Aalborg Universitet Social and Environmental Conditions for Mining
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Aalborg Universitet Social and environmental conditions for mining in Greenland Jørgensen, Ulrik; Hoffmann, Birgitte; Hendriksen, Kåre Rand Published in: Proceedings Publication date: 2013 Document Version Early version, also known as pre-print Link to publication from Aalborg University Citation for published version (APA): Jørgensen, U., Hoffmann, B., & Hendriksen, K. R. (2013). Social and environmental conditions for mining in Greenland. In Proceedings: Sustainability in Mining in the Arctic (pp. 121-129). Arctic Technology Centre- DTU, Technical University of Denmark. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. ? Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. ? You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain ? You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from vbn.aau.dk on: October 06, 2021 Artek Event ARCTIC TECHNOLOGY CENTRE PROCEEDINGS SISIMIUT, 9 – 11 APRIL 2013 Sustainability in mining in the Arctic Cryolite: Lessons from History for Contemporary Practice Dawn Alexandrea Berry*1 1 Faculty of History, University of Oxford, England * Speaker, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The June 1963 issue of World Mining announced that the ore body of the cryolite mine in Ivigtut, Greenland had been mined out. This marked the first major ore mineral to be completely depleted in the modern world. Although cryolite exists in small quantities elsewhere Greenland was the only major commercial source of the mineral. In the early 20th century cryolite was used in the manufacturing process of aluminium and was essential to the war-time production of aircraft. During the Second World War several multi-national companies took an interest in both cryolite and Greenland itself. Once corporate reliance on cryolite abated, so too did its interest in the island. Drawing from the closed company archives of the Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan – now RioTintoAlcan) this paper will highlight lessons that can be learned from the history of cryolite for contemporary industry. Figure 1: Ivigtut cryolite mine 1940 1. Introduction the day of the invasion Alcan notified the Canadian government of the potential In mid-July 1963 Fraser Bruce, the President impact the German invasion could have on of the Aluminium Company of Canada Denmark’s colonies, including Greenland. (Alcan), received a letter from the Director The German occupation of Denmark would of Aluminium Laboratories Limited. The likely affect annual shipments of Cryolite letter stated that the Cryolite mine at Ivigtut from Greenland which would have a major had been completely mined out. Although effect on war-time aluminium production (an stockpiles would permit shipment for several essential component in munitions and more years, cryolite was the first major ore aircraft manufacture) (Berry, 2012). Over mineral to be completely depleted (Alcan the course of the war Alcan played a Archives, 1963). significant role on the island. It became the official purchasing agent for the colony’s Alcan had a long standing interest in imports during the war supplying Greenlandic cryolite. In the first half of the th Greenlanders with food, clothing, machinery 20 century cryolite from the Ivigtut mine and even ammunition for hunting was vital to production of aluminium at (Campbell, 1989). The company was Alcan. This reliance became a global geo- dependant on natural cryolite shipments political issue when Germany invaded from the island between 1940 and 1942, but Denmark during the Second World War. On they did not request additional supplies of 1 the mineral in 1943 because over the course Ivigtut on the south-west coast of of the war Alcan developed a cost-effective Greenland. Nicknamed “ice-rock” because of synthetic alternative to cryolite. This its ice-like appearance, cryolite was development meant a significant decrease in discovered in 1800 and first developed the corporation’s interest in both Greenland commercially in the mid 1850s by the Royal and its main export cryolite. By the time the Greenlandic Company (KGH) of Denmark cryolite supply had been completely which held a monopoly of the mining, depleted twenty years later in 1963 Alcan refining and trade of the mineral. It was had not used cryolite for years and not originally used in the production of soda and refined its own cryolite for a significant later for iron enamelling and the production period (Alcan Archives, 1963) of opaque glass (Friis, 1937). In 1865 the Pennsylvania Salt company (PennSalt) was An examination of the history between Alcan granted an exclusive North American and the Greenlandic cryolite industry distribution contract for cryolite which was highlights a number of issues which should mined in Greenland and refined in Denmark be remembered in industry today. This (Campbell, 1965). paper will discuss the ways in which Alcan’s relationship to Greenland during the Second Cryolite became particularly commercially World War reveals aspects of the important in the aluminium production Greenlandic cryolite industry in the 20th process. In the early 20th century the most century that should inform Greenlandic cost effective manufacturing process of mining practices in the 21st century aluminium required two materials: bauxite particularly with respect to staffing, and cryolite Bauxite is one of the most corporate-community engagement, and the abundant materials on earth and can be effects of market forces on corporate found on nearly every continent. In contrast interest in Greenland. cryolite was only found in Greenland (Berry, 2012). In the Hall–Héroult process of aluminium production which was used by Alcan, bauxite – an aluminium ore that is a composite sedimentary mineral rock – is heated and filtered to produce aluminium oxide. The aluminium oxide is then heated and cryolite is added as a flux and charged with an electric current to produce the metal (Carr, 1952). It was possible to use a synthetic alternative to cryolite, but at the time it was Figure 2: Map of Greenland with Cryolite more expensive and less effective than Mine natural cryolite. At the time of the German invasion of 2. History of Cryolite and Cryolite Denmark the town of Ivigtut had a Mining in Greenland population of approximately 150 people. The population was comprised exclusively of Cryolite is a mineral that was commercially Danish miners (without their families) and mined in Greenland from the mid 19th to mid mining officials. Until the mine was 20th century. Although it has been found in nationalised by the Greenlandic governors, small quantities in other locations the only the mine employees were responsible only large commercial deposit of cryolite was to the shareholders of the Ivigtut Kryolite found near the town of Ivigtut on the south- Mines and did not fall under the jurisdiction west coast of Greenland. Although it has of Askel Svane, the Governor of South been found in small quantities in other Greenland. In addition, the living standards locations the only large commercial deposit of the town were Danish and Ivigtut’s of cryolite was found near the town of European expat residents had almost no 2 contact with local Greenlanders (Mount, shipments of the mineral out of Greenland 1985). Although the revenues from the the sinking of a cargo of bauxite elsewhere cryolite mine constituted a significant by Germany in early 1940 caused Alcan to proportion of Greenland’s economy there give serious consideration to the security of was a popular saying that “Ivigtut is not that year’s cryolite shipments, “the loss of Greenland.” (Dunbar, 125). which would be a serious blow.” (Alcan Archives, 1940). When Greenland was cut off from Denmark as a result of the German invasion there was significant concern on the part of industry in both Canada and the United States that the cryolite exports would be disrupted. Alcan, however, was concerned about Greenland’s cryolite supply long before the German invasion. A number of company executives were worried about the security of shipments from Greenland to North America. As mentioned most of the global cryolite supply had been refined in Denmark and North American supply was Figure 4: Abandoned section of Ivigtut managed and distributed by PennSalt. The cryolite mine 1940 war in Europe meant that shipping the unrefined cryolite to Denmark was increasingly dangerous as a result of More significantly, however, Reports had German u-boats and surface raiders in the been circulating in the mining community North Atlantic. that the Ivigtut mine was nearing exhaustion and the quality of the mineral that was being extracted was considerably reduced in comparison with previous years. (Alcan Archives, 1939-1940). Alcan’s president was cognisant of the fact that aluminium production would inevitably be disrupted if an alternative to natural cryolite was not quickly developed. When Germany invaded Denmark Fraser Bruce’s first action was to encourage the formulation of a cost effective alternative to cryolite as soon as possible. Cognisant of the fact that an alternative to natural Figure 3: Map of cryolite shipping routes cryolite would take time to produce, he from Greenland to Europe, Canada and the entered negotiations with Canadian United States government officials to ensure the safety of the cryolite supply from Greenland to Although the United States was officially preserve the company’s production schedule neutral in the early stages of the war there for the year.