A-Level History Paper 2: Fascist (1 91 1 - 1 946)

PRE- READING GUIDE:

Name:

______

Teacher: ______

Our Course Begins: The Liberal State in the 20th

Century

Background Note: Note for Revision: Until 1870, Italy did not exist. When it was finally unified, it was In this section of the course you are trying to understand: not done very well and the ҉ How strong and how unified Italy was as a country country suffered from a series of  How the early problems contributed to the collapse of weaknesses. the Liberal State

Many Historians have linked these problems with the eventual collapse of the Liberal State.

The Political System ҉ Many of these There were several issues with the political system: problems were due to a lack of 1) The ‘liberal state’ was run by conservative liberal politicians – they introduced a national unity: monarchy a. He had key powers such as selecting the Prime Minister making him The king was needed potentially very influential (in actual fact the Kings in our period displayed to create a sense of rather weak character and so this was less of a problem than it could have national identity been) b. He could therefore very much influence policy Politicians looked 2) They liked to protect their own interests after their own a. They had no clear political parties and so followed local interests interests because b. Politicians also were the rich elite – they had little time or incentive to care there was no about the problems of ordinary Italians tradition of political 3) This led to a policy of groups – they had only a. Prime Minister could manipulate politicians into providing support in return previously for providing favour or funding needed to concern b. This was a way of ensuring a majority in the Chamber of Deputies which themselves with allowed policies to be passed issues that affected 4) This led to disillusionment and public contempt with the political system their state.  This feeling that the regime did not really reflect public opinion or reflect the needs of ordinary Italians was arguably a reason that Italians began to support alternative groups such as the Socialists, Nationalists and Fascists in later years

Key Terms:

Liberal State: Liberal literally means those who favour individual freedom. As the politicians who came to run Italy were considered to be ‘liberal’ this is how the period between 1870 and 1922 has come to be referred to. In theory they represented an end to traditional authority – ruling families of different states.

Trasformismo: Used to describe the political system. It is the way secured majorities among the different groups in parliament. It usually required bribery. The Situation in 1896 (continued)

Society and the Economy  The Liberal Italy was not doing well in either sense by 1896: governments never fully solved 1) Most of the population were involved in agriculture and there were huge these problems: regional variations this could be a) Share-cropping was used in central Italy (farmers gave half their crops to another reason landowners as rent for living on the land) why Italians began b) Large-scale farmers in the to look to c) South was dominated by aristocratic owners who employed labourers alternative groups 2) Italy was poor and economically backward compared to other economic powers ҉ This was despite the fact that Italy believed it should be considered on ҉ The poor economy equal footing with Britain and and a ‘great power’ was a big reason ҉ In reality, Italy could not really compete why Italy was 3) Industry was backward compared to other countries, and was found mostly in never as strong as the North of Italy other European a) Italy had not developed mass-production or a factory-based working countries, and a class key factor in Italy’s poor performance Revision Tip: Remember your vowels… A, E, I… in terms of gaining Empire and fighting in the The North-South Divide World Wars.

Quick Note: Those who initially pushed for the unification of Italy as a Great Power Italy, never intended for the South to be included – it was considered to be too backward. This becomes a key problem Italy was desperate to be considered on an even for the Liberal politicians to deal with. Though a key issue in playing field with other European countries. As lack of unity within Italy, it is important to remember other such: dividing lines. 1) Italy entered an agreement with Britain to 1) The South was more backward and poor than other support them if war broke out between them parts of Italy. and France 2) It was also considerably more illiterate – around a. Britain actually hoped they would 80% remain neutral as they were a. This has political implications as the considered more of a hindrance than a franchise was based around literacy (all help! literate men over 21) 2) Italy joined the race for Empire a. But was severely disappointed when they were defeated by Abyssinia (bear in mind they were funded by other ҉ The Pope was also causing problems as he European powers) refused to allow Catholics to vote: This was b. It was hugely humiliating for Italy a clear indication of lack of unity from the 3) Italy considered lost lands of Italia Irrendenta very beginning. a. These were parts of , but considered to really belong to Italy 4) Italy joined the with Germany ҉ The war in Abyssinia was supposed to spark national and Austria pride and unity, and in fact achieved the opposite. It is a key example of Italy’s failings as a ‘great power’. Revision Tip: Remember a weak BELT Threats to Stability: 1911-1914

 The growth of groups such as Catholicism and begin to undermine the system of trasformismo in this period. In later years this will become a key reason for the collapse of the Liberal State. ҉ These new groups also begin to create further divisions in an already divided Italy. These will become deeper and more apparent in the aftermath of WWI. ҉ The growth of begins to put further pressure on the government to ensure that Italy is seen as a world power and are certainly an illustration that there were those in Italy who did not consider Italy to be strong.

Socialism Key Term:

Although Socialism becomes more of a threat after 1918, it begins to cause problems Socialism: This is a political for the Liberal government in this period also. belief which shows a commitment to 1) The growth of the working class in factories leads to calls for unionisation redistributing wealth to and the spread of Socialist ideas create a more equal society.  This could certainly be linked to the lack of representation for working class Italians a. The General Confederation of Labour (CGL) is set up to represent the working class  2) By 1900 there was an organised Socialist party (PSI) This demonstrates a lack of a. In 1900, the PSI secured 32 deputies in the Chamber confidence in the liberal b. By 1913 they were winning over 20% of the total vote state already, and potential 3) There were a lot of strikes for alternative groups in a. 1904 a general strike was called Italian politics. Rembember, 4) Despite this, the Socialists were weak as there were many splits this is despite a lot of  Socialism represents a reason for the collapse of the Liberal state, working class men not being but the fear of Socialism was far more significant than the actual able to vote in 1913 as threat posed universal has not yet been introduced.

The Catholics

It was important for the Liberal State to secure the support of the Church as it represented such an influential aspect in The Nationalists Italian society. From 1904 the Church plays a more prominent Although not a mass movement, they did call for a role in politics and poses another potential threat more aggressive foreign policy, and more 1) In 1904 Catholics are allowed to vote in elections spending on defence. They claimed responsibility where a Socialist might win for persuading the government to intervene in 2) There was loose co-operation between Catholics in in 1911, and later to join WWI. the Chamber of Deputies and the Liberals to prevent a Socialist majority  Note: in later years liberal politicians become increasingly dependent on assumed support from Catholic politicians

You decide:

Was Italy on the way to security, or was it still Giolitti dominated politics between 1903-14, either as far from secure? Prime Minister, or from behind the scenes. He was a master of trasformismo – skilful at winning majorities. He was also very good at resigning at just the right moment

whenever things got sticky for him.

Society and Economy Note: Giolitti returns as Prime Minister between June 1920 and July 1921. Giolitti hoped that reforms which would benefit the working classes would win over support for liberal Italy.

This was a period of economic progress through Divisions balanced budgets and government spending to Giolitti aimed to bring all groups together if not reduce stimulate the economy. Real wages grew 25%. ҉ divisions, then manage them. However, it did not work in practice: 1) Giolitti remained neutral in industrial disputes  Giolitti’s failure to deal with the threat a. This was supposed to give some support to of Socialism was something that the workers, while avoiding losing support Fascists played on later. It meant that from industrialists already the government was losing b. In practice, it upset both groups support from their traditional 2) Giolitti tried to absorb both the Socialists and supporters. Catholics in to the government a. This alienated both in turn as they really didn’t like each other! Libya b. The elite became concerned about the In 1911 Giolitti attacked Libya, defeated Turkey growth of Socialism, and it appeared Giolitti and succeeded in winning a war! However: was not willing to stop this 3) 1914 was the worst outbreak of mass unrest since 1) Soldiers were conscripted – they did 1898 not understand the war they were a. This became known as ‘Red Week’ and scared fighting elite 2) It took a long time! b. It showed Giolitti’s policies of absorbing 3) Atrocities were widespread different groups, including workers, had not 4) Nationalists got the credit for the succeeded victory

҉ This was a step towards setting up an Growing Stability? Empire and showing Italy’s great power Giolitti certainly did not solve all of Italy’s problems, however, status. However, it also served to he presided over a period of significant economic prosperity illustrate Italy’s weaknesses as it took and to some extent, growing stability. longer and was much harder than had been anticipated. Italy was still His other achievement was to play the game of trasformismo significantly behind other European so well as to remain in power for such a significant period of powers in Empire building. time.

Potential Exam Question: To what extent could Italy be defined as a strong

nation state by 1914?

Economy

A national economy existed – there was between different states. Railways and roads connected Italy together. Although initially weak, the economy had grown stronger – Italy had begun to solve the problem of expensive imported coal by turning to hydroelectric power to fuel its growing industry. Advances were made in industry such as the growth of FIAT in the production of cars.

However, the growth of industry and agriculture was predominantly in the North, which actually served to widen the gap between the North and South and so could arguably be a limiting factor in creating a nation state. Furthermore, the economy was significantly worsened by foolish ventures in to Abyssinia and Libya which squandered Italy’s limited wealth.

Society

Especially under Giolitti, there were a number of social reforms which were aimed to improve the lives of Italians and thereby create unity with the nation state. There was also increased literacy, and urbanisation which was helping to bring people into understanding Italy as a nation and being more involved. However, it must be noted that this was still predominantly in the North.

On the other hand, there was little ideological agreement on educational and social aims. Most people still spoke regional dialects and a national press still didn’t really exist, thus undermining a cultural identity. Not only this, but nearly 40% of adults were illiterate, and yet again this was in the South, thus undermining the idea of a nation state. Further divisions were also a problem, whether these be between the rich and the poor (the elite and the workers), or between different political groups. As such, there was little consensus on what it was to be Italian, and what kind of country Italy should be.

Political

Giolitti did preside over a period of greater political stability by absorbing threats into his government. This certainly worked in the short term – the less radical socialists were successfully integrated, although this did lead to a loss of support from liberal politicians. Although there were several enemies of the state, most were weak – Socialists were divided. In this case, it was the fear of the threat posed rather than the group itself which undermined the stability of the nation state.

However, the mass of the population struggled to identify with the state – very few could vote and this was a particular problem as it was based on literacy. Moreover, Socialism had not been defeated, and neither had the liberal state provided an alternative for the working classes. The elite still governed Italy and were not willing to relinquish power. Moreover, there was very little national spirit – this was largely due to the fact that the politicians were only concerned about their own careers and private interests and thus the ordinary people were alienated from the state.

This type of question is concerned with change over time. It could either be argued in the structure above, in which case you should ensure that your chronology is secure within your paragraphs; or it could be answered chronologically. In this instance, you must make sure that your essay stays analytical and does not stray in to narrative. I recommend chunking up your paragraphs according to patterns over time e.g. before and after Giolitti. Exam Check: You should be able to

 Explain why Italy was weak during this period/politically unstable o North-South divide o Corruption and bribery (trasformismo) o Poor economy o The pursuit for great power status o Social divisions – threats to the state o Lack of identity with the state – many Italians did not see themselves as ‘Italians’

 Analyse the extent to which Italy was a Great Power o Defeat at Adowa in 1896 o Italia Irrendenta o Libya 1911 o Poor and backward economy with a lack of industry and exports o The growth of Nationalism o Italy’s entry in to WWI

 Analyse the extent to which Italy was politically united/stable o North-South divide, particularly voting o Lack of interest in working classes, especially before Giolitti o Lack of political parties o Growing alternative groups e.g. Socialism o Catholicism – initially not allowed to vote

 Analyse the extent to which Italy was economically united/stable o North-South divide in agriculture and industry o Growing real wages for poorer workers under Giolitti o Continual disputes between traditional elite and working classes

In this section: 1914-1919

Th Italy’s Entry to WWI

 WWI causes a multitude of Note for Revision: problems for the Liberal State which contribute to their eventual In this section of the course you are trying to understand:  Why the Liberal State collapsed collapse.  Why Mussolini becomes Prime Minister

Note: Despite Mussolini being a Socialist, he is for intervention in the war The Fighting:

1) Caporetto: A humiliating defeat Getting Involved: against Austria Despite being in the Triple Alliance, Italy initially decides to stay neutral. 2) Vittorio Veneto: Finally, a win! This is until they negotiate with both sides to see who can offer them (Although the Austrian army was basically defeated anyway at this more. Seeing as Italy is still upset of Italia Irrendenta, held by Austria, they sign the in and join the side of the point) 3) Morale was generally low – most Entente. who fought were conscripted peasants Bitter Divisions and Resentment

The war caused an already divided Italy to divide itself General Cadorna: further: he is so bad that he is sacked after 1) Skilled Industrial Workers (mostly in the North) Caporetto! were allowed to stay in the factories to work:

a. They were called shirkers by those who The Consequences were conscripted to fight

b. This increased resentment between North As well as serious social consequences for Italy, and South there were a number of economic and political c. The fighters also resented the lack of ramifications which further weakened the state: provisions they received 1) The economy suffered greatly! 2) The Industrial North benefitted from the war a. There is a five-fold increase in economy: government debt between 1914 a. They were given government contracts for and 1919! manufacturing, whereas the South had to b. The government caused inflation rely on agriculture by printing more money 3) Landowners in the South became wary of the c. The state spent 148 billion lire government: 2) Ordinary workers suffered also: a. the government promoted the idea of a. real wages fell 25% allowing peasants in the South their own b. there are longer working hours for land which made landowners very nervous those who stayed to work – up to  These divisions and resentments meant again that it 75 hours a week

was increasingly difficult for the Liberal government 3) The government is criticised by the Pope to ensure the support it needed. In all, most groups and Socialists felt that the government had done little to help a. The Pope condemns the ‘useless them, a feeling which festers in the run up to 1922. slaughter’ Resource: Type: John Hite and Chris Hinton, Fascist Italy (Hodder Murray, 1998) Textbook

Stephen J Lee, European Dictatorships, 1918–1945 (Routledge, 2008) Textbook

Andrew Mitchell and Geoff Stewart, The Collapse of the Liberal State and the Textbook Triumph of in Italy, 1896–1943 (Pearson Education, 2011)

Philip Morgan, Italy, 1915–1940 (Sempringham, 1999) Textbook Robert Pearce, Fascism and Nazism (Access to History Themes, Hodder Arnold, Textbook 1997) Mark Robson, Italy: The Rise of Fascism, 1915–1945 (Access to History, Hodder Textbook Murray, 2006). Edward Townley, Mussolini and Italy (Heinemann, 2002) Textbook

Alan White, The Rise of (Questions in History, Collins Educational, Textbook 2000) Martyn Whittock, Mussolini in Power (Questions in History, Collins Educational, Textbook 1998) John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy (Routledge Sources in History, Document Routledge, 2005) collection Patricia Knight, Mussolini and Fascism (Questions and Analysis in History, Essays Routledge 2003) and documents Martin Clark, Modern Italy: 1871 to the Present (Pearson Education, 2008) General history book Christopher Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A since 1796 (Penguin, General 2008) history book Paul Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy 1943–1988 (Penguin, 1990) General history book Martin Blinkhorn, Mussolini and Fascist Italy (Lancaster Pamphlets, Routledge, Academic 2006) Richard Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy: Life under the Fascist Dictatorship 1915–1945 Academic (Penguin, 2007) Alan Cassels, Fascist Italy (Harlan Davidson, 1985) Academic Frederick W Deakin, Brutal Friendship: Mussolini, Hitler and the fall of Italian Academic Fascism (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000)

Guiseppe Finaldi, Mussolini and Italian Fascism (Seminar Studies in History, Academic Routledge, 2008) Alexander De Grand, Italian Fascism (University of Nebraska Press, 2000) Academic

Donald Sassoon, Mussolini and the Rise of Fascism (Harper Collins, 2008) Academic

Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini’s Roman Empire (Penguin, 1977) Academic Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1994) Biography

Philip Morgan, The Fall of Mussolini (Oxford University Press, 2008) Academic

John Whittam, Fascist Italy (New Frontiers in History, Manchester University Academic Press, 1995) Elizabeth Wiskemann, Fascism in Italy: Its Development and Influence (Palgrave Academic Macmillan, 1972)

Richard Bosworth, Mussolini (Bloomsbury Academic, 2010) Biography

Nicholas Farrell, Mussolini: A New Life (Phoenix, 2004) Biography David Williamson, Mussolini: From Socialist to Fascist (Personalities & Powers, Biography Hodder Education, 1997) History Review Articles Francis Stapleton, How strong was the Fascist hold on Italy?, November 2013, pages 18–21 Francis Stapleton, Mussolini’s Fascist Economy 1922–39, April 2012, pages 24–28 Francis Stapleton, Mussolini prepares for war, November 2011, pages 2–5 Francis Stapleton, The man who gave away Italian , January 2010, pages 11–14 Francis Stapleton, The Fascist rise to power, September 2009, pages 14–18

Philip Morgan, The historiography of Fascist Italy has been polarised into two Article opposite and incompatible interpretations, New Perspective, March 2001, pages 26–29

Roger Griffin, Mussolini changed his policies and tactics, but consistent stress on Article national rebirth qualifies him as a fully-fledged Fascist, New Perspective, September 2000, pages 31–35

Historian Christopher Duggan argues that Mussolini was a popular ruler, BBC Podcast History Magazine (2012): www.historyextra.com/podcast/napoleon-and-mussolini

Spartacus Educational website: Website http://spartacus-educational.com/2WWmussolini.htm http://spartacus-educational.com/SPitaly.htm http://spartacus-educational.com/2WWitaly.htm Totalitarianism 1919–39: Website www.funfront.net/hist/total/f-italy.htm Casa Historia: Website www.casahistoria.net/Fascism.html https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/edexcel/the/rise/and/fall/of/fascism/in/italy Revision T Website