities that God In a slightly different context and in slightly has given them and 2) to bring to attention different words, Peirce makes the same the critical role that reasoning abilities will basic point. He says that the purpose of the play in the post-prophetic period to interpret theoretical sciences is “simply and solely the knowledge claims in all domains of human knowledge of God’s truth” (1.239). From the experience in the human journey towards perspective of his scientific philosophy it is self-consciousness. clear that the truth and glories of God cannot be separated from the universe that God has Looked at from the perspective of Iqbal’s created. Peirce thinks that “we must regard interpretation of the Finality of Prophecy, Creative Activity as an inseparable attribute of we see that the Qur’an’s treatment of ‘aql God” (6.506) and while it may be difficult (to has gone beyond just an aloof validation the point of being impossible) to define with of human reasoning capacities. If Iqbal is absolute precision, “it is nevertheless true right then it is obvious that revelation sees that all reality is due to the creative power of the emergence of reason as an indispensible God” (6.505). Consequently it is not possible stage in the evolution and development to become “acquainted with the glories of of revelation itself. In other words, one God” and “God’s truth” without becoming cannot separate the emergence, validity and acquainted with the universe because the evolution of revelation from the emergence, universe is “a great symbol of God’s purpose, validity and evolution of reason. When working out its conclusions in living realities” we look at Peirce’s analysis of the logic of (5.119). Here it is worth mentioning scientific inquiry we find an eerie similarity that for Peirce the term “god” has a very with Iqbal’s interpretation of the doctrine of specific meaning. It does not have anything the Finality of Prophecy—but with the slight to do with some immaterial, impersonal and profound that in Peirce’s philosophy we artificially concocted fiction which has been find a doctrine of the “Finality of Reason”. variously called the Prime Mover, Monad, Transcendental Ego, Universal Mind, etc. On a very basic level, Peirce’s understanding Using philosophical language, God refers to of philosophy cannot be separated from the the following: affirmation of God’s self-revelation. Peirce notes that the fundamental presupposition on The starting-point of the universe, God the which philosophical inquiry is based requires Creator, is the Absolute First; the terminus of an affirmation of God: “To believe in a god the universe, God completely revealed, is the at all, is not that to believe that man’s reason Absolute Second; every state of the universe is allied to the originating principle of the at a measurable point of time is the third. universe?” (2.24). For Peirce the relationship (1.362) between reason and God is deeper and more intimate than mere hypothetical affirmation. In non-philosophical terms this is the God of Peirce notes: the Bible—the God who sent wahy to Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (among [T]he spirit in which, as it seems to me, others). To the degree that the Qur’an is a philosophy ought to be studied is the spirit continuation of the biblical tradition, this is in which every branch of science ought to be also the God who sent wahy to the Blessed studied; namely, the spirit of joy in learning Prophet. Allah is described as “the First and ourselves and in making others acquainted with the Last, the Manifest and Hidden” (57:3)

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cmc papers no.5 whose ayaat are to be found in the previously the term is described by Peirce) ultimately revealed Books, the Qur’an and “every state requires the use of the intuitive capacities. of the universe at a measurable point in time” This is especially the case if one wants to (i.e. Nature, History, and Self). understand the argument that is the universe: “as to God, open your eyes—and your heart, Being a “great symbol of God’s purpose” which is also a perceptive organ—and you see is another way of saying that the “Universe him” (6.493). [is] precisely an argument” (5.119) for the reality of God. Every argument is a process For Peirce there is no such thing as scientific that begins with certain abductive inferences, philosophy until and unless limits are placed that are then deductively systematized and on the reasoning intellect and intuitive articulated. And if the argument is scientific feelings are accorded an appropriate place in in nature then it is open to inductive testing. the philosophical and scientific quests. Peirce Only that knowledge claim can aspire to notes: “In regard to the greatest affairs of life, the status of scientific validity which has the wise man follows his heart and does not passed through all three stages. The task of trust his head. This should be the method philosophy is to render relatively precise of every man, no matter how powerful the vague sentiments underpinning the his intellect” (1.653). Peirce has described abductive inferences, to make explicit the philosophy as a “theoretical science” but at implicit assumptions underpinning deductive the same time every theoretical science is systematization and to set forth the criteria also a “practical affair”. To the degree that for inductive testing. In short, the task of philosophy is a practical affair, it must make philosophy is to bring the conscious and sub- room for the heart/sentiments/feelings. conscious elements of an argument to the Peirce acknowledges that it is possible to level of self-consciousness. philosophize solely on the basis of head/ intellect/mind and there is no shortage of Peirce describes the character of the universe schools of philosophy that do so. While he as argument in more detail: “The Universe is referring to one particular type of such a as an argument is necessarily a great work of philosophy (i.e. nominalism) the observation art, a great poem—for every fine argument below applies to all such philosophies: is a poem and a symphony—just as every true poem is a sound argument” (5.119). By This is a philosophy which leaves no room identifying a sound argument as a “poem and for a God! No, indeed! It leaves even human a symphony” Peirce draws our attention to consciousness, which cannot well be denied the limitations that scientific philosophy must to exist, as a perfectly idle and functionless place on itself. Generally speaking science flaneur in the world, with no possible influence and philosophy are considered a matter of the on anything—not even upon itself. (1.162) head/intellect/mind that have nothing (or should have nothing) to do with the heart/ In addition to not leaving any room for God sentiment/feeling. It is obvious that the head/ and human consciousness, this unscientific intellect/mind are indispensible at a specific philosophy ultimately fails to explain the stage when one is attempting to understand “most obvious” of the observed characteristics “a great work of art, a great poem” or of the physical universe (1.162). For Peirce “a great symphony”. But it is even more the very same philosophy that identifies obvious that any attempt to understand them human reason and intellect as the only source using intellectual capacities alone is destined of reliable knowledge rejects not just the to failure. Understanding an argument (as reality of God, human consciousness, the

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cmc papers no.5 intuitive heart—it fails to see that the defining own limitation with respect to the goal of characteristics of the universe around us are attaining knowledge of and intimacy with continuity, relationship and growth. Reality and 3) both acknowledge that the other is required in any honest, truthful and In so many words, Peirce is saying that the sincere pursuit of knowledge and relationship refusal to go beyond reason and turn to with Reality. This last point may be another intuitive capacities at a certain stage in the way of saying that just as revelation requires quest for knowledge means the abandonment the aid of reason for its self-realization and of scientific knowledge. The careful reader self-fulfillment, reason requires the aid of will have noticed that there is something revelation for its self-realization and self- like the doctrine of “Finality of Reason” in fulfillment. Peirce’s philosophy that mirrors the doctrine of the “Finality of Prophecy” as interpreted A Final Word by Iqbal. For Iqbal “Finality of Prophecy” In closing it would be worthwhile to is a religious doctrine that puts a limit on explicitly identify the sources that the revelation so that the intellectual capacities of two thinkers use to effect the turn the human beings can develop further and reach debilitating dichotomies into life-affirming maturity. For Peirce the “Finality of Reason” relationships. Iqbal’s falsafa-e-khudi is built on is a philosophical doctrine that puts a limit his interpretation of the Qur’an in line with on reason so that the intuitive capacities a particular strand of the Sufi poetic, literary of human beings can remain healthy and tradition. Peirce’s pragmaticism is built on vibrant. Just as Iqbal’s turn to the intellect is the Western philosophical tradition and demanded not by ‘aql but by wahy, Peirce’s mathematics (there is a four volume work turning to the heart is demanded not by by Peirce titled New Elements in Mathematics). revelation but by reason. Peirce’s pragmaticist Both of them explicitly acknowledged the reason reaches the conclusion that human debt that they owe to Abrahamic religion. beings must turn to the heart at certain Iqbal identified his falsafa-e-khudi to be an points in their journey to better understand explication and elucidation of Qur’an 59:18- the universe and their place in the universe. 24.6 Peirce noted that pragmaticism is based The doctrine of Finality of Prophethood as on a maxim derived from Matthew 7:15- understood by Iqbal implies that if reasoning 20.7 At the same both of them are deeply as a mode of inquiry is not cultivated and rooted in their respective pre-modern adopted then the understanding of revelation intellectual traditions and equally deeply will (necessarily) remain defective. Similarly, imbued with the spirit of modern science. Peirce’s comments about the role of the Iqbal patterned his masterpiece Javed Nameh heart and the limitations of reason leave no as a dialogue between the Indian student doubt that the philosophical quest is doomed (Iqbal) being guided by the Roman teacher to failure if the instinctual and intuitive (Rumi). He earned (and embraced) the capacities are not cultivated. It is obvious that sobriquet Rumi-e-Thani (Rumi II) in his Iqbal’s interpretation of scripture and Peirce’s lifetime. A look at Iqbal’s bibliography in philosophical investigation of reason have The Reconstruction of Religious Thought transformed the revelation/reason dichotomy in Islam shows that he had read some of the into a revelation-reason relationship. The most important books on physics, biology, Iqbal-Peirce conversation allows us to identify psychology, and philosophy written in the three characteristics of this relationship: 1) West prior to 1928. He is knowledgeable Both revelation and reason affirm the reality enough in these areas to distinguish the of the other, 2) both acknowledge their

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cmc papers no.5 physics of Whitehead from that of Einstein, bridge the dichotomies of faith/rationality, to appreciate the philosophical significance religion/science, spirit/matter, free-will/ of emergent evolution and to identify the predestination, temporal/eternal, hard shortcomings of auto-suggestion and see the sciences/soft sciences, public/private, labor/ promise of configuration psychology. For capital, individual/collective, etc. better than his part Peirce explicitly identified himself alternative approaches. The inductive testing with the scholastic realism of Duns Scotus. of the hypothesis offered in this paper is a task He was trained as a chemist, worked as a for the future. å geodesist, counted some of the most eminent scientists of the day among his friends and endnotes was in intellectual correspondence with the 1 From across the Atlantic we may add leading mathematicians and logicians of his the names of Walker Percy (2000), day. Both thinkers integrated spiritual wisdom Robert Bellah (2000) and Peter Berger (from scripture), facts about material reality (1983) who have drawn attention to (from science) and the intellectual discipline the detrimental effects of a “fragmented of philosophy in their work. Separately both consciousness” on the present and future of them show that an integration of the spirit, well of modern culture. body and mind is possible in the aftermath of 2 Quotations from Peirce’s Collected the Cartesian turn. Together they point the Papers are conventionally cited in the way to the rational explication of the “middle following format (volume number, way” with a clarity and coherence that was paragraph number). not possible in the pre-modern period of human history. 3 The passages from Islahi are from his Urdu tafseer Tadabbur-e-Qur’an. The As noted in the introduction, this is only a translation from Urdu to English is my preliminary exploration of the topic. The own. goal of the inquiry was to offer an abductive 4 The semantic field ofwahy is even larger hypothesis that the works of Iqbal and Peirce than suggested above. Wahy is also used contain uniquely valuable resources that can to describe the means by which the help us to reclaim the “middle way” by (re) evil ones from among humans and jinn integrating body, mind and heart is a way encourage each other to oppose the that speaks to us and our times. The bulk Prophets in 6:112 and to dispute with of this paper was dedicated to expressing the the believers in 6:121. In 8:12 wahy abductive hypothesis in deductive terms. is used to describe the way in which The inductive testing of the hypothesis Allah communicated with the angels remains to be done. This test would examine when instructing them to convey His if the insights gleaned from the Iqbal-Peirce message to the believers during the conversation help us to better understand Battle of Badr. In 19:11 the word wahy and redress the different challenges facing is used to describe the non-verbal, gesticulating manner in which Zakariyya contemporary thought in both the world of communicated with the people during Islam and the West. If it is indeed the case the three days of thanksgiving after his that the Iqbal-Peirce conversation contains prayer for a son had been accepted by uniquely valuable resources to reclaim Allah. For a more detailed discussion of the “middle way” and heal the fractures the semantic field ofwahy and its use in of a fragmented modern consciousness pre-Islamic poetry see Toshihiko Izutsu then the following should be the case: (2005) pp. 163-215. Their insights help us to understand and

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5 It would be worthwhile to pause and is the dimension orthogonal to and look at the place Peirce’s work in the resolvable into the phenomenic or context of 20th century philosophies analytic axes. Along it are located of science. In spite of unbridgeable those fundamental presuppositions, differences on other levels, the historian often stable, many widely shared, of science Gerald Holton notes that that show up in the motivation of practically all 20th century philosophies the scientist’s actual work, as well of science share some common as in the end-product for which he characteristics: strives. Decisions between them are, insofar as they are consciously All philosophies of science agree made, are judgmental…Since they on the meaningfulness of two are not directly derivable from types of statements, namely either observation or from analytic propositions concerning empirical ratiocination, they require a term matters that ultimately boil down of their own. I call them themata… to meter readings and other public (Holton, 17ff.) phenomena, and propositions concerning logic and mathematics Holton’s work is one example of that ultimately boil down to the evidence that has progressively tautologies. The first of these, the accumulated during the 20th century propositions concerning empirical that there is fundamental flaw in the matters of fact, can in principle be two-dimensional view of science taken rendered in protocol sentences in to be a given by the rationalist and ordinary language that command empiricist, positivist and a-priorist, the general assent of a scientific inductivist and deductivist philosophies community; I like to call these of science. Thomas Kuhn, Carl Hempel, phenomenic propositions. The second Imre Lakatos and Michael Polanyi type of propositions, meaningful in are among those whose work points so far as they are consistent within towards a three-dimensional view of the system of accepted axioms, science. But with the third dimension can be called analytic propositions. gradually coming into view a claim (Holton, 5) has been put forward that there is no such thing as a “scientific method”. Considering only phenomenic and analytic This view is forcefully advocated by propositions to be meaningful, gives Paul Feyerabend as the title of his well rise to a “two-dimensional view” of the known book indicates, Against Method. space on which scientific inquiry takes When compared with the dominant place. Being a historian who has studied philosophies of science in the 20th the lab notebooks, personal letters and century and the anarchistic critiques of autobiographical notes of the leading these philosophies, Peirce’s philosophy physicists of the 19th and early 20th of science has the following advantages: centuries (particularly Einstein), Holton 1) It leads to a three-dimensional view notes that there is compelling evidence of science, 2) it reconciles the fact that to show the inadequacy of a two- certain intuitive and imaginative factors dimensional view of science: are at work in scientific inquiry with [W]e must now reexamine the the claim that there is such a thing as mnemonic device of the two- “scientific method” and 3) it establishes dimensional plane. I remove this a link between the logic of scientific insufficiency by defining a third axis, inquiry and a theory of aesthetics and rising perpendicularly out of it. This ethics. On this last point Peirce’s

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pragmaticism shows that there is an intimate link between self-conscious controlled feeling (aesthetics), self- conscious controlled thought (logic) and self-conscious controlled action (ethics). 6 Sayyid Nazir Niazi records a personal conversation that he had with Iqbal. Niazi asked Iqbal to explicitly identify the sources of ideas. Iqbal asked Niazi to bring pen and pencil with him the following day and he will answer his question. Niazi describes the meeting in these words: The next day I visited Iqbal and came prepared with pen and paper. Iqbal said: “There is a Qur’an in the cabinet in front of you, bring it to me”. I thought that I will be asked to list the pages and passages of some books on philosophy. When I brought the Qur’an to him, he told me: “Write down the last of al-Hashr” [59:18-24]. (Hashmi, 260) 7 Peirce concludes the section titled “The Pragmatic Maxim” in his paper “How to Make Our Ideas Clear” with these words: It appears, then, that the rule for attaining the third grade of clearness of apprehension is as follows: Consider what effects, that might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object. (5.402) He inserts an endnote acknowledging that the central maxim in pragmaticsm “is only an application of the sole principle of logic which was recommended by Jesus; ‘Ye may know them by their fruits,’ and it is very intimately allied with the ideas of the gospel”.

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cmc papers no.5

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