ARCTIC ALASKA a Reference Library for 43 Towns and Villages

ARCTIC ALASKA A reference library for 43 towns and villages

University of New Hampshire February 2015

Kei Saito Lawrence Hamilton Richard Lammers Stanley Glidden

Contents Document Information ...... 6 About ...... 6 43 Arctic Alaska communities: Map from Hamilton & Mitiguy (2009) ...... 6 Sustainable Futures North (SFN): Water, energy and food security in the North ...... 7 Population and vital statistics data ...... 7 Temperature and precipitation data ...... 8 Bethel Census Area ...... 9 Aniak ...... 9 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 9 Community Information (Aniak) ...... 10 Bethel...... 14 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 14 Community Information (Bethel) ...... 15 Tuluksak ...... 18 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 18 Community Information (Tuluksak)...... 19 Dillingham Census Area ...... 20 Aleknagik ...... 20 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 20 Community Information (Aleknagik) ...... 21 Dillingham ...... 24 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 24 Community Information (Dillingham) ...... 25 Manokotak...... 28 New Stuyahok ...... 29 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 29 Community Information (New Stuyahok) ...... 30 Togiak ...... 34 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 34 Community Information (Togiak) ...... 35 Additional Information (Togiak) ...... 37 Nome Census Area ...... 38 Brevig Mission ...... 38 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 38 Community Information (Brevig Mission) ...... 39 Diomede ...... 42 2

Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 42 Community Information (Diomede) ...... 43 Elim ...... 46 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 46 Community Information (Elim) ...... 47 Gambell ...... 50 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 50 Community Information (Gambell) ...... 51 Golovin ...... 54 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 54 Community Information (Golovin) ...... 55 Koyuk ...... 59 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 59 Community Information (Koyuk) ...... 60 Additional Information (Koyuk) ...... 63 Nome ...... 64 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 64 Community Information (Nome) ...... 65 Saint Michael ...... 68 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 68 Community Information (Saint Michael) ...... 69 Savoonga ...... 74 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 74 Community Information (Savoonga) ...... 75 Shaktoolik ...... 78 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 78 Community Information (Shaktoolik) ...... 79 Shismaref ...... 81 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 81 Community Information (Shismaref)...... 82 Stebbins ...... 84 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 84 Community Information (Stebbins) ...... 85 Teller ...... 89 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 89 Community Information (Teller)...... 90 Unalakleet ...... 94 3

Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 94 Community Information (Unalakleet) ...... 95 Wales ...... 97 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 97 Community Information (Wales) ...... 98 White Mountain ...... 101 North Slope Borough ...... 102 Anaktuvuk Pass ...... 102 Atqasuk ...... 103 Barrow ...... 104 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 104 Community Information (Barrow) ...... 105 Kaktovik ...... 108 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 108 Community Information (Kaktovik) ...... 109 Nuiqsut ...... 112 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 112 Community Information (Nuiqsut) ...... 113 Point Hope ...... 115 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 115 Community Information (Point Hope) ...... 116 Additional Information (Point Hope) ...... 118 Point Lay ...... 119 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 119 Community Information (Point Lay) ...... 120 Wainwright ...... 122 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 122 Community Information (Wainwright) ...... 123 Additional Information (Wainwright) ...... 125 Northwest Arctic Borough ...... 126 Ambler ...... 126 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 126 Community Information (Ambler) ...... 127 Buckland ...... 129 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 129 Community Information (Buckland) ...... 130 Additional Information (Buckland) ...... 132 4

Deering ...... 133 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 133 Community Information (Deering) ...... 134 Kiana ...... 137 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 137 Community Information (Kiana) ...... 138 Kivalina ...... 140 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 140 Community Information (Kivalina) ...... 141 Kobuk ...... 143 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 143 Community Information (Kobuk) ...... 144 Kotzebue ...... 145 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 145 Community Information (Kotzebue) ...... 146 Noatak ...... 149 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 149 Community Information (Noatak) ...... 150 Noorvik ...... 153 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 153 Community Information (Noorvik) ...... 154 Selawik ...... 156 Population and Temperature/Precipitation ...... 156 Community Information (Selawik) ...... 157 Shungnak ...... 160

Document Information

About The purpose of this document is to consolidate different information on the 43 Alaska communities that are part of the project, Sustainable Futures North, into a single source. Most of the information are directly copied from an external source and therefore should not be mistaken for original work by the authors. Information on the original source is always provided to give credit where it is due. Any inquiry regarding this document can be made to Lawrence Hamilton ([email protected]). In addition, the population and temperature/precipitation graphs included in this document are available separately online at: - Population: https://www.academia.edu/7194811/Population_dynamics_of_Arctic_Alaska_A_graphical_library_ of_demographic_change_in_43_towns_and_villages_1990-2013

- Temperature and Precipitation: https://www.academia.edu/7300593/Temperature_and_precipitation_in_Arctic_Alaska_A_graphic al_library_for_43_communities_1979-2013

43 Arctic Alaska communities: Map from Hamilton & Mitiguy (2009)

Sustainable Futures North (SFN): Water, energy and food security in the North • The SFN project explores possible synergies among the goals of food, water and energy security, as well as resource development in the North American Arctic. • Combines integrated regional assessments of water, food, and energy systems in 3 regions: Bristol Bay and Kotzebue Sound (Alaska) and Baffin Island (Canada), which face challenges related to climate change, socioeconomic change, and industrial development. • Research methods in the project’s interdisciplinary toolkit include key informant interviews, integration and analysis of secondary data, climate change downscaling, engineering best practice and gap analysis, and rural-urban network analysis. • Findings of this research will inform a collaborative education and outreach program designed to build capacity through workforce development, STEM internships, and post-secondary curricula and programs in environmental management and engineering. • This collaborative effort is directed by Philip Loring (lead, University of Alaska Fairbanks), Henry Huntington (Huntington Consulting), Lawrence Hamilton (University of New Hampshire) and Shari Gearheard (Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences). • Researchers will travel to communities in the study regions of Bristol Bay and Kotzebue Sound in Alaska, and Baffin Island in Canada, to conduct interviews with key personnel in the communities. • Additional activities include mediated modeling, integrated analysis of socioeconomic and biophysical data, engineering best practice and gap analysis, and rural-urban network analysis. • Arctic Science, Education and Engineering for Sustainability (ArcSEES) project, supported by a grant from the U.S. National Science Foundation (PLR-1263650) 2013–2016.

Population and vital statistics data • Annual mid-year estimates of community population were obtained from the U.S. Census or, between Census years, the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development. The Department of Labor and Workforce Development estimates population using administrative data, notably Permanent Fund Dividend applications — a unique resource permitting what the U.S. Census Bureau has judged to be the most accurate yearly estimates of any U.S. state (Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development 2008). • Counts of births and deaths in each fiscal year are provided by the Alaska Bureau of Vital Statistics. Fiscal year 2013, for example, counts births and deaths from July 1 2012 through June 31 2013. This corresponds approximately to the time frame of population counts as well. • Net migration each year is estimated from the difference between this year’s population, and last year’s population adjusted for births and deaths. More details and discussion of these data and the graphical approach can be found in the following papers: • Hamilton, L.C. and A.M. Mitiguy. 2009. “Visualizing population dynamics of Alaska’s Arctic communities.” Arctic 62(4):393–398. • Hamilton, L.C., D.M. White, R.B. Lammers and G. Myerchin. 2012. “Population, climate and electricity use in the Arctic: Integrated analysis of Alaska community data.” Population and Environment 33(4):269–283. doi: 10.1007/s11111-011-0145-1

• Hamilton, L.C. “Climate and demographic change in Arctic Alaska.” 2012. Pp. 147–156 in K.G. Hansen, R.O. Rasmussen and R. Weber (eds.), Proceedings from the First International Conference on Urbanisation in the Arctic. Stockholm, Sweden: Nordregio.

Temperature and precipitation data • Sampling MERRA climate data for Alaskan communities • NASA's Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) climate reanalysis product (Rienecker et al., 2011) generated by the GMAO office was used to produce temperature and precipitation inputs for each of the n = 51 Alaskan communities. The MERRA products were created using version 5.2.0 of the Goddard Earth Observing System model (GEOS-5 DAS) with a spatial resolution of ½ x 2/3 of a degree over the temporal range from 1979 to present and a 6-hour time step. The temperature and precipitation data were aggregated to monthly time steps and latitude and longitude coordinates for each community were used to extract the climate time series with nearest neighbor sampling. • Rienecker, Michele M., and Coauthors (2011) MERRA: NASA’s Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications. Journal of Climate, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11- 00015.1. • The central web address for the MERRA products is http://gmao.gsfc.nasa.gov/merra/.

Bethel Census Area Aniak Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Aniak) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Community Setting Population: 485 (Department of Labor, 2009 estimate) Incorporation Type: 2nd class city Local governance: City of Aniak Borough Located In: Unorganized Borough Regional Native Corporation: Calista Corporation

Landform and Climate Aniak is located on the south bank of the Kuskokwim River at the head of Aniak Slough, 92 miles northeast of Bethel, and 59 miles southeast of Russian Mission in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Local terrain is relatively flat and is forested with spruce and cottonwood trees. The City of Aniak is located on a large island within the Kuskokwim River. Aniak is in the floodplains of both the Kuskokwim and Aniak Rivers.

Climate is maritime in the summer and continental in winter. Recorded temperatures have ranged between -55 and 87 °F. Average yearly precipitation is 19 inches, and average yearly snowfall is 60 inches. The Kuskokwim is ice-free from mid-June through October according to the Division of Community and Regional Affairs Community Database Online.

Water Resources Infrastructure Description (descriptions are from the DCRA Community Database Online)

a. Water supply(ies): Groundwater wells (individual wells are owned and operated by property owners and a community well is owned and operated by the city). b. Water system(s): The majority of homes (207) are plumbed and have individual wells. A central well was completed in 1988 by the village corporation. There are also wells at Auntie Marie Nicoli School and the Joe Parent Voc Ed Center. Only 21 households haul water. c. Wastewater system(s): A centralized sewage system serves most residents, with the exception of East Aniak across Aniak Slough, which are on individual or small cluster treatment systems. The wastewater collection and conveyance system has six lift stations, and wastewater is treated using a lagoon. Some homes use individual septic tanks, but the presence of permafrost has caused drainfield problems, so most of the un-served homes instead use pit privies. The city rovides septic tank pumping services. A washeteria is operated by the village council. Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure The Aniak All-Hazard Mitigation Plan describes the community as surrounded by water, with topographic relief in Aniak at less than 19 feet with the land sloping gently to the south and southwest. There are numerous abandoned channels between Aniak Slough and the village which provide drainage to the south and west of the village. Water tends to back up in these drainage channels during high water events and ice-jam floods, which occur annually. The presence of numerous abandoned channels, oxbow lakes and sloughs is an indication that the channel configuration of the Kuskokwim River is rapidly changing the area surrounding Aniak.

Aniak is in the floodplains of both the Kuskokwim and Aniak Rivers. Most of the flood events in Aniak occur due to ice-jam flooding. A levee was started in 1951 by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) on the Kuskokwim and Aniak Slough on the eastside to protect the airport. The levee was repaired and extended in 1968, and in 1978 another levee was constructed along the north side of the city. The levees along the river and slough are effective in keeping ice out of the community but flooding is still prevalent because the Kuskokwim River has several features, downstream of Aniak, that act to produce ice-jams and their 10 associated floods. One feature is a large sand bar on the north bank of the river approximately 1.9 miles downstream of Aniak. Another river constriction, in the form of a tight meander with several rock outcroppings, occurs 3.7 miles downstream of Aniak. Records of floods have been kept since 1960, and major floods have occurred in 1962, 1968, 1972, 1975, 1976, 1986, and 2002 when the city’s disaster declaration noted “the sewer system was inundated and will require extensive cleaning and may require major repairs.”

Erosion is occurring at the levee toe and at areas not protected by levee. One primary area of erosion is directly downstream of the end of the dike along the Kuskokwim River.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts Aniak depends mostly on individual wells which can, and have been, contaminated in the past by flood waters. None of the well heads are known to be above 100-year flood levels. Lack of an alternative water source is a significant concern for flood victims, especially if the flood has been extensive enough to contaminate the public water supply according to the Aniak All-Hazard Mitigation Plan. For the wastewater system, all of the lift stations are being re-built with a VSW project. All of the lift stations are situated on mounds above the flood plain to minimize contamination during flooding conditions.

Severity of Impacts Private well contamination is the most severe impact anticipated to continue due to the high number of private wells and the propensity for Aniak to flood.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure As indicated above, water supply wells have been contaminated periodically during previous flood events.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure The levee provides protection from direct ice overrun into the community but does not completely prevent flooding. Ice-jam flood elevations are estimated to be one-to-two feet above the elevation of the levee dike. The city has Flood Insurance Rate Maps and participates in the National Flood Insurance Program, but well heads were not floodproofed or elevated above flood levels. Elevation of the new lift stations and controls above flood levels is a good example of design that mitigates flooding impact to water resources.

Selected Photo Documentation

View from the air of Aniak flooding during the 2002 flood event. Old Aniak is between the airport and the ice-jammed Kuskokwim River. Photo courtesy of the Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management.

View from the ground looking during 2002 flooding. Old Aniak is to the right, and the airport to the left in this photo courtesy of the Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management. 12

References Aniak All-Hazards Mitigation Plan, prepared by City of Aniak and Bectol Planning and Development, (November 23, 2005). http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/planning/nfip/Hazard_Mitigation_Plans/Aniak_HMP.pdf

Division of Community and Regional Affairs, Community Database Online, http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_COMDB.htm

Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, Aniak’s 2002 disaster declaration, http://ready.alaska.gov/community_services/acrobat_docs/aniak.pdf

Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, Aniak flood photos (2002).

Sewer Extension Feasibility Study for City of Aniak, Alaska, prepared by Kuskokwim Architects and Engineers, Inc. (September 1999)

Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, Assessment and Accountability, Enrollment by School and Grade as of October 1, 2009, FY 2010

Bethel Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Bethel) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Bethel is located along the Kuskokwim River, 40 miles inland from the Bering Sea. It is in the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, 400 air miles west of Anchorage. The community is at approximately 60° North Latitude and -161° (West) Longitude (Sec. 09, T008N, R071W, Seward Meridian.) Bethel is in the Bethel Recording District. The area encompasses 43.8 square miles of land and 5.1 square miles of water. Precipitation averages 16 inches a year in this area and snowfall averages 50 inches per year. Summer temperatures range from 42 to 62 degrees Fahrenheit. Winter temperatures range from -2 to 19 degrees Fahrenheit.

What are the costs associated with continued erosion? There are three elements related to costs associated with erosion: past protection endeavors, the cost of ongoing repair and maintenance, and future damages. These are discussed in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Erosion Protection Costs Bethel is approximately 65 miles upriver from the mouth of the Kuskokwim River and is at the upriver limit of tidal influence from the Bering Sea. Bethel is the major educational, economic, social, and cultural community in the Southwest Alaska Region, serving numerous smaller villages along the Yukon-Kuskokwim River Delta. For the last 40 years the riverbank adjacent to the community has been seriously eroded.

Bethel experiences periodic flooding, mostly because of ice jams during the spring breakup of the Kuskokwim River. The spring ice breakup in 1995 caused such severe erosion that the governor of Alaska declared a state of emergency—scour created a cove 350 feet long and 200 feet inland and endangered several structures. The village’s main port is the only one on the western Alaska coast for oceangoing ships 15 and serves as the supply center for villages in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. In response to the 1995 emergency, the Corps placed rock along 600 linear feet of the riverbank and dock.

This was the beginning of a Corps 8,000-foot bank stabilization seawall project that cost $24 million and was completed in 1997. This project included stabilization of the riverbank from the existing petroleum dock at the downstream end to the Bethel city dock at the upstream end.

Although Bethel is not in imminent danger, it has experienced serious erosion and has undertaken various infrastructure-specific activities to resolve this problem. The Corps has a project underway to repair the seawall by placing more rock, by replacing a steel tieback system, and placing steel wale on the inland side of the pipe piles. The project will reinforce the seawall 1,200 feet so that it protects the entrance to Bethel’s small boat harbor. The initial cost estimate for this project in 2001 was over $4.7 million. The project should be completed in 2006. Because of these measures, there are no plans for Bethel to relocate or collocate to another site.

Erosion control efforts by the State of Alaska legislative grants and Department of Transportation and Planning Formulation (DOT&PF) funds, Corps, and Federal Aviation Association (FAA) to date total more than $57 million.

Future Damages It is expected that future erosion damages are expected to be minimal because of the existing bank stabilization seawall and the proposed erosion protection project at the east and west bank of the harbor.

What are potential costs associated with moving to a new location or an existing community? There is no reasonable need for Bethel to relocate. With the exception of a few small segments, the erosion at Bethel has been contained. The rest of the erosion is currently being addressed through other means. In addition, the community and state have not expressed interest in relocating Bethel; therefore, numbers for relocation were not developed.

What is the expected time line for a complete failure of the usable land? With proper maintenance, the existing and planned projects should provide adequate erosion protection well into the future. No time line is provided because complete failure of the usable land is highly unlikely in the short or long term.

Tuluksak Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Tuluksak) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Water-Related Information Kuskokwim River/coastal. 1970s flood level 3.9’, recommended building elevation 5.9’. Worst floods remembered by residents were those of the 1970s. The flood of record was based on water marks on the pilings under the school. High Water Elevation (HWE) signs were placed at three locations in the community at the elevation of the water marks with the sign's water symbol at the flood elevation. Source: USACE Flood Data online.

Climate-Related Impact Flooding

Dillingham Census Area Aleknagik Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Aleknagik) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Aleknagik (uh-LECK-nuh-gik), population 241, is at the head of Wood River on the southeast end of Lake Aleknagik, 16 miles northwest of Dillingham. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the unorganized borough and is on Aleknagik Lake, but is divided by Wood River. Residents typically use the terms “north shore” and “south shore” to describe the 2 parts of the community. Different types of services are on each shore, but some services are duplicated to accommodate residents in each location. Aleknagik is at the edge of the nation’s largest state park; the 1.6 million acre Wood-Tikchik State Park and the Lake Aleknagik State Recreation Site. Boat, snowmachine and ATV ramps, barge access, boat storage, swimming, and fishing are community activities using the shoreline of Aleknagik Lake.

Description of Erosion Problem Aleknagik experiences periodic episodes of erosion, typically associated with spring flooding or fall storm events, which occur at least twice per decade. There was a damaging flood in the spring of 1996 and a severe fall storm in October 2006. Fall storms and spring breakup combined with increased waves from westerly winds on Aleknagik Lake can cause erosion. Erosion can also be caused by boat wakes, even though the Wood-Tikchik State Park has no-wake zones along the south and north shores. There is a boat ramp at the recreation site by the city dock that experiences erosion from boat traffic. That erosion area is approximately 200 feet long and 10 feet high. The boat storage area by the city dock had significant erosion during the October 2006 storm, which threatened the safety of the boats.

Potential Damages Floating docks, bank stabilization structures, stairs, pilings, and anchoring devices are small developments below ordinary high water on the south shore. Some utility poles and power lines are potentially in danger. These structures are less than 100 feet from the erosion area.

One hundred cubic yards of gravel were added to the city’s boat storage area to help repair erosion damage. Additional large rock has since been added to the staging area behind the dock to help stabilize the shore. Generally, bank protection and restoration measures have been used in areas where active bank erosion was occurring or where potential erosion may occur andjeopardize land and/or structures. No information on costs was provided.

The Wood-Tikchik State Park Management Plan, prepared by the state in 2002, describes some south and north shore developments and identified facilities on the north shore that may be at risk from erosion. These developments include Moody's boat and floatplane servicing facility and a dock facility owned by the city. The Plan also identified general erosion protection measures that could be employed in these areas.

Photos and Diagrams Photos of erosion provided by the Aleknagik city administrator are attached. Also, attached is a diagram depicting the linear extent of erosion near the city dock.

References Aleknagik Tribal Council. 2005. Aleknagik Community Comprehensive Plan. Developed by Aleknagik City Council, Aleknagik Tribal Council, Aleknagik Natives Limited, and the residents of Aleknagik.

SOA, DPOR. 2002. Wood-Tikchik State Park Management Plan. Prepared by State of Alaska, Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation. Available online at: http://www.dnr.state.ak.us/parks/plans/woodt/wtplan1mb.pdf

Various. 2005. Aleknagik Community Comprehensive Plan. Developed jointly by Aleknagik City Council. USACE. 2007. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Patty Heyano, Aleknagik City Administrator on October 25, 2007 and a facsimile copy sent to the USACE on September 28, 2007.

Additional Information This information paper, as well as those for other communities, can be accessed on the internet at www.alaskaerosion.com. For more information please contact the Corps of Engineers, project manager at (907) 753-5694 or email [email protected]

Photo 1: Aleknagik city dock, October 2006.

Photo 2: Aleknagik city dock after October storm but before city replaced fill, October 2006.

Dillingham Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Dillingham) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Dillingham is at the extreme northern end of Nushagak Bay in northern Bristol Bay at the confluence of the Wood and Nushagak rivers. It is 327 miles southwest of Anchorage and is a 6-hour flight from Seattle. The community is at approximately 59° North Latitude and -158° (West) Longitude (Sec. 21, T013S, R055W, Seward Meridian.). Dillingham is in the Bristol Bay Recording District. The area encompasses 33.6 square miles of land and 2.1 square miles of water. The primary climatic influence is maritime; however, the arctic climate of the Interior also affects the Bristol Bay coast. Average summer temperatures range from 37 to 66 degrees Fahrenheit. Average winter temperatures range from 4 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit. Annual precipitation is 26 inches, and annual snowfall is 65 inches. Heavy fog is common in July and August. Winds of up to 60 to 70 mph may occur between December and March. The Nushagak River is icefree from June through November.

Erosion Protection Costs Previous efforts to control riverbank erosion near the small boat harbor consisted of timber plank and pile bulkheads built in 1983 by the City of Dillingham at Snag Point, about ¾ mile east of the small boat harbor; 1,600 feet of sheet-pile bulkhead built by the Corps at Snag Point between 1995 and 1998 (COE 1995, 1997); and about 600 feet of sheet-pile bulkhead built by the Corps immediately east of the harbor 25 entrance in 1999 (COE 1998). In addition, Bristol Alliance Fuels has installed a sheet-pile wall to protect their mooring facilities. Erosion control efforts by the Corps to date total more than $6 million.

A project to protect Dillingham Harbor and the surrounding facilities is nearing completion of the planning phase and the beginning of the design phase. Typical annual storms are causing land to erode along the west bank of Dillingham Harbor. As seen in the photos above, the waves enter the harbor and continually erode the west bank. The east bank has already been protected by a Corps project. Erosion at the west side of the harbor entrance is also fueled by wave action in conjunction with high tides. Currently, the west bank of Dillingham Harbor is eroding at an average rate of 11 feet per year. If left unchecked, the continued erosion would lead to a significant decrease of harbor protection. In addition to reduced bank protection for the harbor, floats, and commercial fishing fleet, land as well as the majority of the fuel supply for the area would be lost.

What are potential costs associated with moving to a new location or an existing community? There is no reasonable need for Dillingham to relocate. With the exception of a few small segments, the erosion at Dillingham has been contained. The rest of the erosion is currently being addressed through other means. In addition, the community and State have not expressed interest in relocating Dillingham; therefore, numbers for relocation were not developed.

What is the expected time line for a complete failure of the usable land? Complete failure of the Dillingham property is not expected in the foreseeable future. Some erosion control measures are already in place, removal and reburial of grave sites is already occurring, and other measures are underway.

Manokotak

New Stuyahok Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (New Stuyahok) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Community Setting Population: 519, Department of Labor, 2009 population estimate Incorporation Type: 2nd class city Local governance: City of New Stuyahok Borough Located In: Unincorporated borough Regional Native Corporation: Bristol Bay Native Corporation

Landform and Climate New Stuyahok is located on the Nushagak River, about 12 miles upriver from Ekwok and 52 miles northeast of Dillingham in Bristol Bay. The village was established at the current location in 1942. The village has been constructed at two elevations -- one 25 feet above river level and one about 40 feet above river level. New Stuyahok is located in a climatic transition zone. The primary influence is maritime, although a continental climate affects the weather. Average summer temperatures range from 37 to 66 °F; winter temperatures average 4 to 30 °F. Annual precipitation ranges from 20 to 35 inches. Fog and low clouds are common during the summer; strong winds often preclude access during the winter. The river is ice-free from June through mid-November. According to a US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) flood survey field trip report to New Stuyahok, a May 2002 ice jam flood is the flood of record. An ice jam flood, most likely in 1957, was said by local residents to be higher than the 2002 flood, but with no indication of how much higher. These two floods are the only notable floods at New Stuyahok. The lowest portion of the village is built on a bench about 25 feet above the river. Floodwaters overflowed low areas around the village but did not overflow this portion of the bank and no structures were flooded. The USACE determined the flood elevation based on information provided by residents and established that the May 2002 ice jam flood elevation was 103.5 feet. Flood elevation was determined using a U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) monument marked as S4495, C1NST, C1TR2, 1966 with a location of N59° 27.089 and W157° 19.337. The elevation of the monument is 277.53 feet. The vertical datum is NAVD 88.

Water Infrastructure Description a. Water supply: Water is derived from a well and treated. Some residents are on individual wells. b. Water system(s): Water is chlorinated but not filtered. The majority of the community (roughly 94 households), including the school are connected to piped water systems installed in 1971 and have complete plumbing. c. c. Wastewater system(s): The majority of the community (roughly 94 households), including the school are connected to piped sewer systems installed in 1971 and have complete plumbing. According to the Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium, Division of Environmental Health and Engineering’s webpage, New Stuyahok’s new four-acre sewage lagoon expansion was completed in 2009. Some residents use individual septic systems, and roughly six homes are without complete plumbing. The Splish Splash Washout Center is the washeteria operated by the New Stuyahok Village Council. Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure New Stuyahok was rated as minimally erosion prone community by the US Army Corps of Engineers as part of their Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessment. During a telephone survey with the city administrator in January 2008, the administrator did not remember any major erosion events that have occurred in the last 20 years. He did estimate that approximately 20 feet of bank has been lost in the last 20 years and that during 2007, approximately 3 feet of bank was lost.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts No water infrastructure is located within the floodplain. Erosion though present, does not appear to be a risk; localized drainage is a concern but can be mitigated.

Severity of Impacts No direct impacts or threats to water resources infrastructure are known. There are three sewage lagoons in the community, with the newest lagoon located farthest from the river.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure According to USACE information, two significant floods have occurred at New Stuyahok. In 1957, an ice jam caused the water level to rise about 10 feet, but it was stated that erosion was not a problem. A May 2002 ice jam flood raised the water level about eight feet. There were no known impacts to water resources infrastructure as a result of these floods.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Resources In planning future development, flood-prone areas in the lower village should be carefully considered or avoided, and one of the land use goals noted in the New Stuyahok Comprehensive Plan is to mitigate erosion at the village site. Slopes, drainage ditches, and downhill trails in the village all need special attention in order to minimize the effects of erosion.

Mitigation efforts have been considered in siting the new sewage lagoon. The lagoon nearest the river’s edge is estimated to be 170 feet from banks edge, with the third lagoon an estimated 550 feet away.

Selected Photographic Documentation

New Stuyahok sewage lagoon. Photos are courtesy of the ANTHC, Division of Environmental Health and Engineering’s webpage.

Aerial view of New Stuyahok’s three sewage lagoons, the new school, and new housing.

References

ANTHC, Division of Environmental Health and Engineering photos from website, http://www.anthc.org/cs/dehe/2009projects/index.cfm

Division of Community and Regional Affairs, Rural Utilities Business Advisor (RUBA) status report (May 5, 2010), http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/ruba/report/Ruba_public_report.cfm?rID=749&isRuba=0

Division of Community and Regional Affairs, Community Database Online, http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.htm

New Stuyahok Comprehensive Plan, by the New Stuyahok Planning Team, City of New Stuyahok, New Stuyahok Traditional Council, Stuyahok, Ltd. with assistance from Agnew::Beck Consulting, LLC. (2005).

US Army Corps of Engineers Alaska District (USACE) Alaska Community Erosion Survey, New Stuyahok city administrator, William Peterson, Jr., (January 9, 2008).

USACE, New Stuyahok, Alaska Flood Survey Field Trip Report, by Harlan Legare, Flood Plain Management Services, Hydraulic and Hydrology Section, USACE,(2002).

Togiak Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Togiak) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Togiak (TOAG-ee-ack) population 783 is at the head of Togiak Bay, 2 miles west of the Togiak River and 67 miles west of Dillingham. It is in the Togiak National Wildlife Refuge. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the unorganized borough. The Nasaurluo Creek bank is used by the community primarily for boat storage and fish processing.

Description of Erosion Problem The community is affected by coastal erosion along Togiak Bay and bank erosion along Nasaurluq Creek, which is in the northern part of the community. Conditions reported to cause and contribute to the coastal erosion include storm surges, storm-driven wind and waves, high tides, heavy rains, and flooding. Erosion and flooding along the shoreline have been persistent problems for Togiak, with major flood-erosion events in 1964, 1979, 1980, and 1982. Ninety percent of the village was flooded under water as deep as 3 to 4 feet during the 1964 flooderosion event.

Togiak is expanding south along Togiak Bay. The unprotected coastal areas north of the bulkhead and the expanding community area south of the seawall are being eroded. In a 1983 Tetra Tech Togiak Erosion Control Assessment study, the rate of erosion was estimated at about 1 foot per year. The report estimated that erosion could increase to 7 to 8 feet per year if major storms were to regularly occur. The city estimates the rate of coastal erosion is 4 feet per year and that the rate of erosion along Nasaurluq Creek is 4 to 6 feet per year. Conditions causing and contributing to Nasaurluq Creek bank erosion are reported to include periodic fluctuations in creek flow and water levels, flooding, and spring break up.

Potential Damages A mile-long seawall built in 1984 and an additional bulkhead built in 1987 protects the northern part of the community. The National Guard Armory was moved more than 25 years ago so it would not erode into the bay. Structures and facilities are reportedly 150 to 200 feet inland from the eroding shoreline of the bay. The city’s fuel tanks are at the northern end of the community between Nasaurluq Creek and the bay. The bulkhead on the bay side of the fuel tanks was funded with a $660,000 grant from the State of Alaska and was installed by the city in 1987. The mile-long African ironwood seawall on the northern portion of the community was built by the city in 1984. The seawall project was funded with a state grant for approximately $3 million. Both structures are reportedly effective.

The community is concerned about the area south of the seawall and the material deposited on the seaward side of the seawalls after storms. Waves wash over the seawalls instead of being stopped or tripped when the material is not removed.

The community reported that the creek by the bulkhead (constructed of creosote treated timbers at 6 inch by 8 inch, buried approximately 6 to 8 feet into the beach gravel) has eroded away nearly 2 feet of this material and the bulkhead has started to lean toward the water. The community feels that this bulkhead will soon need extensive repair to insure its stability. The community also reported the ironwood seawall works very well but has one problem in that the boat ramps allow the storm waves to wash out the backfill at the ramp locations. This material must be replaced every year to insure that later storms do not wash out more fill material causing the seawall to be in danger of washing out at the ramp locations. It has cost the City of Togiak over $5,000 to truck in this replacement rock material every year.

Erosion along Nasaurluq Creek reportedly threatens residences, outbuildings, sheds, water lines, sewer lines, and a church. Some of these structures are less than 100 feet from the eroding bank. Locally installed erosion protection measures include a line of 55-gallon drums filled with rocks approximately 30 feet inland from the bank. The city dumps rock and gravel on the creek side of the 55-gallon drums when needed.

Photos and Diagrams No photos of erosion have been provided by community or other source. A diagram depicting the linear extents of erosion in the community is also attached.

References Alaska DOT/PF. 1984. Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report. Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.

Tetra Tech. 1983. Togiak Erosion Control Assessment: Final Report. Tetra Tech Inc.

USACE. 1973. Flood Data, Togiak. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Darryl Thompson, the City of Togiak director of sewer and water on February 21, 2008.

Additional Information (Togiak) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Water-Related Information USACE High Water Marks placed. ANTHC did not know of any impacts to water infrastructure. Quite a bit of new housing is being built in Blueberry Ridge subdivision out of the floodplain.

Climate-Related Impact Coastal flooding

Nome Census Area Brevig Mission Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Brevig Mission) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Community Setting Population: 358, Department of Labor 2009 estimate Incorporation Type: 2nd class city Local governance: City of Brevig Mission Borough Located In: Unorganized borough Regional Native Corporation: Bering Straits Native Corporation

Landform and Climate Brevig Mission is located at the mouth of Shelman Creek on Port Clarence, 5 miles northwest of Teller and 65 miles northwest of Nome.

Brevig Mission has a maritime climate with continental influences when the Bering Sea freezes. Summer temperatures average 44 to 57 °F. Winter temperatures average -9 to 8 °F. Annual precipitation averages 11.5 inches, and annual snowfall averages 50 inches. Port Clarence is generally ice-free between early June and mid-November.

According to the Brevig Mission Local Economic Development Plan (LEDP) 2007-2012, the community lies on a gently sloping coastal plain, three miles to the southwest of Red Mountain (elevation 1,380 feet). Soils in the area are generally a poorly drained mixture of clay, sand, and gravel, with a peaty surface layer. Permafrost underlies much of Brevig Mission, at depths that show substantial variation, particularly near the shoreline. A soil core taken by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to a depth of 255 feet found clay, gravel and sand in the first 14 feet below the surface, various frozen layers of mixed clay, sand, gravel and seashells to a depth of 112 feet, and unfrozen clays and gravels from 112 to 255 feet.

Brevig Mission is susceptible to flooding and erosion caused by storm surges and storm-driven waves from the Bering Sea and Port Clarence. All buildings along the beach lie in the Army Corps of Engineers designated 100-year floodplain and were subjected to major flooding in 1970 and 1974. The elevation of the 1974 flood of record was said to be 1 to 1.5 feet below the seaward end of the tramway bridge over the lagoon.

Water Resources Infrastructure Description a. Water supply: Water is supplied by two wells located near Shelman Creek. b. Water system(s): Water is treated and stored in a 100,000-gallon tank at the washeteria. The tank is filled monthly. Water is piped into the school from the city's water mains. The Brevig Mission LEPD states that, as of 2007, only a few housing units on the beach are without plumbing. Although one house was moved to an area where water service can be connected, some of the other homes are too old to be moved. All remaining homeowners seek to be added to the system. c. Wastewater system(s): Brevig Mission completed construction of a four-phase, $8.5 million piped water and sewer system and new landfill in November 2002, with additional extensions of the system completed in 2007. The community sewage drainfield was built above the 100-year flood elevation. According to the Brevig Mission LEPD, families that live on the west end of the beach must still use honeybuckets and haul water; the community recognizes that the homes there are very susceptible to flooding and fall storms.

Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure ANTHC indicated the row of houses on Point Clarence is most susceptible to storm impacts. The Division of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA) Brevig Mission Community Profile Map (dated June 13, 2004) shows that an estimated 15 residential structures, the Armory building, city garage and several other nonresidential structures on the beach side of Brevig Lagoon are within the coastal flood hazard area, although some structures may have been relocated since the date of the mapping. The Bering Straits Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy (CEDS) indicates that 55 of the 63 Brevig Mission homes have piped water or covered haul as of March 2009, and that eight housing units are considered unserviceable (presumably the aforementioned flood-prone beachfront structures).

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts There is a strong likelihood of impacts to the relatively small percentage of residences on the Port Clarence (west) end of Brevig Mission and directly on the waterfront. Since these structures are only served by honeybuckets and haul water, broader community water resource impacts are minimal.

Severity of Impacts As indicated above, all structures on the beach side of Brevig Lagoon are considered at high risk of flooding, storm surge, and erosion; however, they are generally served by individual honeybuckets and haul water, so shared community water resources aren’t at risk. Other areas of the village served by the piped water/sewer system are located away from the coastline and at lower risk.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure The USACE reports that major floods caused by storm surges occurred in 1970, 1974, and 1986, with an estimated 50 feet lost from erosion during the 1974 storm. However, local residents indicate that erosion generally does not occur on an annual basic [sic]. Historical impacts to water or sanitation facilities are not known.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure The relatively new water and sewer system is sited to prevent climate-related damages, including floodproof design of the new drainfield.

References

Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, Assessment and Accountability, Enrollment by School and Grade as of October 1, 2009, FY 2010

Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium (ANTHC), engineering project manager, John Hutchinson telephone interview.

Brevig Mission Local Economic Development Plan 2007-2012, prepared by Kawerak Inc, submitted to Village of Brevig Mission and the Bering Strait Development Council (November 13, 2007)

Bering Strait Comprehensive Economic Development Plan Strategy (CEDS) 2009-2013, by Kawerak and Bering Strait Development Council (2009): http://www.kawerak.org/servicedivisions/csd/cpd/index.html

Division of Community and Regional Affairs, Community Database Online at: http://www.dced.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/cf_block.htm

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alaskan Community Flood Hazard Data, online at: http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/en/cw/fld_haz/nome.htm

Diomede Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Diomede) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Community Setting Population: 117, Department of Labor, 2009 estimate Incorporation Type: 2nd class city Local governance: City of Diomede and Native Village of Diomede IRA Council Borough Located In: Unorganized borough Regional Native Corporation: Bering Straits Regional Corporation

Landform and Climate Diomede is located on the west coast of Little Diomede Island in the Bering Strait, 80 miles northwest of Teller and 130 miles northwest of Nome. The island, which is located only 2.5 miles from Big Diomede Island, Russia, is a mass of boulders and has a land area of approximately 2.8 square miles. There is a small rocky beach immediately west of the village and from there, the land rises steeply on all sides to 1,250 feet. The top is broken tableland with no trees or scrubs and scant vegetation. The international boundary between the United States and the Russian Federation lies between the islands. Little Diomede is flat- topped, steep-sided and very isolated by its location, by rough seas, and by the persistent fog that shrouds the island during the warmer months.

Summer temperatures average 40 to 50 °F. Winter temperatures average from -10 to 6 °F. Annual precipitation averages 10 inches, and annual snowfall averages 30 inches. During summer months, cloudy skies and fog prevail. Winds blow consistently from the north, averaging 15 knots, with gusts of 60 to 80 mph. Due to constant winds from the north, accessibility is often limited. The Bering Strait is generally frozen between mid- December and mid-June.

Water Infrastructure Description a. Water supply: Water is drawn from a mountain spring in the summer months (families also haul water from this source) and sometimes by desalinization of sea water. b. Water system(s): Spring water is filtered and chlorinated at the water treatment plant prior to being stored in a 434,000-gallon steel tank from which families haul water. The tank is filled for winter use, but the water supply typically runs out around March, when the washeteria is closed and residents must melt snow and ice for drinking water ANTHC is working on the design of a new, approximately 400,000-gallon water storage tank which will nearly double the community’s existing water storage. A new water transmission line has recently been completed along with improvements to the water intake. The improvements are intended to better catch some of the early snowmelt, rather than relying on summer flows which can have high nitrates resulting from bird droppings. c. Wastewater system(s): All Diomede households use privies and/or honeybuckets; the waste is dumped on the beach in the summer and on pack ice in the winter. The clinic is connected to a septic system and seepage pit serving the washeteria. The school has a similar system that disposes effluent on the beach. Due to the soil conditions, lack of ground cover, and steep terrain, waste disposal methods are currently limited to disposal on the beach or on the sea ice in the winter. ANTHC is currently preparing a sanitation master plan for Diomede. (above information compiled from an ANTHC interview, the Diomede Local Economic Development Plan, the Division of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA) Community Database Online, and the DCRA Rural Utilities Business Advisor (RUBA) status report)

Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure As one of the most remote communities in Alaska, along with its frequently adverse weather conditions, it is not uncommon for Diomede to be inaccessible by air for long periods of time. There is no airstrip due to the steep slopes and rocky terrain, so skiplanes must land on an ice strip in winter. A significant seasonal change occurred in winter 2008-09 when winter conditions were too warm and shifting ice prevented sufficient freeze-up to create a safe winter runaway on the sea ice to allow for Bering Air to fly to Diomede. This lack of access significantly hampered the community and among other impacts stopped progress on the sanitation and water improvements project. More frequent warm winters, or low snowfall exacerbated by climate change could impact both access and available water supply.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts It is not definitively known how frequent warm winters or low snowfall could re-occur; however, the community water supply remains susceptible since water supply improvements for the community are currently dependent primarily on additional catchment of snowmelt runoff.

Severity of Impacts The documented impacts affecting access to the community and its current reliance on snowmelt as a water source are described above. The community’s existing water supply challenges are significant (although are being mitigated) and there is little in the way of effective wastewater management in the community, creating potential public health and/or environmental risks. On the other hand, given that the community has relatively little centralized water infrastructure, catastrophic climate-related impacts are unlikely.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure Annually, the current water storage is insufficient to meet the needs of the community and the large returning bird population creates a treatment challenge because of the high nitrate levels of the surface runoff.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure In fiscal year 2008, ANTHC was funded $648,126 to build a new storage tank and improvements to the existing water treatment plant and transmission line, as previously described.

References Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, Assessment and Accountability, Enrollment by School and Grade as of October 1, 2009, FY 2010

A Local Economic Development Plan for Diomede 2009 Updated Priorities, City of Diomede and Diomede community workshop members, online at: http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_Results.cfm

Division of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA) Online Community Database: http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.htm

DCRA Rural Utilities Business Advisor (RUBA) status report (April 3, 2010), http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/ruba/report/Ruba_public_report.cfm?rID=758&isRuba=0

Department of Health and Social Services, Section of Epidemiology, H1N1press release (November 4, 2009)

Elim Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Elim) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Elim (EE-lim), population 294, is on the northwest shore of Norton Sound, on the Seward Peninsula, 96 miles east of Nome and 460 miles northwest of Anchorage. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the unorganized borough. The shoreline in Elim is used for boat and barge access, fishing, hunting, processing catch, beachcombing, cultural and social events, and driftwood collecting.

Description of Erosion Problem Storm surges, wind-driven waves, and periodic flooding contribute to periodic coastal erosion. Most erosion is where the shore is at its lowest elevation in an reach of about 800 feet along the coast and inland to an estimated 50 feet above the high water line. The lower areas along Elim Creek are subject to storm surge flooding and erosion. Major storm surges n 1974, 1992, 2004, and 2005 induced floods with associated erosion. The community identified the primary erosion area is along the town front with all beach sand eroded away leaving a rocky beach where a lost of 1-2 feet of shore has occurred over the past few years and estimated need to relocate several homes in the next 10-20 years.

Potential Damages The eroding shoreline area is estimated to be less than 100 feet from 4 residences. Storm surges often reach and surrounding those structures. The Elim Native store shed, a water main that crosses the bridge over Elim Creek, drying racks and smoke houses, Beach Road, a bridge, and some sanitary sewer lines also are threatened by erosion. Damages associated with the 2004 storm surge totaled $6,900. The 2005 event damaged the main access bridge and septic lines along the coast, resulting in $34,000 for repairs which were reimbursed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The repairs included elevating the structures an estimated 5 feet and protection with rip rap. The city administrator expects these measures will help reduce further erosion damage. Six subsistence use cabins were also destroyed or damaged by the 2005 storm. In addition, the community had to replace fuel headers at the barge landing.

Photos and Diagrams Photos of flooding and erosion provided by the community are attached. A diagram depicting the linear extent of erosion is attached.

References USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Art Amaktoolik, Elim city administrator on February 8, 2008.

Photo 1: Damaged bridge carrying main water and sewer line, 2004.

Photo 2: Beach Road looking east during October 2004 storm.

Gambell Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Gambell) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Gambell (GAM-bull a.k.a. Sivuqaq), population 643, is on the Northwest Cape of Saint Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea, 200 miles southwest of Nome, and 36 miles from the Chukotsk Peninsula, Siberia. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the unorganized borough. The beach and coastline are used for boating, snow machining, ATV access, barge access, boat storage, hunting, fishing, processing catch, beachcombing, cultural and social events, and driftwood collecting.

Description of Erosion Problem Gambell is periodically eroded along the north and west shorelines, primarily storm-generated waves. The community is on a gravel spit which may be struck by 25 to 30-foot storm waves and surges. The gravel on the spit is being moved constantly from the west beach. Less than half of this is formed at the north beach again. Gravel is easily moved by waves, along with the strong currents. Melting permafrost, late forming coastal ice, and shoreline ice jams also reportedly contribute to coastline erosion. The erosion rate is approximately 5 to 10 feet per year. The erosion area includes the coastline in front the community along the north and west beaches.

The 1986 Gambell Coastal Erosion Study performed by R&M Consultants for the Corps reported major storm surge floods in 1946, 1969, 1972, and 1978 with the maximum storm surge estimated at around 20 feet. Differing local erosion rate estimates were provided to the researchers, with one estimate at 7-15 feet per year, and another estimate at 20-40 feet per year. R&M reported a more conservative erosion rate estimate of 2 feet per year based on the physical evidence. The community feels that the average rate of beach erosion is evident to be higher than what R&M stated and believes the appropriate rate of erosion would be 10-15 feet per year.

Potential Damages Structures and facilities between 100 feet and 500 feet from the eroding shoreline on the west side of the community include teacher housings, residences, fuel tanks, food storage structures, a retail store, a boat launch, boat storage, boat repair structures, utility poles, power lines, sewage lagoons, sites of significant cultural and archeological value, several public buildings, the airport runway and airport facilities, and new wind turbines.

According to the R&M study, estimated costs for relocating the airport and constructing erosion control measures along the west shoreline would be between $400,000 and $500,000 per year. R&M concluded that neither of these measures would be cost effective because it would be 33 to 65 years before erosion 51 would impact the airport runway. The community expressed concern in February 2008 about potential for near-term erosion to the airport runway and facilities. A sheet pile wall has been installed near the runway as a coastal erosion protection measure. The Bureau of Indian Affairs funded the construction of a 4.5-mile evacuation road for the community in 2001.

The one area, not show on the diagram, is the small strip of land that facilitates the airport runway between the Bering Sea and Troutman Lake. Fall storms can generate 30-40 foot waves that surges over the runway and into Troutman Lake. The potential danger to community members is to be cut off due to flooding from the Emergency Evacuation Road and the possibility of damaging the runway. The community does not agree with the R&M study suggesting 33-65 years before erosion could impact the runway. Erosion of the beach gravel at the waterline is a constant concern, especially to the runway.

Photos and Diagrams A photo of Gambell provided by community is attached. A diagram depicting the linear extent of erosion is attached.

References Community Economic Development. 2003. Community Strategic Development Plan for Gambell, 2004- 2009, prepared for Community of Gambell and Kawerak, by Community Economic Development, Northwest Planning and Grants.

Environmental Services Ltd. 1980. Gambell, web access: http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.cfm

Foster. 1982. Letter to Senator Frank Murkowski from Michael R. Foster, December 13, 1982.

USACE. 1986. Coastal Erosion Study. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 1990. Gambell, AK Section 103 Reconnaissance Study. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 completed by Branson Tunigiyan, native village council of Gambell general manager, on February 1, and by Bruce Boolwon, president Sivuqaq, Inc., Savoonga native corporation on February 15, 2008.

Golovin Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Golovin) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Golovin (GOLL-uh-vin a.k.a. Chinik), population 154, is on a point of land between Golovnin Bay and Golovnin Lagoon on the Seward Peninsula. The local spelling for the bay and lagoon is “Golovnin”. The community is 70 miles east of Nome, and is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the unorganized borough. Boat, snowmachine, ATV, barge access, boat storage, fishing, processing catch, beachcombing, cultural/social events, driftwood collection, community access ways, and a summer swimming and boat dock area use the coastal shoreline.

Description of Erosion Problem Golovin reports both coastal and riverine erosion. Coastal erosion is caused by severe Bering Sea fall and winter storm surges, wind and waves, and high tides through Norton Sound that impact Golovnin Bay and Lagoon. Melting permafrost, removal of beach sand, and ivu events (ice overriding the land) are factors contributing to the severity of the coastal erosion. The estimated effects of four major erosion events were reported in the community erosion survey: (a) October 1992 an average loss of 15-20 feet inland along 7,800 linear feet of shoreline, (b) September 2003 an average loss of 5 feet inland along 7,800 linear feet of shoreline, (c) October 2004 an average loss of 5 feet inland along 7,800 feet of shoreline, and (d) September 2005 a loss of 5-10 feet inland along 7,800 linear feet of shoreline. The community survey respondent estimated an annual loss of 2-4 feet along 7,800 linear feet of the shoreline. The height of the eroding shoreline bank is reported by the community to be about 3 feet above the normal high tide line, and is eroding on both sides of downtown of the Golovnin Lagoon and Golovnin Bay. Riverine erosion is associated mostly with Chinik Creek. Over the past 20 years the Chinik Creek channel has moved east (aerial photos show a steady rate of easterly movement), reducing the natural sandbar which was part of the breakwater for storm surges. Community areas at lower elevations, including the old runway, are periodically flooded. In a 1984 report, the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities stated that the gravel mining that takes place at the mouth of Chinik Creek may increase erosion rates in Golovin. A 1994 reconnaissance study by the Corps reported that conditions had not changed.

Potential Damages The community’s local economic development plan for 2004–2009 revised and approved priority list on January 30, 2007 identifies erosion control of beach and hills as one of the priorities in a list of top priorities. The shore along the south side of the sand point is eroding toward the first row of buildings. Based on the survey, damages from erosion include downtown roads (repair costs of $5,000+), an abandoned fish plant, the old Golovin dump, and several downtown house pads (repair cost per pad of $5,000+). Outbuildings, sheds, water tanks and lines, fuel tanks, drying racks and smoke houses, a retail store, a road, a boat launch, utility poles, power generators, sewer lines and sewage lagoon, old airport facilities, the old landfill, and beach access trails from dump road are at less than 100 feet from the eroding 55 shoreline and at risk for erosion damage. The community is concerned that several structures on the south beach will soon be at risk from ongoing erosion including the old school building, the teacher’s quarters, the old church, and many residences. In the 1960’s, the barrels filled with sand were placed as a storm surge barrier along the Golovnin Bay shoreline have since rotted away and a pit run gravel road/berm was constructed along Antone Street for $145,155 to help reduce community flooding impacts. No repair and maintenance costs were provided. According to the community survey, the road/berm project has been through 3 high water events and erosion has damaged the road slope. No further measures have been taken to protect from wave erosion. A 200-foot portion of the road/berm project on the north side of the GCI site has not been completed. The survey respondent defined the erosion as “gradual - taking place by almost imperceptible (so slight, gradual, subtle, as not easily perceived) steps or degrees; developing little by little, nor sharply or suddenly,” except during severe Bering Sea Storms where substantial erosion events can occur in a short time during a storm event.

Photos and Diagrams Photos of erosion and flooding provided by the community are attached. Also attached is a diagram depicting the linear extent of erosion in Golovin.

References Alaska DOT&PF. 1984. Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report.

NPGD. 2003. Local Economic Development Plan for Golovin, 2004-2009, Prepared for community of Golovin & Kawerak by Northwest Planning and Grants Development.

USACE. 1986. Golovin, Alaska, Coastal Erosion Study. Alaska District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 1994. Flood Control Preliminary Reconnaissance Report, Section 205, Golovin, Alaska. Alaska District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2007. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 completed by Toby Anungazuk, Jr., Chinik Eskimo community on September 17, 2007 and provided by facsimile.

Photo 1: Most of the Golovin coastline is subject to erosion which increases during Bering Sea storms; this is Golovin during the September 23, 2005 Bering Sea storm.

Photo 2: Golovin from Amuktoolik & Punguk St. corner toward Baldy Hill, September 2003.

Koyuk Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Koyuk) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Koyuk (KOY-yuck), population 368, is at the mouth of the Koyuk River, at the northeastern end of Norton Bay on the Seward Peninsula, 90 air miles northeast of Nome. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the unorganized borough. Barge access, fishing, hunting, processing catch, beachcombing, cultural and social events, and driftwood collection are community activities using the shorelines.

Description of Erosion Problem Koyuk reports riverbank erosion along the Koyuk River and coastal erosion along the Norton Bay shoreline. Storm surges, high tides, wind, and waves are conditions causing and contributing to the coastal erosion. The riverbank erosion is caused by natural riverine processes of the Koyuk River. A 1984 Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report prepared by the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT&PF) indicates the primary erosion was at the beach adjacent to the east end of the community. Wave action was reported to be washing into a low lying, relatively flat area between the beach and the base of the hillside, and the erosion was extending the active beach toward the hillside. A site visit by DOT&PF reports the eroding face was about 350 feet long and up to 3 feet high. The erosion was cutting into the properties along the beach but not threatening structures.

Based on the community survey, most of the dwellings and other structures are outside of the 100-year floodplain. The community is subject to coastal flooding (and likely associated erosion) about every 10 years, caused primarily by wind-driven waves. This type of flooding occurred in 1917, 1945, 1947, 1966, 1973, and 1974, but no damages have been recorded. The 1974 record event flooded 2 homes but no public facilities. The only serious problem with storm surges is damage to local fishing boats.

Potential Damages Outbuildings, sheds, food storage areas, drying racks, smokehouses, a retail store, boat launches, and structures utilized for boat storage and repair are facilities and structures less than 100 feet from the erosion areas. First Avenue, adjacent to Koyuk Inlet and the main road to the barge landing, is reported to washout every year. Many permanent structures are on the landward side of this road.

The 1984 and 1986 DOT&PF reports indicate the beach in front of the eroding bank was utilized as a road, and was the only “roadway” connection between the community streets and a road running several miles up the Koyuk River. DOT&PF suggested that a road/berm project landward of the eroding beach could protect property and improve roadway access between the community streets and the road upriver. DOT&PF suggested the road be built of gravel from Iron Creek on a 5:1 slope toward the water. It is not

60 known if this recommendation has current applicability. The Capital Projects Database maintained by the State indicates a Bureau of Indian Affairs funded project to reconstruct a gravel source access road (1.5 miles) was completed in summer 2004. It is not known if this is the same alignment of the DOT&PF recommended beach road.

The local economic development plan (2005-2010) indicates erosion is a threat to economic and community development in Koyuk. Roads and the airport were listed as erosion control priorities. The only protective measure to control or stop erosion was installation of a berm in front of a retail store. According to the conversation with the IRA council staff, this measure has not stopped damage.

Photos and Diagrams Photos of erosion provided by community are attached. A diagram depicting the linear extent of erosion in Koyuk is also attached.

References DCCED, DCRA. 2007. Capital Projects Database. Department of Commerce, Community and Economic Development, Division of Community and Regional Affairs. http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_RAPIDS.htm

D0TPF. 1984. Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report, State of Alaska, Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.

ESL. 1980. Koyuk. Prepared by Environmental Services Limited. Kawerak, Inc. 2004. Local Economic Development Plan, Koyuk 2005-2010. Prepared for the Community of Koyuk and the Bering Straits Development Council by Kawerak, Inc.

USACE. 1986. Village Information Form: Koyuk, Alaska. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 1993. Navigation Improvements Preliminary Reconnaissance Report Section 107 Koyuk, Alaska. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2007. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 submitted by the IRA council via facsimile to the Corps of Engineers in October, 2007; and a conversation with Arlene Charles, IRA council staff, on November 6, 2007.

Additional Information (Koyuk) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Water-Related Information Unknown water resource threats. Coastal large wind setup occurs from Norton Bay.

Climate-Related Impact Coastal storm surge

Nome Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Nome) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Nome, population 3,540, is on the Bering Sea on the south coast of the Seward Peninsula, It is about 100 miles south of the Arctic Circle, 160 miles east of Russia, and 540 miles northwest of Anchorage. Nome is incorporated as a 1st class city within the unorganized borough. The eroding Snake River bank contains boat ramps, snowmachine ramps, ATV ramps, barge access, and boat storage. Community activities along the shore include fishing, hunting, fish processing, beachcombing, cultural/social events, and driftwood collecting.

Description of Erosion Problem Nome has both coastal and river erosion, primarily caused by storm surges with high tides and winds on Norton Sound. Two jetties, 200 and 400 feet long, were built between 1919 and 1935 to stabilize the Snake River mouth and estuary. The jetties contributed to beach erosion during severe storms in the late 1930s and 1940s.

The new harbor entrance channel is reportedly causing erosion of the Snake River bank along Seppala Drive, which follows the Snake River to where it empties into the Nome Boat Harbor at Belmont Point. The eroding bank is 10 feet high Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT&PF), funded through Federal Emergency Management Agency, was used in the recent past as an erosion protection measure. The present erosion area along Seppala Drive is less than a 100 feet from the roadway; utility poles, telephone and cable lines, the airport runway, and airport facilities. The DOT&PF is planning to repair Seppala Drive in 2008.

Additional erosion problems are accruing along the Nome-Council Road at the popular subsistence area locally called “Nook” at the southern extent of Safety Sound, and within the Nome city limits just east of Nome abutting the locally called “east beach” area. The road is used to access subsistence camps. Road substrate has been subject to significant erosion and is impacting road quality severely. During the recent coastal storms, listed below, portions of roads were closed to vehicle traffic resulting in stranded homes and property stressing Nome residents. There were 3 major coastal erosion events during the last 20 years: in October 1994, September 2004, and October 2005, each involving about 600 linear feet along the beach. A seawall, constructed in 1949 and completed in 1951, extends 3,350 feet from the existing entrance channel of the port, to the east along Front Street. The seawall is a rock-rivetted slope at a height of over 18 feet. The rocks used for the seawall came from Cape Nome, 13 miles east of Nome, at an eestimated cost of $1 million. The state completed a 3,750 foot eastern extension of the seawall in 1993 to control significant erosion beyond the eastern edge of the seawall. The remaining beach in front of the wall has narrowed and become steeper, resulting in the potential for waves striking the wall to be larger. The City of Nome is responsible for maintaining the seawall. Annual maintenance is necessary.

Potential Damages The community reported that repairs by DOT&PF will likely be insufficient and that Seppala Drive will likely be damaged in future storm events. Sections of the beach that remain unprotected by the seawall are susceptible to erosion.

Photos and Diagrams Photos provided by the community showing storm surge are attached. A diagram depicting the linear extent of is also attached.

References City of Nome. 2003. Hazard Mitigation Plan. Prepared by the Nome Planning Commission.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 completed by Randy Romenesko, former Nome city manager on January 7, 2008.

Photo 1: Storm surge on Seppala Drive looking north away from Harbor towards the airport; photo courtesy of City of Nome, October 2004.

Photo 2: Photo of the October 2004 storm from the cover of the Nome All-Hazards Plan; Photo by Megan Hahn.

Saint Michael Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Saint Michael) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Community Setting Population: 446, Department of Labor, 2009 population estimate Incorporation Type: 2nd Class City Local governance: City of Saint Michael Borough Located In: Unorganized Borough Regional Native Corporation: Bering Straits Regional Corporation

Landform and Climate St. Michael is located on the east coast of St. Michael Island in Norton Sound. It lies 125 miles southeast of Nome and 48 miles southwest of Unalakleet.

Most of the community is perched on a bluff from 20 to 30 feet high separating it from the beach and the sound. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) indicates that the entire town is above the 100-year floodplain. The lowest building in town has never been flooded, though it has had water reach its footings, according to a 1993 USAC trip report.

St. Michael has a subarctic climate with maritime influences during the summer. Summer temperatures average 40 to 60 °F; winters average -4 to 16 °F. Extremes from -55 to 70 °F have been recorded. Annual precipitation averages 12 inches, with 38 inches of snow. Summers are rainy, and fog is common. Norton Sound is ice free from early June to mid-November.

Water Infrastructure Description a. Water supply: Water is pumped seasonally from Clear Lake, approximately five miles north of the community. The Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT/PF) constructed a road leading to the water source and the airport. A water source intake structure near the inlet of the lake was constructed to replace the old structure. b. Water system(s): Water is stored in a 1.2 million gallon water storage tank. The water is then pumped from the 1.2 million gallon tank, filtered, disinfected, and stored in a 400,000-gallon water storage tank for consumption. The system includes water delivery/holding tanks for homes and in 2005, a piped water system was completed. The water treatment plant is under renovation to meet compliance with the Surface Water Treatment Rule and is expected to be completed in 2007. c. Wastewater system(s): Wastewater is collected using vacuum sewer collection system and pumped via force main to a wastewater treatment area northeast of the community. A new sanitation system was completed during the summer of 2005 to provide vacuum sewer service and residential plumbing to the homes in the community. The RUBA status report indicates 99% of the homes are served by the new system. The washeteria was completely renovated in 2004. In FY 2010 ANTHC was funded for the final phase of the piped water and sewer system that included power to the new water source, water treatment plant renovations, new services, and the close-out of the honeybucket lagoon.

Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure Statements in the report Bluff Erosion and Its Mitigation, St. Michael, Alaska, by Jones (1994), indicates that erosion has increased at Saint Michael. The beach and bluff are exposed to waves from the east and south but protected from waves approaching from the north and west. Apparently, until 1992, the bluff was quite stable and then it began to erode at an accelerated rate.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts Although erosion is occurring, no direct threats to water infrastructure were documented, suggesting that the likelihood of future impacts is low. However, the referenced report by Jones (1994), states that “…there are presently six residences in danger of being lost with additional bluff erosion…besides buildings, there are a couple of roads (ownership unknown) and the water distribution system that might need to be moved if erosion continues.”

Severity of Impacts No direct impacts to water infrastructure have been documented and because of the slow progression of erosion, adaption or mitigation actions should be able to be implemented to avoid any direct impact.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure None have been documented.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure No documented mitigation measures have been implemented to date. The referenced report by Jones (1994) recommended “that local rock be used to construct structures to prevent further bluff erosion. It should be most cost effective, and it can be accomplished using all local resources. Since neither scheme places material at the toe of the bluff, the current eroded bluffs are expected to erode until some equilibrium is established between the bluff slope and the size of the bluff material. Slopes will be steeper and the bluff migration less if vegetation will grow back on the bluffs once most of the wave energy is kept from impacting directly on them. The village might also initiate a program to revegetate the bluffs.”

Selected Photographic Documentation

Boardwalk crossing the piped water/vacuum sewer line. Photo courtesy of the St. Michael LEPD completed by Kawerak Inc. in April 2004.

1.2 million gallon water tank. Photo courtesy of the St. Michael LEPD completed by Kawerak Inc. in April 2004. 71

400,000 gallon water tank. Photo courtesy of the St. Michael LEPD completed by Kawerak Inc. in April 2004.

St. Michael’s water/vacuum sewer lines. Photo courtesy of the St. Michael LEPD completed by Kawerak Inc. in April 2004.

References Division of Community and Regional Affairs, RUBA May 3, 2006 status report (April 4, 2010 update) http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/ruba/report/Ruba_public_report.cfm?rID=710&isRuba=0

Jones, D.F. 1994. Bluff Erosion and Its Mitigation, St. Michael, Alaska, by Douglas F. Jones, Coastline Engineering, prepared for the Bering Straits Housing Authority (August 31, 1994)

Local Economic Development Plan (LEDP) Saint Michael 2005-2010, prepared by Kawerak, Inc. for the community of Saint Michael and the Bering Straits Development Council, (April, 2004)

Saint Michael Long Range Transportation Plan, Indian Reservation Roads Program. Rodney P. Kinney Associates, Inc. 2002, prepared for Saint Michael IRA Council in cooperation with Kawerak Transportation Program. US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Field Trip, Saint Michael and Stebbins, (December 14, 1993)

Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report, Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, (January 3, 1994)

USACE. St. Michael Erosion Information Paper, Alaska Community Erosion Survey, submitted by Virginia Washington, St. Michael city administrator on August 28, 2007 and emails with Frank Myomick, Kawerak transportation planner and St. Michael city council member in September 2007.

Savoonga Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Savoonga) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Savoonga (suh-VOON-guh), population 712, is on the northern coast of Saint Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea, 164 miles west of Nome and 39 miles southeast of Gambell. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city within the unorganized borough. Boat, snowmachine and ATV ramps, boat storage, fishing, hunting, processing catch, beachcombing, cultural and social events, and driftwood collection are community activities using the shoreline of the bay.

Description of Erosion Problem Savoonga reported coastal erosion from the Bering Sea. High tides, storm surges, wind, waves, melting permafrost, late-forming coastal ice, boat traffic, and vehicle and pedestrian traffic along the shoreline are reported causes and factors contributing to the erosion. The estimated erosion of the shoreline near the community is 1.7 to 2 feet per year. The erosion area is directly in front of the community and measures 80 feet horizontally and 30 to 35 feet vertically.

Erosion has been significant over the years, steadily washing away the bank of the shoreline. From 1972 to 2002, about 50 feet of bank eroded and was lost along Ishnuk Bay. Every fall and spring more soil is lost, and more rocks appear along the shoreline. This ongoing erosion has made the bank very steep (>45 degrees) and increasingly boulder-strewn, causing significant problems with boat launching and landing.

Potential Damages Dwellings, a retail store, the main road, utility poles for power, telephone and cable, a clinic, a church, boat racks, teacher’s quarters, and a commercial fish plant are structures threatened by the continuing coastal erosion. Some of these structures are estimated to be 150 feet or less from the eroding shoreline. The community anticipates all of those structures will be in danger of damage or loss due to erosion in the next 10 to 15 years. Because the old school was in severe danger, the community built a new school farther away from the shoreline. In the Savoonga Strategic Development Plan for 2004-2009, community development goal #3 is erosion control. There are no records of any flooding having occurred in Savoonga. According to the community, no attempts have been made to utilize erosion protection measures.

Photos and Diagrams Photos of erosion provided by community and other sources are attached. A diagram showing the linear extent of erosion in the community is also attached.

References Kawerak Inc. 2003. Community Strategic Development Plan for Savoonga 2004-2009, Prepared for Community of Savoonga and the Bering Strait Development Council by Kawerak, Inc.

USACE. 1992. Community Information Form, Savoonga. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2002. Savoonga: July 17, 2002, Site Visit. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2007. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 submitted via facsimile in September, 2007 and discussed further with Peggy Akeya, Savoonga city clerk, on November 2, 2007 and with Myron Kingeekuk, a council member, on November 7, 2007.

Shaktoolik Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Shaktoolik) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2008. “Recommendations Report to the Governor’s Subcabinet on Climate Change.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_rpt_17apr08.pdf)

Location and Climate Shaktoolik is located on the east shore of Norton Sound. It lies 125 miles east of Nome and 33 miles north of Unalakleet. The community lies at approximately 64.333890° North Latitude and - 161.153890° (West) Longitude. (Sec. 23, T013S, R013W, Kateel River Meridian.) Shaktoolik is located in the Cape Nome Recording District. The area encompasses 1.1 sq. miles of land and 0.0 sq. miles of water. Shaktoolik has a subarctic climate with maritime influences when Norton Sound is ice-free, usually from May to October. Summer temperatures average 47 to 62; winter temperatures average -4 to 11. Extremes from -50 to 87 have been recorded. Average annual precipitation is 14 inches, including 43 inches of snowfall.

History, Culture, and Demographics Shaktoolik was the first and southernmost Malemiut settlement on Norton Sound, occupied as early as 1839. Twelve miles northeast, on Cape Denbigh, is "Iyatayet," a site that is 6,000 to 8,000 years old. Reindeer herds were managed in the Shaktoolik area around 1905. The village was originally located six miles up the Shaktoolik River, and moved to the mouth of the River in 1933. This site was prone to severe storms and winds, however, and the village relocated to its present, more sheltered location in 1967. The City was incorporated in 1969.

A federally-recognized tribe is located in the community -- the Native Village of Shaktoolik. The population of the community consists of 94.8 percent Alaska Native or part Native. It is a Malemiut Eskimo village with a fishing and subsistence lifestyle. The sale or importation of alcohol is banned in the village. During the 2000 U.S. Census, total housing units numbered 66, and vacant housing units numbered 6. Vacant housing units used only seasonally numbered 1. U.S. Census data for Year 2000 showed 68 residents as employed. The unemployment rate at that time was 27.66 percent, although 56.69 percent of all adults were not in the work force. The median household income was $31,875, per capita income was $10,491, and 6.09 percent of residents were living below the poverty level.

Facilities, Utilities, Schools, and Health Care Water is pumped three miles from the Togoomenik River to the pumphouse, where it is treated and stored in a 848,000-gallon insulated tank adjacent to the washeteria. A piped water and sewage collection system serves most homes. Seventy-five percent of households have complete plumbing and kitchen facilities. The school is connected to City water, and has received funding to develop a sewage treatment system to serve the entire community. The City burns refuse in an incinerator. The landfill needs to be relocated; the current site is not permitted. Electricity is provided by AVEC. There is one school located in the community, attended by 57 students. Local hospitals or health clinics include Shaktoolik Clinic.

Shaktoolik is classified as an isolated village, it is found in EMS Region 5A in the Norton Sound Region. Emergency Services have coastal and air access. Emergency service is provided by a health aide.

Economy and Transportation The Shaktoolik economy is based on subsistence, supplemented by part-time wage earnings. Thirty-three residents hold commercial fishing permits. Development of a new fish processing facility is a village priority. Reindeer herding also provides income and meat. Fish, crab, moose, beluga whale, caribou, seal, rabbit, geese, cranes, ducks, ptarmigan, berries, greens and roots are also primary food sources.

Shaktoolik is primarily accessible by air and sea. A State-owned 4,000' long by 75' wide gravel airstrip is available. The Alex Sookiayak Memorial Airstrip allows for regular service from Nome. Summer travel is by 4-wheel ATV, motorbike, truck, and boat; winter travel is by snowmachine and dog team. Cargo is barged from Nome, then lightered to shore. The community has no docking facilities.

Shismaref Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Shismaref) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2008. “Recommendations Report to the Governor’s Subcabinet on Climate Change.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_rpt_17apr08.pdf)

Location and Climate Shishmaref is located on Sarichef Island, in the Chuk chi Sea, just north of Bering Strait. Shishmaref is five miles from the mainland, 126 miles north of Nome and 100 miles southwest of Kotzebue. The village is surrounded by the 2.6 million-acre Bering Land Bridge National Reserve. It is part of the Beringian National Heritage Park, endorsed by Presidents Bush and Gorbachev in 1990. The community lies at approximately 66.256670° North Latitude and -166.071940° (West) Longitude. (Sec. 23, T010N, R035W, Kateel River Meridian.) Shishmaref is located in the Cape Nome Recording District. The area encompasses 2.8 sq. miles of land and 4.5 sq. miles of water. The area experiences a transitional climate between the frozen arctic and the continental Interior. Summers can be foggy, with average temperatures ranging from 47 to 54; winter temperatures average -12 to 2. Average annual precipitation is about 8 inches, including 33 inches of snow. The Chukchi Sea is frozen from mid-November through mid-June.

History, Culture, and Demographics The original Eskimo name for the island is "Kigiktaq." In 1816, Lt. Otto Von Kotzebue named the inlet "Shishmarev," after a member of his crew. Excavations at "Keekiktuk" by archaeologists around 1821 provided evidence of Eskimo habitation from several centuries ago. Shishmaref has an excellent harbor, and around 1900 it became a supply center for gold mining activities to the south. The village was named after the Inlet and a post office was established in 1901. The City government was incorporated in 1969. During October 1997, a severe storm eroded over 30 feet of the north shore, requiring 14 homes and the National Guard Armory to be relocated. Five additional homes were relocated in 2002. Other storms have continued to erode the shoreline, an average of 3 to 5 feet per year on the north shore. In July 2002, residents voted to relocate the community.

A federally-recognized tribe is located in the community -- the Native Village of Shishmaref. The population of the community consists of 94.5 percent Alaska Native or part Native. It is a traditional Inupiat Eskimo

82 village with a fishing and subsistence lifestyle. The sale or importation of alcohol is banned. During the 2000 U.S. Census, total housing units numbered 148, and vacant housing units numbered 6. Vacant housing units used only seasonally numbered 4. U.S. Census data for Year 2000 showed 173 residents as employed. The unemployment rate at that time was 16.43 percent, although 51.81 percent of all adults were not in the work force. The median household income was $30,714, per capita income was $10,487, and 16.27 percent of residents were living below the poverty level.

Facilities, Utilities, Schools, and Health Care Water is derived from a surface source, is treated and stored in a new tank. Shishmaref is undergoing major improvements, with the construction of a flush/haul system and household plumbing. Nineteen HUD homes have been completed, and 71 homes remain to be served. The new system provides water delivery, but the unserved homes continue to haul water. Honeybuckets and the new flush tanks are hauled by the City. The school, clinic, Friendship Center, City Hall and fire hall are connected to a sewage lagoon. A new landfill is planned for the City; an access road is under construction. Electricity is provided by AVEC. There is one school located in the community, attended by 173 students. Local hospitals or health clinics include Katherine Miksruaq Olanna Health Clinic. The clinic is a qualified Emergency Care Center. Shishmaref is classified as an isolated village, it is found in EMS Region 5A in the Norton Sound Region. Emergency Services have coastal and air access. Emergency service is provided by a health aide. Auxiliary health care is provided by the City Volunteer Fire Department/Emergency Services.

Economy and Transportation The Shishmaref economy is based on subsistence supplemented by part-time wage earnings. Two residents hold a commercial fishing permit. Year-round jobs are limited. Villagers rely on fish, walrus, seal, polar bear, rabbit, and other subsistence foods. Two reindeer herds are managed from here. Reindeer skins are tanned locally, and meat is available at the village store. The Friendship Center, a cultural center, and carving facility, was recently completed for local artisans.

Shishmaref's primary link to the rest of Alaska is by air. A State-owned 5,000' long by 70' wide paved runway is available. Charter and freight services are available from Nome. Most people own boats for trips to the mainland.

Stebbins Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Stebbins) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Community Setting Population: 605, Department of Labor Incorporation Type: 2nd class city Local governance: City of Stebbins Borough Located In: Unorganized borough Regional Native Corporation: Bering Straits Regional Native Corporation

Landform and Climate: Stebbins is located at on the northwest coast of Saint Michael Island on the southern coast of Norton Sound, which connects with the Bering Sea. The community is approximately 120 miles southeast of Nome and eight miles northwest of the community of Saint Michael.

The community of Stebbins is located along a sand spit connecting Bonok Point with Cape Stephens. The south coast of Norton Sound is generally of low relief and Stebbins has experienced a number of coastal flooding events from storm surges. Norton Sound is shallow with a gently sloping sea floor, which is favorable for the development of storm surge. The range of wind direction for surge development is limited to west-southwest to west according to the Stebbins Hydrology and Hydraulic Report, published April 6, 2006.

Stebbins has a subarctic climate with a maritime influence during the summer. Norton Sound is ice-free from June to November, but clouds and fog are common. Average summer temperatures are 40 to 60 °F; winter temperatures range from -4 to 16 °F. Extremes have been measured from -55 to 77 °F. Annual precipitation averages 12 inches, with 38 inches of snowfall.

Water Infrastructure Description a. Water supply(ies): Water is derived from Big Clear Creek or Clear Lake during the summer. b. Water system(s): Water is transported via an insulated water transmission main from the water source to the water treatment plant where it is treated and stored in a 1,000,000-gallon and 500,000-gallon steel water tank. Residents haul water from the washeteria/watering point. c. Wastewater system(s): Residents deposit honeybucket waste in bins, according to the RUBA status report as of April 22, 2010 and the Stebbins Local Economic Development Plan (LEDP). The RUBA report states that major improvements have been planned and funded for the installation of a piped water and sewer system, with household plumbing. The Stebbins LEDP (2004) also indicates that major improvements for a piped water and vacuum sewer system are under construction, with a new water storage tank proposed to alleviate winter water shortages. The status of this project is unknown. Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure Stebbins has experienced numerous damaging floods with water inundating the village from both Norton Sound to the west and the lowland marshes to the east according to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Flood Damage Reduction Section 205 Reconnaissance Report.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts The Stebbins Hydrology and Hydraulic (H&H) Report prepared by Baker and Coastal Frontiers establishes final design elevations based on floodwater elevations for the airport. The report includes flood frequency analyses for Stebbins’ 100-year floodwater elevation which wasestablished in 1967 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for the Bureau of Land Management (BLM); the stage frequency analysis developed by the USACE in 1987 and 1988; and survey data. The H&H report states that “it has been estimated that the 85

USACE data represents the seven largest events between 1959 and 1987. Finally, it has been demonstrated that the magnitude of flooding between 1988 and 2003 was relatively calm. Therefore, the period of record is accepted to be 46 years and the recommended 100-year flood elevation for Stebbins is 18.1 feet Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW).” The analyses offered in this report considered all existing available flood data for Stebbins and the surrounding communities. The overall coastal hazard assessment classifies the Stebbins coastline as susceptible to a moderate risk of shoreline change, overwash, storm surge, and storm and wave damage.

Severity of Impacts Unknown.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure No documentation found.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure None known.

Selected Photographic Documentation

Stebbins Water Plant, photo courtesy of Stebbins LEDP, April 2004

Washeteria and external watering point, photo courtesy of Stebbins LEDP, April 2004

Washeteria and water tank, photo courtesy of Stebbins LEDP, Kawerak, Inc., April 2004

References Division of Community and Regional Affairs, Rural Utilities Business Advisor, DCRA, Community Database Online, http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.htm

Stebbins Hydrologic & Hydraulic Report, by Michael Baker, Inc. and Coastal Frontiers Corporation for Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, Northern Region (April 6, 2007)

Stebbins Local Economic Development Plan 2005-2010, prepared by Kawerak Inc. for the community of Stebbins and the Bering Straits Economic Development Council (April 2004)

US Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska district (USACE) Storm Damage Reduction Report Section 205 Reconnaissance Report Stebbins, Alaska (December 1988)

Teller Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Teller) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Community Setting Population: 261, Department of Labor population estimate Incorporation Type: 2nd Class city Local governance: City of Teller Borough Located In: Unorganized borough Regional Native Corporation: Bering Straits Native Corporation

Landform and Climate: Teller is located on a spit between Port Clarence and Grantley Harbor, 72 miles northwest of Nome, on the Seward Peninsula. The main town of Teller is situated on beach deposits, which form a northerly trending spit separating Port Clarence from Grantley Harbor. Little vacant land exists in the town site area, according to the Sanitation Facilities Master Plan. In the late 1980’s, relocation of the town was attempted through the construction of a new housing site near Coyote Creek approximately 1½ miles from the original town site.

The Sanitation Facilities Master Plan states “Continuing erosion along the south side of the Teller spit with a small likelihood of a major seawall project places the town site in jeopardy. The current erosion pattern along the south side of the spit indicates that over time the loss of protection from the ice rich “hill” to the south of the developed town site will cause a major breach into Freshwater Lake and isolate the remaining spit area from the mainland. The potential for significant growth in the town site is unlikely.” The climate is maritime when ice-free, and then changes to a continental climate after freezing. Grantley Harbor is generally ice-free from early June to mid-October. Average summer temperatures range from 44 to 57 °F; winter temperatures average -9 to 8 °F. Extremes have been measured from -45 to 82 °F. Annual precipitation averages 11.5 inches, with 50 inches of snowfall.

Water Infrastructure Description Descriptions are based on the Division of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA) community database online and the DCRA RUBA reports. a. Water supply(ies): An infiltration galley in Coyote Creek provides a seasonal water source, as Coyote Creek has no winter flow. A few residents use their own ATVs or snowmobiles to haul water. During winter, treated water is delivered from a large storage tank at the washeteria; and sometimes melted ice from area creeks is used. b. Water system(s): During the summer, water is pumped from the Coyote Creek infiltration gallery through an 11,500-foot 4-inch HDPE above ground raw water line to a water treatment plant located at the town’s washeteria. Water treatment includes sand filtration and chlorination. Treated water is pumped to a 1,000,000 gallon insulated water storage tank near the school. c. Wastewater system(s): The school operates its own sewer system, discharging to an undersized lagoon located immediately adjacent to the school. Several different reports indicate that between 42 and 67 residents and 15 businesses use honeybuckets, which are hauled by the city. The city hauls honeybuckets from residences to a honeybucket disposal cell at the city landfill. A few homes and other buildings use individual septic tank systems.

Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure The most likely and frequent climate-related community impacts are flooding and continued erosion of the spit.

Another concern is the potential impact of climate change on Coyote Creek, the community’s drinking water source, as described in a research paper prepared by the University of Alaska, Fairbanks (UAF) and published in the Journal of Geophysical Research in 2007 (Potential impacts of a changing Arctic on community water sources on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska). In this paper, vulnerability factors for the community water sources for five Seward Peninsula communities (Elim, Golovin, Teller, Wales, and White Mountain), were developed with consideration given to watershed area, groundwater contribution to stream flow, and projected changes to permafrost distribution. Teller is dependent on a particularly small watershed with no groundwater flow contribution in the winter. Teller’s vulnerability factor/value was highest at 5, with 0-20% groundwater contribution and no winter flow, for a watershed less the 5 square kilometers. Areas trending toward permafrost degradation or loss were considered more vulnerable, highlighting the importance of permafrost in local hydrology. Teller showed particular vulnerability with respect to low groundwater contributions. Additionally, Teller’s municipal water source watershed was rated highly vulnerable, as conditions are expected to change from discontinuous permafrost to thawing permafrost, which could potentially lead to reduced surface flows as a result of greater precipitation, infiltration, and drainage to groundwater aquifers.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts In ranking communities in the Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessment, the US Army Corps of Engineers placed Teller on the high priority list. The school’s sewage lagoon is located in an area vulnerable to flooding, erosion, and structural damage. Availability of water is currently seasonal and existing supplies are trending toward lower availability as a result of climate-induced changes.

Severity of Impacts Seasonal water shortages are likely, although more difficult to access sources are available. Erosion to the sewage lagoon could result in a lack of school wastewater treatment and public health risks associated with loss of treatment and/or sewage overflows onto land or water supplies.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure Although specific impacts to water resources from flooding are not known, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Alaskan Communities Flood Hazard Data lists floods of record in 1973 and 1974 with depths of 3 to 4 feet in the town site area. Spring floods may include wind-blown ice that can cause significant structural damage. Storm winds from the west and southwest have the greatest potential for causing damage at Teller, and major flooding occurred in 1913 and 1974. The 1974 storm was especially severe, as large chunks of ice were driven into the village by strong winds.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure There is a seawall along a portion of the old Teller town site located on the seaward side of the sewage lagoon in an attempt to slow erosion during storms. While several sources of water are potentially available, the most readily available source from Coyote Creek is threatened.

Selected Photographic Documentation

Waves hitting Teller seawall, the sewage lagoon that serves the school is to the left out of view of this photo; photo courtesy of David E. Atkinson, University of Alaska Fairbanks, International Arctic Research Center, (2007). 92

References Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, Assessment and Accountability, Enrollment by School and Grade as of October 1, 2009, FY 2010

Chambers, M.D, D. White, R. Busey, L. Hinzman, l. Alessa, and A. Kliskey (2007) Potential impacts of a changing Arctic on community water sources on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 112

Division of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA) community database online: http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.cfm

DCRA, Rural Utilities Business Advisor report (April 25, 2010): http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/ruba/report/Ruba_public_report.cfm?rID=635&isRuba=0

Teller, Alaska Sanitation Facilities Master Plan, prepared by CE2 Engineers Inc. in cooperation with Village Safe Water (May 2005)

Teller Community Profile, prepared by Environmental Services Limited under contract with the Alaska Department of community and Regional Affairs, Division of Community Planning, (September 1980)

Teller Community Map Scale, prepared by Kawerak Inc. in cooperation with the Alaska Department of Commerce, Community and Economic Development, (1”=100’, 2’ contours, date of aerial photography June 28, 2004)

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Floodplain Management Services, Flood Hazard Community Data online: http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/en/cw/fld_haz/floodplain_index.htm

Unalakleet Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Unalakleet) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2008. “Recommendations Report to the Governor’s Subcabinet on Climate Change.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_rpt_17apr08.pdf)

Location and Climate Unalakleet is located on Norton Sound at the mouth of the Unalakleet River, 148 miles southeast of Nome and 395 miles northwest of Anchorage. The community lies at approximately 63.873060° North Latitude and -160.788060° (West) Longitude. (Sec. 03, T019S, R011W, Kateel River Meridian.) Unalakleet is located in the Cape Nome Recording District. The area encompasses 2.9 sq. miles of land and 2.3 sq. miles of water. Unalakleet has a subarctic climate with considerable maritime influences when Norton Sound is ice-free, usually from May to October. Winters are cold and dry. Average summer temperatures range 47 to 62; winter temperatures average -4 to 11. Extremes have been measured from -50 to 87. Precipitation averages 14 inches annually, with 41 inches of snow.

History, Culture, and Demographics Archaeologists have dated house remnants along the beach ridge from 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. The name Unalakleet means "from the southern side." Unalakleet has long been a major trade center as the terminus for the Kaltag Portage, an important winter travel route connecting to the Yukon River. Indians on the upper river were considered "professional" traders who had a monopoly on the Indian-Eskimo trade across the Kaltag Portage. The Russian-American Company built a post here in the 1830s. In 1898, reindeer herders from Lapland were brought to Unalakleet to establish sound herding practices. In 1901, the Army Signal Corps built over 605 miles of telegraph line from St. Michael to Unalakleet, over the Portage to Kaltag and Fort Gibbon. The City was incorporated in 1974. A federally-recognized tribe is located in the community -- the Native Village of Unalakleet. The population of the community consists of 87.7 percent Alaska Native or part Native. Unalakleet has a history of diverse cultures and trade activity. The local economy is the most active in Norton Sound, along with a traditional Unaligmiut Eskimo subsistence lifestyle. Fish, seal, caribou, moose, and bear are utilized. The sale of alcohol is prohibited in the community, although importation and possession are allowed. During the 2000 U.S. Census, total housing units numbered 242, and vacant housing units numbered 18. Vacant housing units used only seasonally numbered 6. U.S. Census data for Year 2000 showed 258 residents as employed. The unemployment rate at that time was 14.57 percent, although 48.61 percent of all adults were not in the work force. The median household income was $42,083, per capita income was $15,845, and 11.04 percent of residents were living below the poverty level.

Facilities, Utilities, Schools, and Health Care Water is derived from an infiltration gallery on Powers Creek, is treated and stored in a million-gallon steel tank. The water source is not sufficient during extremely cold weather, and a feasibility study is underway. One hundred ninety households are connected to the piped water and sewer system and have complete plumbing. Only two households haul water and honeybuckets. Residents haul refuse to the baler facility for transportation to the landfill. Refuse collection is available for commercial customers. Matanuska Electric Association owns and operates the electrical system in Unalakleet, through the Unalakleet Valley Electric Cooperative. Electricity is provided by Unalakleet Valley Electric Cooperative. There is one school located in the community, attended by 210 students. Local hospitals or health clinics include Euksavik Clinic. The clinic

95 is a qualified Emergency Care Center. Unalakleet is classified as an isolated town/Sub-Regional Center, it is found in EMS Region 5A in the Norton Sound Region. Emergency Services have river and air access. Emergency service is provided by volunteers and a health aide.

Economy and Transportation Both commercial fishing for herring, herring roe, and subsistence activities are major components of Unalakleet's economy. One hundred nine residents hold commercial fishing permits. Norton Sound Economic Development Council operates a fish processing plant. Government and school positions are relatively numerous. Tourism is becoming increasingly important; there is world-class silver fishing in the area.

Unalakleet has a State-owned 6,004' long by 150' wide gravel runway which recently underwent major improvements; and a gravel strip that is 2,000' long and 80' wide. There are regular flights to Anchorage. Cargo is lightered from Nome; there is a dock. Local overland travel is mainly by ATVs, snowmachines and dogsleds in winter.

Wales Population and Temperature/Precipitation

Community Information (Wales) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf

Community Setting Population: 185, Department of Labor population estimate Incorporation Type: 2nd Class City Local governance: City of Wales Borough Located In: Unorganized borough Regional Native Corporation: Bering Straits Native Corporation

Landform and Climate: Wales is located on Cape Prince of Wales, at the western tip of the Seward Peninsula, 111 miles northwest of Nome. It is the westernmost community on the North American Continent. The city is located at the contact of a long, narrow coastal plain and a small granitic stock expressed topographically by 2,289-foot Cape Mountain. On a clear day, Little Diomede Island (U.S. Territory) and Big Diomede Island (Russian Territory) are visible about 30 miles westerly in the Bering Sea. The community lies primarily along the ocean beach on both sides of Village Creek, west of the Razorback Ridge, a prominent geologic feature northeast of Cape Mountain. Gilbert Creek is on the southerly edge of the city.

Wales has a maritime climate when the Bering Strait is ice-free, usually June to November. After the freeze, there is an abrupt change to a cold continental climate. Average summer temperatures range from 40 to 50 °F; winter temperatures range from -10 to 6 °F. Annual precipitation is 10 inches, with 35 inches of snow. Frequent fog, wind, and blizzards limit access to Wales, according to the Division of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA), Community Database Online. Wales experiences extreme snow drifting each winter.

Water Infrastructure Description The following information is from the DCRA, Rural Utilities Business Advisor (RUBA) status report, and the City of Wales Sanitation Master Plan. a. Water supply(ies): Currently, water is sourced from Gilbert Creek to the south of the city during the summer to provide a seasonal supply to a city storage tank, and from Village Creek northeast of the city. Two groundwater wells were drilled and capped on the lower north slope of Razorback Mountain along the road to Tin City in July 2001. These wells are about one mile from the center of the city according to the City of Wales Sanitation Master Plan. The wells meet all requirements for potable water without treatment according to the 2002 Master Plan. b. Water system(s): Residents haul treated water from a 500,000-gallon storage tank at the washeteria. The school, clinic, and city building are served by piped water. c. Wastewater system(s): Almost all residents use honeybuckets (five gallon plastic pails with polyethylene bag liners) to manage human waste. The honeybuckets are dumped in collection bins located around the city, which city personnel haul and dump in a bermed sewage disposal cell northwest of the city according to the Sanitation Master Plan. Very few homes currently have plumbing. There are two septic systems -- one for the school and a second for teacher's housing, the clinic, and city building. The new clinic has a 300-gallon holding tank that is pumped, on an as- needed basis.

Village Safe Water is applying for sanitation grants for the community to upgrade the washeteria. The new facility will most likely be a multi-purpose facility to include the washeteria, water plant, and a new clinic. A condemned city-owned dome-shaped igloo building will probably be torn down and its location used for the new multi-purpose facility.

Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure As excerpted from the Sanitation Master Plan, the 1 percent annual chance, or 100-year floodplain, as estimated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Alaska District (USACE) is at 14 feet Mean Sea Level (MSL), based only on a flood of record from a storm surge that occurred in November 1974. Storm surges cause Village Creek to be inundated for several thousand feet inland. According to local residents, the open tundra area in the vicinity of a 1990 housing development flooded to a depth of two to three feet. The USACE recommended building level is 16.0 feet MSL, or two feet above the 1974 flood level. No detailed storm surge flood study has been prepared for Wales. The main street through the center of the community ranges in elevation from 12 to 16 feet MSL.

The USACE Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessment lists Wales as a community to continue monitoring for coastal erosion. The Wales Erosion Information Paper prepared by the USACE on October 15, 2007 indicated that major erosion - reported to be the worst in the last 20 years – was caused by a Bering Sea storm on October 19, 2004. This storm generated high tides and winds, causing flooding and erosion in three areas in Wales. The erosion left the washeteria and the city’s dome-shaped igloo building less than 100 feet from the active erosion area. Soil test pits on the beach excavated on September 2, 2002 found permafrost at six to seven feet of depth according to the Sanitation Master Plan.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts Coastal storms are likely to continue to impact the honeybucket disposal cell and septic systems, which are both located in the floodplain.

Severity of Impacts Impacts from the 2004 storm were disruptive but not catastropic. However, as erosion continues to advance toward city infrastructure, the severity of storm impacts may accelerate.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure The 2004 coastal storm reportedly damaged the sewage outfall. Reports of a strong storm in 1974 may have caused damage, but documentation of impacts was not discovered.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure The relatively new city water supply wells are located outside of the floodplain which will help mitigate climate-related water resource impacts in the future. However, sanitation facilities and water distribution lines are still located in the floodplain and are thus subject to periodic flood hazards.

References Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, Assessment and Accountability, Enrollment by School and Grade as of October 1, 2009, FY 2010

Division of Community and Regional Affairs Community Database Online: http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.cfm

DCRA, Rural Utilities Business Advisor status report, (April 4, 2010), http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/ruba/report/Ruba_public_report.cfm?rID=651&isRuba=0

City of Wales Sanitation Facilities Master Plan, prepared by CE2 Engineers, Inc. (September 2002)

USACE, Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessment, Erosion Information Paper Wales, AK (October 15, 2007): http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/AKE/Home.html

USACE, Flood Hazard Data-Wales, Alaska online at: http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/en/cw/fld_haz/wales.htm

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White Mountain

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North Slope Borough Anaktuvuk Pass

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Atqasuk

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Barrow Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Barrow) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Barrow (BARE-row, a.k.a. Ukpeagvik), population 4,065, is the northernmost community in North America. Barrow is located on the Chukchi Sea coast 10 miles south of Point Barrow (from which it takes its name) and is about 835 miles north of Anchorage. Barrow is a 1st Class City, within the North Slope Borough. The city limits encompass 18.4 square miles of land and 2.9 square miles of water. The OMB Community Erosion Survey was completed by Michael Stotts, North Slope Borough.

Description of Erosion Problem Barrow is situated on the Chukchi Sea coastline that runs in a northeast and southwest direction. This orientation leaves Barrow most susceptible to storms from the north and west. The storms that impact the coast during the open water season (August-October) typically are short in duration but intense. The coast is characterized by bluffs up to 30 feet high fronted by a narrow beach. The bluffs decrease in height to the north where the coast becomes a wide gravel beach backed by fairly level tundra. Analyses of aerial photographs indicate that the beach used to be much wider than it is today. This provided the bluffs more protection from storm events. The beach narrowing appears to be a result of storm events and using the beach and adjacent bluff as a borrow source for gravel. The beach narrowing has resulted in the bluff being more susceptible to wave attack and subsequent erosion during the fall storm season. A 1963 storm event was the most extreme storm experienced by the community. About 14 feet of the bluff eroded on average, and as much as 35 feet in some places. Although Barrow has experienced storm damage and erosion problems for decades, this single storm caused as much as a third of the total erosion that the bluff has experienced over the last 5 decades. The presence of sea ice plays a large part in protecting the community from storm events. Near shore pack ice can prevent the formation of waves during storm event; however, when the pack ice remains further offshore for longer periods of time severe storms can generate wind driven waves that can cause significant shoreline erosion.

The Corps of Engineers’ 2007 Draft Integrated Interim Feasibility Report and Environmental Impact Statement indicates average annual bluff erosion is occurring at a rate of 1.02 feet per year based on aerial photography analysis (1948-2003). However, episodic erosion can result in more extensive losses with large storms. Some roads and homes in the Barrow neighborhood have been relocated due to threat of erosion damage. Portions of the Utqiagvik Village historic/archeological site in Barrow have been lost to erosion and the site continues to be threatened. Beach berms are constructed annually by the North Slope Borough to protect Barrow and Browerville from continued erosion and flooding damages including recurring erosion to the local beach frontage road (Stevenson Road).

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Potential Damages Coastal erosion and flooding threaten residential and commercial structures, roads, the below ground utilidor, other local utilities, and the Utqiagvik Village archaeological/cultural site. Storm damage reduction efforts in recent years by the North Slope Borough and others have included: (1) offshore dredging with beach nourishment, (2) construction of sacrificial berms, (3) shoreline road maintenance, and (4) HESCO Concertainers®. About $28 million was spent over a decade on the North Slope Borough’s Beach Nourishment Program to place about 100,000 cubic yards of material on the Barrow beach. Flood water overtopped Stevenson Road during a storm in 2000, washing out 4 sections of the road on the way to the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) site (up to 200 yards in length). Approximately $330,000 was spent to repair this, and it is estimated that the road needs to be repaired every 3 years, or approximately $110,000 annually.

Some community measures that have met with varying degrees of success include: large geotextile “supersacks” laid on the bank slope, surplus wooden utilidors filled to create a seawall, old tar barrels laid on the upper beach slope, and Longard geotextile tubes laid along the base of the bank or berm. (Longard tube is a double-lined polyethylene impermeable inner liner with a geotextile outer liner.) On average approximately 15,000 cubic yards of material is placed annually to protect the community that was estimated at $567,000 annual expense in 2006 values according to the 2007 report. The Corps 2007 draft report proposed a coastal flooding and bluff erosion protection project. Also, in recent years, local entities have employed in some cases the non-structural choice of relocating some vulnerable facilities farther from erosion danger. These approaches and new projects may help reduce the risks from erosion and flooding, but many structures and infrastructure remain vulnerable.

Photos and Diagrams Erosion photos and diagrams depicting linear extent of erosion in the community are attached.

References USACE. 2007. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Michael Stotts, North Slope Borough on September 14, 2007.

USACE. 2007. Alternative Formulation Briefing Document (Independent Technical Review Version) Barrow, Alaska Coastal Storm Damage Reduction Draft Integrated Interim Feasibility Report and EIS. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2002. Coastal Storm Damage Reduction Feasibility Study. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2006. Hydraulics Hydrology Report: Barrow. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2006. 10 May 2006. Section 117 Expedited Erosion Control Project Barrow, Alaska Continuing authorities Project Fact Sheet (Draft).

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Kaktovik Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Kaktovik) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Kaktovik is on the north shore of Barter Island between the Okpilak and Jago Rivers on the Beaufort Sea coast. It is the only community within the boundaries of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, which is 19.6 million acres and an occasional calving ground for the Porcupine caribou herd. The community is at approximately 70° North Latitude and -143° (West) Longitude (Sec. 13, T009N, R033E, Umiat Meridian). Kaktovik is in the Barrow Recording District. The area encompasses 0.8 square mile of land and 0.2 square mile of water. The climate of Kaktovik is arctic. Temperatures range from -56 to 78 degrees Fahrenheit. Precipitation is light, at 5 inches, with snowfall averaging 20 inches.

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Erosion Protection Costs Shoreline Erosion The only notable erosion that has had a direct effect on the community is along the frontage within the lagoon (Pipsuk Bight). Protection of this area was provided in the 1990’s by construction of a timber crib wall. This structure has performed well and has essentially stabilized the area such that erosion is not a problem for the community along this portion of the lagoon.

The existing airstrip is on the low elevation sand spit immediately north of the community. Erosion protection measures have been constructed in the past along the seaward edge of the airstrip. Recent surveys and aerial photography indicate that the airstrip is stable. Flooding due to storm surge increases in water surface elevation is an ongoing problem during open water storm season.

The U.S. Air Force Long Range Radar Site (LRRS) is immediately west of the community of Kaktovik. Numerous buildings, fuel tanks, a sewage lagoon, and an old landfill are located there. The northern limits of this site are directly exposed to the wave action in the Beaufort Sea. A gravel bag revetment was designed by the Corps and constructed in 1999 along with a groin field to build a beach in front of the revetment to reduce the amount of wave energy at this site.

Four sites in the vicinity of Kaktovik eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places are affected by erosion. Artifacts eroded from these areas are being lost. Local government agencies and members of the community are concerned about the loss of artifacts and history associated with this area. Without the protection of the sites or documentation and preservation of the artifacts, valuable information will be lost, which will reduce our understanding of the history of the culture along the coastal community in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR).

Future Damages With the exception of the airport and cultural resources, the community of Kaktovik is not experiencing significant damages such as erosion, wave attack, or flooding from coastal storms. There have been no reports of damaged or destroyed infrastructure or buildings from coastal storms with the exception of a snow fence west of the community. Minor erosion in Kaktovik Lagoon was reported, but would not pose any threat for at least 100 years.

Airport If a new airport is constructed, this would eliminate the erosion and flood damages the current airport is experiencing. Protection for the existing runway is estimated to cost approximately $40 million.

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Cultural Sites For centuries, as the name implies, trade has been conducted at Barter Island between people along the Beaufort Sea coast from Barrow to central Canada. The people of Kaktovik trace their roots to many areas of northern Alaska and Canada. The Archaeological Evaluation of Cultural Resources Near Kaktovik, Barter Island, Alaska prepared in October 2004 recommended the site Qaaktugvik be examined for the National Register of Historic Places as a traditional cultural property. This parcel is in danger of being lost to erosion. Because of its significance, the Corps is undertaking a study to more closely examine and catalog the area. Summary of Erosion Costs Protection of the airport would be approximately $40 million. Because of the unknown quantity and quality of artifacts, and the inherent difficulties in assigning a monetary value to an item of cultural significance, the costs of damages to the cultural sites has not been determined.

What are potential costs associated with moving to a new location or an existing community? There is no reasonable need for Kaktovik to relocate. With the exception of the airport and a few small segments, the erosion at Kaktovik has been contained. In addition, the community and State have not expressed interest in relocating Kaktovik; therefore, numbers for relocation were not developed. The cost to relocate the airport at Kaktovik is estimated at $20 to $40 million

What is the expected time line for a complete failure of the usable land? Though there are some localized areas of concern (the airport and cultural sites) erosion is not expected to cause failure of the community within the foreseeable future (hundreds of years).

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Nuiqsut Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Nuiqsut) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Nuiqsut (new-WICK-sit, var. Nooiksut), population 417, is on the west bank of the Nechelik Channel of the Colville River Delta, 18 miles south of the Beaufort Sea coast, and 135 miles southeast of Barrow. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the North Slope Borough (NSB). The riverbank is used for summer boat storage, fishing, boat access, and snow machine access.

Description of Erosion Problem Nuiqsit has occasional minor erosion along the west bank of the Nechelik Channel, which is a branch of the Colville River. Periodic fluctuations in river flow and water levels, melting permafrost, ice jams, and spring break-up water runoff all contribute to erosion. Water from the water plant storage tank recently discharged and ran across the tundra into the Nechelik Channel, accelerating permafrost melt and erosion rate. The eroding area along the channel bank is approximately 100 feet long and 30 feet wide with a drop estimated at 100 vertical feet. An estimated 3 to 5 feet per year has eroded along the bank down-slope of the water tanks. A deep cave has formed along the bank and under the tundra where mammoth tusks were excavated. The holes left in the bank pose dangerous drop-offs and areas vulnerable to accelerated erosion. In addition, the road to the boat dock is eroded and washes out every year when the ice breaks and the river rises at the small creeks and culverts, gravel is placed over the culverts each year.

Potential Damages Structures and facilities threatened by erosion include the water and power plant an estimated 250-300 feet from the bank, utility poles and power lines, the school an estimated 500 feet from the bank, two water storage tanks, and a city boat storage building an estimated 90-150 feet from the bank. Contractors in Nuiqsut that manage the utilities for the NSB filled the area with gravel where the water tank discharge had caused erosion in 2000-2001. Thermocouples (passive refreezing apparatus) were also installed. The land damaged by erosion has been purchased by the NSB and the procedures for maintenance of the water storage system have been changed to reduce erosion.

Photos and Diagrams No photos were provided by community or other sources. The attached diagram shows the linear extent of erosion.

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References USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Leonard Lampe, Sr. president of the native village of Nuiqsut and a Nuiqsut subsistence panel member on February 22, and to Sam Kunaknana, Nuiqsut city mayor on February 28, 2008.

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Point Hope Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Point Hope) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Point Hope, population 704, is near the seaward end of Point Hope peninsula, a large gravel spit that surrounds Marryat Inlet, a large freshwater lagoon. The peninsula forms the western-most extension of the northwest Alaska coast. Point Hope is 330 miles southwest of Barrow. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the North Slope Borough (NSB).

Description of Erosion Problem Point Hope peninsula is vulnerable to periodic storm surge flooding and erosion. The original Point Hope town site was damaged by with flooding and erosion before the mid 1970s. Annual storms during the 3-4 month open-water period raised the water level, eroded the beaches and beach ridges, and occasionally flooded the community. The community moved 2 miles farther inland and east on the peninsula to its present site with assistance from the NSB in the mid 1970s.

The Corps’ 1972 Point Hope Beach Erosion Report states that the Point Hope peninsula has been building up on the south and eroding on the north. The average annual erosion loss was estimated to be about 8 feet per year in the 1972 report. No erosion was identified during the 2002 Corps visit.

Ice jams during spring break up can raise inlet water levels considerably rising water level in caused by ice blockage. Ice blocking the natural outflow from Marryat Inlet in the spring of 2006 caused water to rise in the inlet, which breached a short section of 7-Mile Road and threatened to flood Point Hope. That event was declared a state disaster by the governor. The natural barrier that separates Marryat Inlet from the Chukchi Sea was intentionally breached to create a new outlet and lower flood waters. A 2006 Corps of Engineers Trip Report states the initial breach became enlarged by erosion from the outflow of Marryat Inlet. The breach channel was eroded to dimensions of approximately 300 feet long, 150 to 200 feet wide at the outlet, and 600 feet wide at the inlet.

Potential Damages No structures or facilities are considered to be at risk from erosion at the current community site. The previous community site known as “Old Tiagara” is being eroded. Fifty ice cellars in this area were used for meat storage, but only 20 remain. On the north beach, 10 percent of the old site has been lost to erosion, with only 50 to 60 sod houses (ancient barabaras) remaining. Another at-risk area is the old cemetery site 116 where remains were buried in mass graves during the 1920's. The area along the airport is at risk. The NSB constructed a rock revetment on about 275 feet of the coast east of the runway, at a cost of about $2 million in 1997. This is reportedly preventing or slowing erosion in the area.

7-Mile Road, along the southern shore of the lagoon, is the access road to community’s waterline and pump and is the only road off the peninsula. It has been occasionally covered by 2 to 3 feet of water from Marryat Inlet, which is fed by the Kukpuk River and is occasionally eroded.

The NSB plans to raise “7-Mile Road” about 5 feet. The Corps 2002 Trip Report indicated that large sand bags and tubes placed along the section of the road threatened by erosion appear to be working. The cost of opening and later repairing the intentional Marryat Inlet breach was estimated in a Corps 2006 Trip Report at nearly $433,000. The breach repair was accomplished by the placement of poly bags – or “super sacks” (4.5 feet by 4.5 feet in size).

Photos and Diagrams Attached photos are from the June 2006 Trip Report. The attached diagram shows the linear extent of erosion.

References USACE. 1972. Point Hope Beach Erosion Point Hope, Alaska. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2002. Point Hope Section 103 Trip Report, July 1st and 2nd, 2002. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2006. Point Hope Field Trip Report. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Alzred “Steve” Oomittuk, Point Hope mayor, on March 10, 2008.

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Additional Information (Point Hope) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Water-Related Information Threat quantified in Oct. 2009 ANTHC, Center for Climate and Health report Climate Change and Health Impacts Point Hope

Climate-Related Impact Water quality and permafrost melt

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Point Lay Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Point Lay) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Point Lay (a.k.a. Kali), population 250, is on a low coastal bluff adjacent to the 85-mile long Kasegaluk Lagoon, immediately south of the Kokolik River delta, and about 300 miles southwest of Barrow. The Point Lay Defense Early Warning (DEW) radar station is just north of the community. The community is unincorporated in the North Slope Borough (NSB). The beach and shoreline are used for ATV travel, walking and recreation, boat access, and boat storage during the summer months.

Description of Erosion Problem The community relocated to its present site in 1981 to avoid flooding and erosion problems. The community experiences some coastal erosion, which is not causing problems according to the 1986 Point Lay Coastal Erosion Study by R&M Consulting. The community is protected from the open Chukchi Sea by barrier islands that formed the Kasegaluk Lagoon. Wave action along the shoreline is mostly from local winds, however 25-year storm surges are estimated at about 10.4 feet Mean Sea Level (MSL) and 50-year surges at 11.3 feet MSL, according to Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center (AEIDC) information summarized in the R&M report. The bluff material is primarily frozen silts, overlain by a thin vegetative mat that is thermally degrading along an approximately 3,000-foot area. As a result, the slope is slowly subsiding. R&M estimated that the top of the bluff had receded 20-25 feet in the 10-year period between 1972 and 1982. Material sloughing off the bluff has accumulated in fans at the base of the bluff, extending the base by 20-30 feet in some areas.

Potential Damages No structures or facilities are considered threatened or at risk. No erosion protection measures have been installed, nor are they reported as needed.

Photos and Diagrams No photos were provided by community or other sources. The attached diagram shows the linear extent of thermal degradation occurring along the bluff.

References R&M Consultants, Inc. 1986. Point Lay, Alaska: Coastal Erosion Study. R&M Consultants, Inc. for Alaska District, Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Willard Neakok, Point Lay tribal council member, on March 14, 2008.

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Additional Information This information paper, as well as those for other communities, can be accessed on the internet at www.alaskaerosion.com. For more information please contact the Corps of Engineers, projectmanager at (907) 753-5694 or email [email protected]

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Wainwright Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Wainwright) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Wainwright (WANE-rite), population 540, is on the Chukchi Sea coast, 3 miles northeast of the Kuk River estuary, and about 72 miles southwest of Barrow. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the North Slope Borough. The shoreline and lagoon are used for boat storage and fishing.

Description of Erosion Problem The Wainwright coastal bluff is periodically eroded by storm surges, melting permafrost, and late-forming coastal ice. Erosion is reportedly more severe in the fall until the ice pack moves in. The bluff is about 20 feet high. The community is high enough to avoid serious flooding from coastal storm surges, although spring snowmelt cannot properly drain and causes minor flooding in lower areas.

Potential Damages The 1995 Barrow and Wainwright Beach Nourishment Program: Budget and Cash Flow Update prepared by BTS/LCMF, Inc., stated the Wainwright Beach Nourishment Project began with material dredged from offshore borrow source sites and placed on the beach in 1995 to dissipate wave and storm energy, and to provide a buffer zone. Approximately 95,000 cubic yards of material were placed on the beach. Subsequent storms reportedly have removed most of the gravel beach nourishment material. Shallow water to prevent the full force of waves from hitting the bluff.

A direct-bury sewer system was installed along the front of the community between 1997 and 1999. A gabion (Concertainer) wall was installed about 3 years ago to protect a section of the line on the south corner of town. A storm removed the bottom row of the wall shortly after it was installed and it has been attacked by storms in the last 3 years. Sandbagging to expand protection to the northern end and repair the gabions to the south was planned for the summer of 2008. In the summer of 2008, major portion of the gabion wall was destroyed by a storm with further erosion of the bank. The gabion wall is being currently worked on by adding additional sandbagging to protect the community from any further destruction until a better plan of protection has been provided.

Several residences are within 20 feet of the bluff after the July 30, 2008 storm. Two subsistence cellars have been lost over the last 10 years with 20 cellars remaining in the community. Erosion during a September 1986 storm reportedly left 4 homes hanging over the edge of the bluff. An entire street of homes was moved back and half of the lots have since eroded away.

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Photos and Diagrams No photos were provided by community or other sources. The attached diagram shows the linear extent of erosion.

References AK DOT&PF. 1984. Task Force on Erosion Control, Final Report. Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.

BTS/LCMF. 1995. Barrow and Wainwright Beach Nourishment Program: Budget and Cash Flow Update. Prepared by LCMF for North Slope Borough CIPM Department.

Mason, et al. 1997. Living with the Coast of Alaska. Mason, Owen K.; Neal, William J.; Pilkey, Orrin H. et al. USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Joseph Ahmaogak, mayor of the city of Wainwright on March 31, 2008.

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Additional Information (Wainwright) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Water-Related Information High potential for beach erosion on the Arctic Ocean. The community is well-elevated, little chance of flooding. Stormwater outfall has had HESCO basket erosion protection installed.

Climate-Related Impact Coastal erosion, permafrost melt

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Northwest Arctic Borough Ambler Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Ambler) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Ambler (AM-blur), population 277, is on the north bank of the Kobuk River just below the confluence of the Ambler and Kobuk Rivers. It is 45 miles north of the Arctic Circle, 138 miles northeast of Kotzebue, 30 miles northwest of Kobuk, and 30 miles downriver from Shungnak. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the Northwest Arctic Borough.

Description of Erosion Problem Erosion along the shoreline of the Kobuk River is primarily from ice break up in the spring. The city reported more than 40 feet of riverbank erosion in the past 30 years. Some areas of the community are subject to flooding and erosion during the rainy season.

Riverbank erosion at the airport bridge, along Kobuk Avenue and other streets are caused by run off following storms and during spring break up. In 1984 the Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT/PF) reported that an approximately 1,500-foot area of new development along the riverbank upstream from the barge landing is eroding because seepage from upslope keeps the glacial till saturated and the main Kobuk River channel impinges on the bank at nearly a right angle. According to a 1984 DOT/PF Task Force Report, several local landslides have been caused by slumping of saturated glacial till.

Flooding and erosion have reportedly caused little or no problems in the community prior to the 1980s, when all structures were a safe distance away from the riverbank. According to the 2000 Ambler Sanitation Facilities Master Plan prepared by the Arctic Slope Consulting Group, the Kobuk River overflowed in 1968, and again in 1994, with little damage to the community.

Potential Damages In 1987-88, the city built an erosion control project of concrete-filled bags to protect part of the city’s river front. The project was funded by state grants, however a shortfall in funding prevented the project from being completed. Erosion along this area has been mitigated to some extent by installing concrete bags, but these measures have been failing in recent years as bags sag and tear.

Structures and facilities at risk from erosion include the river crossing called “Grizzly Bridge”, which is a 1- lane log bridge on the access road to the airport, Kobuk Street and other streets, and the washed out boat ramp.

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Photos and Diagrams No photos were provided by the community or other sources. The attached diagram shows the approximate linear extent of erosion.

References Alaska DOT/PF. 1984. Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report. State of Alaska, Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.

ASCG. 2000. Ambler Sanitation Facilities Master Plan, Arctic Slope Consulting Group, Inc.

NWAB. 2007. Ambler community information for planning. Northwest Arctic Borough Planning Director.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Morgan Johnson, Ambler mayor and Carolyn “Lena” Ballot, Ambler city administrator, on March 10, 2008.

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Buckland Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Buckland) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Buckland (BUCK-lund), population 457, is about 75 miles southeast of Kotzebue on the west bank of the Buckland River. It is 30 miles upriver from the mouth of Eschsholtz Bay, which opens into Kotzebue Sound. Buckland is a 2nd class city in the Northwest Arctic Borough. The banks of the Buckland River are used for numerous community activities, including pedestrian, snowmobile, and ATV travel; boat launching and storage, and fishing.

Description of Erosion Problem Much of Buckland is in the Buckland River floodplain. Erosion processes include natural river flow, flooding, ice jams, spring break-up, and melting permafrost. Bank soils consist primarily of loamy sand, and water depth is 10 to 15 feet along the riverbank. The west bank has moved inland approximately 140 feet since 1972. An analysis of U.S. Survey 4482 confirmed the Buckland River has eroded an average of 4 feet per year. In some areas, erosion has been recorded at a rate of up to 11 feet per year. In the 2002 Buckland Environmental Infrastructure Environmental Assessment Report, the Corps estimated that erosion ranges from 3.5 to 5 feet per year. The Buckland River is reported to lose about 10 feet of the west bank (city side) each year due to flood-induced erosion.

Potential Damages Flooding in 1971 and in 1987 caused much damage, including erosion damage. In the Buckland Environmental Assessment Report the Corps estimated that within 30 years (from 2002), the advancing bank erosion will impact the post office, several homes and the main access road to the Mountain View subdivision on the south side of the city. The Buckland city administrator reported that the erosion has encroached to less than 100 feet from a number of community structures, including outbuildings and sheds, drying racks, smoke houses and other food storage facilities, utility poles and lines, boardwalks and important pathways, and some subdivisions.

The community survey also reported that encroaching erosion along the southeast side of the river is only about 60 feet away from 5 homes. In 1993, the pump house at the river’s edge was relocated at a cost of $5,000. According to the community survey, the community has undertaken several protective measures over the years to control the erosion, but none have been successful.

Photos and Diagrams The City of Buckland administrator, Darlene Hadley provided the attached erosion photos. Also, attached are diagrams depicting the linear extent of erosion in the community. 130

References Dames and Moore, Larson Consulting Group. 1999. Buckland Community Master Plan. Prepared for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

University of Alaska. 1976. Buckland.

USACE. 1987. Trip Report, Flood Hazard Mitigation for Buckland. June 26, 1987. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 1993. Trip Report, Buckland, Shungnak, and Kobuk. Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2007. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 submitted by Darlene B. Hadley, city administrator, City of Buckland, September 10, 2007.

USACE, USDOT, FHWA. 2002. Environmental Infrastructure Environmental Assessment - Buckland, Alaska. Alaska District, U.S. Corps of Engineers and U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.

Additional Information This information paper, as well as those for other communities, can be accessed on the internet at www.alaskaerosion.com. For more information please contact the Corps of Engineers project manager at (907) 753-5694 or email [email protected]

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Additional Information (Buckland) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Water-Related Information Water intake structure damaged during 2010 spring breakup.

New sewage lagoon has large dikes that provide flood protection and multi-plate culverts designed for flood runoff. A new buried water and sewer system is being installed which should have lower risk to flooding.

The sewage lagoon was constructed in 2007 and flooding was taken into consideration with the design. There is a road project that has very significant flooding issues according to VSW.

Buckland, because of its location in the floodplain of the Buckland River, has a long history of ice jam flooding. The pump house that had been at the river’s edge was moved in the early 1990’s. Erosion continues along the river.

Climate-Related Impact Buckland River icejam flooding and erosion

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Deering Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Deering) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf

Community Setting Population: 118, Department of Labor 2009 Incorporation Type: 2nd Class City Local governance: City of Deering Borough Located In: Northwest Arctic Borough Regional Native Corporation: NANA Regional Corporation

Landform and Climate: Deering is located on the north side of the Seward Peninsula at the mouth of the Inmachuk River on Kotzebue Sound, 57 miles southwest of Kotzebue. It is built on a flat sand and gravel spit approximately 300 feet wide and a half-mile long. The Inmachuk River is tidally influenced.

Deering is located in the transitional climate zone, which is characterized by long, cold winters and cool summers. The average low temperature during January is -18 °F. The average high during July is 63 °F. Temperature extremes from a low of -60 to a high of 85 °F have been measured. Annual snowfall averages 36 inches, and total precipitation averages 9 inches per year. Kotzebue Sound is ice-free from early July until mid- October, according to the Division of Community and Regional Affairs Community Database Online.

Water Infrastructure Description a. Water supply: Water is sourced from the Inmachuk River. b. Water system(s): Water is treated and pumped to a 400,000-gallon insulated storage tank. The water transmission line crosses the floodplain of the Inmachuk River. The installation of an additional water storage tank was completed in 2006. The DCRA Community Database Online capital project list includes a statement on funding ($845,650 in 2009) for installation of a raw water transmission line and repairs to the infiltration gallery and pump house. The raw water transmission line has been installed and the repairs to the infiltration gallery and pump house are under construction. Residents pay to have water delivered to their homes. c. Wastewater system(s): The sewage collection system is a vacuum sewer that conveys sewage to a treatment lagoon located on the spit adjacent to the river. The City of Deering operates the piped sewer and water haul system, as well as a central washeteria according to the DCRA, Rural Utilities Business Advisor (RUBA) quarterly report. Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure Because of Deering’s setting on a spit adjacent to the Inmachuk River, storm events will continue to impact the community and with climate change-induced sea level rise, the community will be increasingly at risk.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts According to the US Army Corps of Engineers’ flooding and erosion summary for Deering, storm surges and wind-driven waves cause coastal flooding every 40-60 ears. A major flood in 1973 caused extensive damage to homes, and villagers were temporarily evacuated to a mining camp 22 miles upriver. Severe erosion of the beach had been occurring in the past, threatening an important road and other areas. In the late 1990s, the Corps constructed an emergency bank protection structure along the Inmachuk River for the road that parallels the Inmachuk River between Deering and the former mining community of Utica, 19 miles to the southwest. During the 1993 ice breakup, a number of locations were severely eroded, the most critical being the 600- foot-long section of road between the city and the airport. The water transmission line also runs along this road and crosses the floodplain.

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Severity of Impacts There continues to be some risk of flooding and storm damage to the new water transmission line installed in 2009, the sewage lagoon, and the water treatment plant. Additionally, structural problems (which may be more related to design than climate impacts) with the wastewater treatment lagoon have been documented. Alaska DEC is working with an engineering consultant on a more in-depth study to determine whether repair or replacement of the sewage lagoon is warranted. Village Safe Water staff indicates that there are cracks in the lagoon and that the lagoon and the sewage system are not rip-rapped. The system will need to be anchored at some point.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure Historical impact to water resources is unknown, although it is noted that most of the water-related infrastructure currently serving Deering have been installed in recent years.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure The impacts of river erosion on the water transmission line have been reduced, but not eliminated, due to the aforementioned erosion mitigation along the river. The Corps constructed rip-rap erosion control revetments in 1997 for a combined length of 1,400 feet at a cost of just over $700,000. A 2005 inspection report of this project stated, with regard to the revetment closest to town: “Erosion of the stream bank downstream of the project is evident and ongoing. Fractures in the soil on the top of the bank and sloughed riverbank can be seen in this area…The revetment appears to be overall in good condition…Downstream of the first revetment there is also evidence of erosion (sloughed riverbank). While it does not appear to be as severe as the erosion upstream and closer to town, it should continue to be monitored. The revetment closer to the airport appears to be in similar condition to that of the revetment closer to town. The amount of debris accumulated on this revetment was less and there appeared to be more rock fractures…There was very little erosion upstream of the revetment near the airport.”

The potential impacts of coastal erosion and flooding to the sewage lagoon and water treatment plant are believed to be significant because of the proximity of these systems to the river and their location on the spit, for which coastal storm surge flooding and erosion has been documented.

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References Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, Assessment and Accountability, Enrollment by School and Grade as of October 1, 2009, FY 2010

Division of Community and Regional Affairs Online Community Data Base, http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.cfm

DCRA, RUBA Quarterly Report, (updated April 5, 2010).

Deering Comprehensive Community Development Plan 2009-2016, prepared by Northwest Arctic Borough, 2006

US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Alaska District, Section 14 Emergency Bank Protection Draft Detailed Project Report and Environmental Assessment Deering Alaska (June 1994)

USACE, Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessment, Study Findings and Technical Report (March 2009), http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/en/cw/planning_current%20projects%20info/Alaska%20Baseline%20Erosi on%20Assessment%20(BEA)%20Main%20Report.pdf

USACE, Memorandum Inspection of Completed Works, Deering Emergency Streambank Stabilization, Deering, Alaska, 20 September 2005, Mary Wilson, Hydraulic Engineer.

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Kiana Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Kiana) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Kiana (kai-ANN-uh), population 401, is on the north bank of the Kobuk River 57 miles east of Kotzebue. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the Northwest Arctic Borough. The bank of the Kobuk River is primarily used for barge access.

Description of Erosion Problem The Squirrel River flows into the Kobuk River at Kiana. The community is eroded along the Kobuk River during periodic fluctuations in river flow and water levels, melting permafrost, ice jams, and storm water runoff. Several areas in the city limits have erosion problems on the Kobuk River. Erosion is reported as gradual. An estimated annual erosion rate is unavailable.

The community stated that during fall 2007 or fall 2008 one of the boulders placed by the barge landing to prevent erosion was dislodged when someone was off-loading heavy equipment, since then erosion has occurred behind the dislodged boulder and is threatening the others. In addition during spring thaws, erosion takes place near the landfill, which is also near the sewage lagoon.

Potential Damages The sewage lagoon, cemetery, dock, and airport runway are 100 to 500 feet from the riverbank. City staff buried logs and planted trees and willows as an erosion protection measure for the cemetery. Large boulders were placed to protect the barge landing dock area. These measures are reportedly inadequate.

Photos and Diagrams Photo of erosion provided by the community is attached. A diagram depicting the linear extent of erosion is also attached.

References USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Delores Tuckfield, executive director of City of Kiana and the native village of Kiana, on February 26, 2008.

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Kivalina Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Kivalina) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2008. “Recommendations Report to the Governor’s Subcabinet on Climate Change.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_rpt_17apr08.pdf)

Location and Climate Kivalina is at the tip of an 8-mile barrier reef located between the Chukchi Sea and Kivalina River. It lies 80 air miles northwest of Kotzebue. The community lies at approximately 67.726940° North Latitude and -164.533330° (West) Longitude. (Sec. 21, T027N, R026W, Kateel River Meridian.) Kivalina is located in the Kotzebue Recording District. The area encompasses 1.9 sq. miles of land and 2.0 sq. miles of water. Kivalina lies in the transitional climate zone which is characterized by long, cold winters and cool summers. The average low temperature during January is -15; the average high during July is 57. Temperature extremes have been measured from -54 to 85. Snowfall averages 57 inches, with 8.6 inches of precipitation per year. The Chukchi Sea is ice-free and open to boat traffic from mid-June to the first of November.

History, Culture and Demographics Kivalina has long been a stopping-off place for seasonal travelers between arctic coastal areas and Kotzebue Sound communities. It is the only village in the region where people hunt the bowhead whale. At one time, the village was located at the north end of the Kivalina Lagoon. It was reported as Kivualinagmut" in 1847 by Lt. Zagoskin of the Russian Navy. Lt. G.M. Stoney of the U.S. Navy reported the village as "Kuveleek" in 1885. A post office was established in 1940. An airstrip was built in 1960. Kivalina incorporated as a City in 1969. During the 1970s, new houses, a new school and an electric system were constructed in the village. Prior to 1976, high school students from Noatak would attend school in Kivalina, and board with local families. Due to severe erosion and wind-driven ice damage, the City intends to relocate to a new site 7.5 miles away. Relocation alternatives have been studied and a new site has been designed and engineered. A federally-recognized tribe is located in the community -- the Native Village of Kivalina. The population of the community consists of 96.6 percent Alaska Native or part Native. Kivalina is a traditional Inupiat Eskimo village. Subsistence activities, including whaling, provide most food sources. The sale or importation of alcohol is banned in the village. During the 2000 U.S. Census, total housing units numbered 80, and vacant housing units numbered 2. U.S. Census data for Year 2000 showed 82 residents as employed. The unemployment rate at that time was 25.45 percent, although 65.11 percent of all adults were not in the work force. The median household income was $30,833, per capita income was $8,360, and 26.4 percent of residents were living below the poverty level.

Facilities, Utilities, Schools, and Health Care Wells have proven unsuccessful in Kivalina. Water is drawn from the Wulik River via a 3-mile surface transmission line, and is stored in a 700,000-gallon raw water tank. It is then treated and stored in a 500,000-gallon steel tank. Water is hauled by residents from this tank. One-third of residents have tanks which provide running water for the kitchen, but homes are not fully plumbed. The school and clinic have individual water and sewer systems. Residents haul their own honeybuckets to bunkers. A new landfill and honeybucket disposal site were recently completed. A Master Plan is underway to examine sanitation alternatives at the new community site. Electricity is provided by AVEC. There is one school located in the

141 community, attended by 127 students. Local hospitals or health clinics include Kivalina Clinic (907-645- 2141).

Kivalina is classified as an isolated village, it is found in EMS Region 4A in the Maniilaq Association Region. Emergency Services have coastal and air access. Emergency service is provided by volunteers and a health aide

Economy and Transportation Kivalina's economy depends on subsistence practices. Seal, walrus, whale, salmon, whitefish, and caribou are utilized. The school, City, Maniilaq Association, village council, airlines, and local stores provide year- round jobs. The Red Dog Mine also offers some employment. Six residents hold commercial fishing permits. Native carvings and jewelry are produced from ivory and caribou hooves. The community is interested in developing an Arts and Crafts Center that could be readily moved to the new community site.

The major means of transportation into the community are plane and barge. A State-owned 3,000' long by 60' wide gravel airstrip serves daily flights from Kotzebue. Crowley Marine Services barges goods from Kotzebue during July and August. Small boats, ATVs, and snowmachines are used for local travel. Two main hunting trails follow the Kivalina and Wulik Rivers.

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Kobuk Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Kobuk) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf)

Water-Related Information Unknown water resource threats. Kobuk River flooding occurs most years. 1937 flood of record is at 98.3’.

Climate-Related Impact Kobuk River ice jam flooding

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Kotzebue Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Kotzebue) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Kotzebue (KAWT-zuh-byoo), population 3,104, is on the Baldwin Peninsula on Kotzebue Sound. It is 26 miles above the Arctic Circle and 549 miles northwest of Anchorage. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the Northwest Arctic Borough. The beach and shoreline are used for boating, snow machining, ATV access, barge access, boat storage, fishing, hunting, processing catch, beachcombing, cultural and social events, and driftwood collecting.

Description of Erosion Problem Kotzebue is on a 3-mile-long spit ranging in width from 1,100 to 3,600 feet. Storm surges, storm-driven waves, and ice action contribute to periodic beach erosion. These contributors were also described in the 1984 Task Force on Erosion Control Report, prepared by the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT&PF). The bank along Shore Avenue, from Lake Street to Crowley Marine Dock, is being eroded. This area abuts Kotzebue Sound and is approximately 4,600 feet long and 4 to 10 feet high. The erosion rate is estimated to be 1 to 3 feet per year.

Areas of Kotzebue flood about every 8 to 10 years. The worst erosion and flooding event was during a 1990 storm when waters were 6 to 7 feet above normal high water, flooding 4 residences, the airport, lift stations, and sewer mains. Storms in October of 2002 and the fall of 2004 caused damaging storm surges .

Potential Damages An October 2002 storm surge resulted in major damage to Shore Avenue. This damage was repaired in 2004. A fall 2004 storm resulted in damage that was repaired in 2006. The total costs of these repairs were reported to be just under $500,000. The DOT&PF has scheduled a project for 2009 to rehabilitate and provide erosion protection for Shore Avenue from Lake Street, extending approximately 4,600 feet to the end of the road at Crowley Dock. DOT&PF, reportedly, has about $6.4 million earmarked for widening the existing Shore Avenue right-ofway by 30-50 feet, paving with new sidewalks, a pathway, parallel parking, an open space on the seaward side, installation of a riprap revetment, and a sheet pile wall for erosion protection along a majority of the project length.

Placement of gravel-filled 55-gallon steel barrels to form a groin along the beach, galvanized wire gabion baskets filled with rock and gravel, and various types of plastic or fabric bags filled with sand and gravel were installed in the 1980s by the community as erosion protection measures along the beachfront. These protective measures reportedly proved somewhat successful, but short-lived. Most of the 55 gallon drums

146 rusted out and the gravel fill spilled out by 1984. The galvanized wire gabion baskets eventually collapsed and were destroyed by waves.

Structures and facilities threatened by erosion include residences, outbuildings, sheds, water tanks and lines, fuel tanks, food storage structures, a retail store, Shore Avenue, the boat launch, boat storage and repair structures, utility poles, sites of significant cultural and archeological value, schools, clinics, churches, other public buildings, the airport runway, and airport facilities.

Photos and Diagrams Photos of erosion provided by the City of Kotzebue are attached. Also, attached is a diagram depicting linear extent of erosion.

References AK DOT/PF. 1984. Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report. Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.

HUD. 1979. Flood Insurance Study. Kotzebue, Alaska. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Kotzebue. 2000. City of Kotzebue Comprehensive Plan.

USACE. 1999. Alaska Environmental Infrastructure - Special Investigation, Volume 1 - Main Report and Volume 2 - Appendixes, Alaska District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 completed by Derek Martin, City of Kotzebue, and submitted to the Corps via email on January 24, 2008.

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Noatak Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Noatak) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf

Community Setting Population: 486, Department of Labor, 2009 population estimate Incorporation Type: Unincorporated Local governance: Native Village of Noatak is the BIA-Recognized tribal council Borough Located In: Northwest Arctic Borough Regional Native Corporation: NANA Regional Corporation

Landform and Climate: Noatak is located on the west bank of the Noatak River, 55 miles north of Kotzebue and 70 miles north of the Arctic Circle. This is the only settlement on the 396 mile-long Noatak River, just west of the 66-million acre Noatak National Preserve.

Noatak is located in the transitional climate zone. Temperatures average -21 to 15 °F during winter and 40 to 60 °F during summer. Temperature extremes have been recorded from -59 to 75 °F. Annual snowfall averages 48 inches, with 10 to 13 inches of total precipitation.

The Noatak River is navigable by shallow-draft boats from early June to early October. Noatak is primarily accessed by air. There are currently no barge services to Noatak.

The community is located on high ground.

The Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOTPF) Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report confirmed that westward migration of the river is taking place, chiefly because the west bank is composed of ice-rich frozen silt. The Noatak is a braided river that has a fairly heavy bed of medium-sized gravel. The westward migration of the river is made much easier by the presence of ice-rich silt that can be eroded away far more easily than moving gravel. The river takes the easier course by cutting into the ice- rich silt during summer months, rather than carrying a heavy bed load of gravel.

Water Infrastructure Description (according to the Division of Community and Regional Affairs Community Database Online) a. Water supply: Water is derived using a well sited on the Noatak River; the wellhead has had to be protected from river erosion on several occasions. The primary well occasionally runs dry; deeper groundwater wells have been unsuccessful in the area. b. Water system: A water tank is located north of the airport on Main Street and can supply the community with water through the winter months. The capacity of the system is currently sufficient; however, a new system will need to be constructed to meet future demands as the population grows, per the Noatak Comprehensive Community Development Plan 2006-2016. A piped re-circulating water distribution system serves 84 homes, the school, and businesses in Noatak. The Comprehensive Community Development Plan indicates that the system was constructed in 1971 and upgraded in 2002, and that most homes are connected. Those few that are not connected haul water. c. Wastewater system(s): A piped re-circulating sewer system serves 84 homes, the school, and businesses in Noatak. The Comprehensive Community Development Plan indicates that the system was constructed in 1971 and upgraded in 2002, and that most homes are connected. Those few that aren’t connected use honeybuckets. There is no washeteria.

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Climate Related Factors Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure Soil erosion along the Noatak riverbanks is considered severe, but most of the erosion is occurring downstream of an “armorform” erosion control structure. Most of the erosion occurs during spring breakup when high volumes of water scour the riverbanks and carry sediment downstream. In places where waters contact ground ice in the riverbanks, thermal erosion can occur. As the ice melts, banks are undercut and sediments are swept downstream. Additional erosion can occur during high precipitation and storm periods in summer.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts Erosion is likely to continue, thus the threat to the water supply well remains.

Severity of Impacts The loss of the community water supply would be significant.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure Besides the ongoing threats to the wellhead, and lack of a reliable groundwaters supply, no documented impacts to water infrastructure were discovered.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure The community wellhead sited in the Noatak River floodplain has been protected. No other water resource infrastructure is known to be at risk.

Various types of protective measures have been constructed to slow or stop riverbank erosion adjacent to the community. In 1980-1981 a 1,500 foot Armorform Revetment System (grout-filled polypropylene bags cabled together placed on a gravel dike) was constructed using approximately $3.4 million of Alaska Legislative appropriations, according to the DOTPF erosion task force report and State Legislative Appropriations for Flood and Erosion Control, collected by the Division of Community Advocacy (DCA). The tribal administrator reports that although this structure has partially collapsed, (wherein the upper blanket of grout filled polypropylene bags slid down the inclined face of the gravel bank causing wrinkles in the concrete mat), it has proven successful in preventing erosion along the length where it is installed.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture funded construction of a treated wood retaining wall constructed with wood beams in the 1990’s which was completely destroyed during spring breakup the year after it was constructed, based on information obtained from the Corps trip report and the tribal administrator.

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Selected Photographic Documentation

Armorform Revetment System installed with State Legislative Grant funds in early 1980’s. Photo courtesy of the Noatak Comprehensive Community Development Plan, prepared by NAB Planning Department and Maniilaq.

References DCRA, Community Database Online, http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.cfm

DCRA report State Legislative Appropriations for Flood and Erosion Control

Noatak Comprehensive Community Development Plan 2006-2016, prepared by Northwest Arctic Borough (NABand Maniilaq, for the Native Village of Noatak (May and September 2006)

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Noorvik Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Noorvik) Original Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2009. “Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessments.” Retrieved July 1, 2014. (http://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Library/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaBaselineErosionAssessments.aspx)

Community Information Noorvik (NOR-vick), population 636, is on the right bank of the Nazuruk Channel of the Kobuk River, 33 miles northwest of Selawik and 45 miles east of Kotzebue. The community is downriver from the 1.7-million acre Kobuk Valley National Park. The community is incorporated as a 2nd class city in the Northwest Arctic Borough. The riverbank is primarily used for barge access, boat storage, and fishing

Description of Erosion Problem Seasonal variations in flow and water levels, flooding, ice jams, spring break up, and melting permafrost reportedly are causing and contributing to bank erosion along the Nazaruk Channel of the lower Kobuk River. Gravel mining along the riverbanks may have exacerbated the erosion problem. The point at the former gravel mining area and east along the river is eroding and at the beach behind the concrete mat gravel is used to mitigate this area as it is used by barges to dock.

Banks are eroding adjacent to the old airport, at the northeast point of the community where a home had to be relocated, below a road that leads down to the river near the Native store fuel tanks, and adjacent to gravel pits downstream from the community.

Potential Damages The former airstrip, the Native store tank farm, and old fuel tanks are near the riverbank. Both the old and new tanks are estimated to be 500 feet from the riverbank. The National Guard Armory, at least one home, and other structures have been moved to higher ground. The 1986 Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report by the Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT/PF) reported the airfield runway that paralleled the riverbank as threatened by advancing erosion. The airport was relocated in the late 1990s. The community used a legislative appropriation to install a concrete mat of concrete blocks along the riverbank at the barge landing site between 1988 and 1990. Seasonal ice has reportedly moved the some of the concrete blocks in the mat and the city has added gravel between the blocks to stabilize the protection system.

Photos and Diagrams No photos were provided by the community or other sources. The attached diagram shows the approximate linear extent of erosion.

References Alaska DOT/PF. 1986. Task Force on Erosion Control Final Report. Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.

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DCCED, DCRA. 1972-1991. State Legislative Appropriations for Flood and Erosion Control. Department of Commerce, Community and Economic Development, Division of Community Regional Affairs.

USACE. 2008. Alaska Community Erosion Survey, OMB approved number 07100001, expires September 30, 2009 administered to Glen Skin, Northwest Arctic Borough public services deputy director on March 28, 2008, and also completed by Tracy Smith and provided via facsimile to the Corps of Engineers on April 3, 2008.

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Selawik Population and Temperature/Precipitation

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Community Information (Selawik) Original Source: Immediate Action Work Group. 2010. “Imperiled Community Water Resources Analysis.” Anchorage, AK: Tetra Tech. Retrieved July 1, 2014 (http://www.climatechange.alaska.gov/docs/iaw_tt_imperiled_h2o_30jun10.pdf

Community Setting Population: 849, Department of Labor, 2009 population estimate Incorporation Type: 2nd Class City Local governance: City of Selawik Borough Located In: Northwest Arctic Borough Regional Native Corporation: NANA Regional Corporation

Landform and Climate: Selawik is located at the mouth of the Selawik River, where it empties into Selawik Lake, about 90 miles east of Kotzebue. It lies 670 miles northwest of Anchorage. The community is situated on both banks of the Selawik River and on Middle Island, between the two channels of the river. The city is near the Selawik National Wildlife Refuge, a key breeding and resting spot for migratory waterfowl.

The Selawik Community Comprehensive Development Plan indicates the soils in the Selawik area typically consist of an organic surface layer underlain by silt. Permafrost is present except under the Selawik River and larger water bodies. The soils have high ice content and are unstable when thawed. Ground temperatures are not well characterized but are estimated to be 25 °F. The active layer, or the soil that thaws during summers, is estimated to be 1.5 to 2.0 feet on average, but can be 4 to 6 feet thick in un- vegetated areas. Thaw consolidation of 1-2 feet can be expected if permafrost is degraded.

Flooding occurs during spring breakup, but has not been a problem since the town cut a channel from the Selawik river to Selawik Lake according to a flooding and erosion summary from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The summary suggests that 20 percent of the community could be periodically flooded generally in the spring with ice jams in the Selawik River. Coastal flooding also can occur when fall high tides and west wind storms cause swells in Selawik Lake according to the community comprehensive plan. The plan indicates that two types of riverbank erosion are predominate: erosion due to waves generated by small boats or from barges running engines when unloading fuel, and erosion from overland flow into the river. The community is located in the transitional climate zone. Temperatures average -10 to 15 °F during winter and 40 to 65 °F during summer. Temperature extremes have been recorded from -50 to 83 °F. Annual snowfall averages 35 to 40 inches, with 10 inches of precipitation. The Selawik River is navigable from early June to mid-October.

Water Infrastructure Description (based on RUBA status report as of April 30, 2010) a. Water supply: The community sources its water from the Selawik River. Groundwater wells have been unsuccessful. b. Water system(s): Source water is pumped from the Selawik River to a water treatment plant, providing up to 8,000 gallons of potable a day. A circulating water system provides service to about 100 homes. The water treatment plant and source water pumping system are being evaluated now for possible future projects. ADEC has been in Selawik to do a comprehensive evaluation of source water quality, which will be helpful in determining what water treatment changes may need to be implemented. c. Wastewater system(s): A circulating vacuum sewer system provides service to about 100 homes. The community has piped water and sewer throughout most of the community; 96% of the homes are fully plumbed.

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Climate Related Factors and Potential Effects on Water Infrastructure Riverbank erosion along the Selawik River, particularly the more southerly facing slopes which are suffering from permafrost thaw slumps. The river erodes the shoreline and exposes the permafrost, which melts when the temperature rises above freezing. A community survey submitted as part of the USACE Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessment also indicated that erosion is approaching several homes.

The Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium (ANTHC), Center for Climate and Health and the University of Alaska Fairbanks are collaborating on a climate adaptation plan and methodology to assist communities. However, no specifics were provided for Selawik as to potential water infrastructure impacts.

Likelihood and Frequency of Impacts Unknown.

Severity of Impacts Unknown.

Historical Impact to Water Infrastructure No documentation found.

Mitigation of Impacts to Water Infrastructure None known.

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References Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium (ANTHC), Center for Climate and Health, contact John Warren or Art Ronimus

Division of Community and Regional Affairs, community Database Online, http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commdb/CF_BLOCK.htm

DCRA, Rural Utilities Business Advisor, (April 30, 2010)

US Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska Baseline Erosion Assessment, Alaska Community Erosion Survey, submitted via fax to USACE Raven Sheldon, native village of Selawik, environmental director September 30, 2009)

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Shungnak

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